FABRICATION OF PNEUMATIC GRIPPER

CHAPTER 1

ABSTRACT

The technology of pneumatics has gained tremendous importance in the

field of workplace rationalization and automation from old-fashioned timber works
and coal mines to modern machine shops and space robots. Certain characteristics
of compressed air have made this medium quite suitable for used in modern
manufacturing and production industries. It is therefore important that technicians
and engineers should have a good knowledge of pneumatic system, air operated
valves and accessories.

A pneumatic system consists of a compressor plant, pipe lines, control

valves, drive members and related auxiliary appliances. The air is compressed in
an air compressor and from the compressor plant the flow medium is transmitted to
the pneumatic cylinder through a well laid pipe line system. To maintain optimum
efficiency of pneumatic system, it is of vital importance that pressure drop between
generation and consumption of compressed air is kept very low. Pneumatic
material handling system is used to move the components from one place to
another with a maximum weight of 3.5 kg. It is used in the following places.

 Chemical laboratories,
 Welding,
 Foundry, etc.

CHAPTER 2
 INTRODUTION

Material handling is a specialized activity for a modern manufacturing

concern. It has been estimated that about 60-70% of the cost production is spent in
material handling activities.

Material-handling equipment is equipment that relate to the movement,

storage, control and protection of materials, goods and products throughout the
process of manufacturing, distribution, consumption and disposal. Material
handling equipment is the mechanical equipment involved in the complete system.
Material handling equipment is generally separated into three main categories:
storage and handling equipment, engineered systems, industrial trucks, and bulk
material handling.

Material handling equipment is used to increase output, control costs, and

maximize productivity. There are several ways to determine if the material-
handling equipment is achieving peak efficiency.

Material-handling equipment is equipment that relate to the movement,

storage, control and protection of materials, goods and products throughout the
process of manufacturing, distribution, consumption and disposal. Material
handling equipment is the mechanical equipment involved in the complete system.
Material handling equipment is generally separated into three main categories:
storage and handling equipment, engineered systems, industrial trucks, and bulk
material handling.

Three Axis Material handling equipment is used to increase output, control

costs, and maximize productivity. There are several ways to determine if the
material-handling equipment is achieving peak efficiency. These include capturing
all relevant data related to the warehouse’s operation, measuring how many times
an item is “touched” from the time it is ordered until it leaves the building, making
sure you are using the proper picking technology, and keeping system downtime to
a minimum. A special analytical data-set known as Stock-keeping units (SKUs)
has been devised to aid analysis of materials handling, which is obviously less
efficient when a material asset is handled any more than a minimally necessary
number of times.

Material handling is a specialized activity for a modern manufacturing concern. It

has been estimated that about 60-70% of the cost production is spent in material
handling activities.

Need for material handling:

 Reduction of lab our and material cost.

 Reduction of overall cost.
 Increased production.
 Increased storage capacity.
 Increased safety.
 Reduction in fatigue.
 Improved personnel comfort.

Robot is an automatically controlled material handling unit that is widely

used in the manufacturing industry. It is generally used for high volume production
and better quality. Implementation of robot technology with integration of
automatic system can contribute to increasing of productivity of the company and
enhances the profitability of the company.

The word 'robot' first appeared in 1921 in the Czech playwright Karel
Capek's play "Rossum's Universal Robots'. The word is linked to Czech words
Robota (meaning work) and Robotnik (meaning slave). Computer Aided
Manufactures International of USA describes the meaning of robot as a device tlmt
performs functions ordinarily ascribed to human beings, or operates with wlwt
appears to be almost human intelligence. Another definition from Robot Institute
of America is ...a programmable multi-function manipulator designed to move and
manipulate material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of specified tasks.

ISO defines a robot as: A robot is an automatically controlled,

reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulative machine with several
reprogrammable axes, which in either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial
automation application.

Webster dictionary defines a robot as:

An automatic apparatus or device tlmt performs functions ordinarily

ascribed to human or operates with xulmt appears to be almost human intelligence.

EXISTING MODEL:

Robot is an automatically controlled material handling unit that is widely

used in the manufacturing industry. It is generally used for high volume production
and better quality. Implementation of robot technology with integration of
automatic system can contribute to increasing of productivity of the company and
enhances the profitability of the company.

The word 'robot' first appeared in 1921 in the Czech playwright Karel
Capek's play "Rossum's Universal Robots'. The word is linked to Czech words
Robota (meaning work) and Robotnik (meaning slave). Computer Aided
Manufactures International of USA describes the meaning of robot as a device tlmt
performs functions ordinarily ascribed to human beings, or operates with wlwt
appears to be almost human intelligence. Another definition from Robot Institute
of America is ...a programmable multi-function manipulator designed to move and
manipulate material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of specified tasks.

ISO defines a robot as:

A robot is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose,

manipulative machine with several reprogrammable axes, which in either fixed in
place or mobile for use in industrial automation application. Webster dictionary
defines a robot as: An automatic apparatus or device tlmt performs functions
ordinarily ascribed to human or operates with xulmt appears to be almost human
intelligence. There are a number of successful examples of robot applications such
as:

• Robots perform more than 98% of the spot welding on Ford's Taurus and Sable
cars in U.S.A.

• A robot drills 550 holes in the vertical tail fins of an F-16 fighter in 3 hours at

General Dynamics compared to 24 man hours when the job was done manually.

• Robots insert disk drives into personal computers and snap keys onto electronic
typewriter keyboards.

Robot Applications:

True to the above definitions of robot as an automatic machine, industrial

robots are observed to perform the following tasks (shown in the ascending order
of technological complexity) in manufacturing.

Parts Handling:

This may involve tasks like Recognizing, sorting/ separating the parts
Picking and placing the parts at desired locations palletizing and DE palletizing
Loading and unloading the parts on required machines

Parts Processing:

This may involve operations like

 Routing
 Drilling
 Riveting
 Arc Welding
 Grinding
 Flame Cutting
 Debarring
 Spray Painting
 Coating
 Sandblasting
 Dip Coating
 Gluing
 Polishing
 Heat Treatment

Product Building:

 This may involve assembly of typical products like

 Electrical Motors
 Car bodies
 Solenoids
 Circuit Boards
  and operations like
 Bolting
 Riveting
 Spot welding
 Seam welding
 Inserting
 Nailing
 Fitting
 Adhesive Bonding
 Inspection

The automation of the above tasks greatly facilitates computer controlled

manufacturing systems. Further, robots have often been used in undesirable and
hazardous environment like that of excessive heat, dust, noise, fumes etc. and for
dirty, dangerous dull and difficult tasks. Accordingly, industrial robot has become
an essential component of all flexible manufacturing systems, subsystems, cells
and modules. The robot application in U.S. are given in Table. Robots are being
applied in industries because

• Hazardous or uncomfortable working conditions: In situations where there are

potential dangerous or health hazards (like heat, radiation, toxicity, etc.) robots
may be used. Some of the examples are hot forging, die casting, spray painting,
etc.
Difficult handling:

If the work piece or tool involved in the operation is awkward in shape or

heavy, it is possible that robot can do this job much better.
• Multi shift operation: For increasing production and reducing the costs, multi
shift operations may be desirable in which robots can work continuously.

• Repetitive tasks: If the work cycle consists of sequence of elements which do not
vary from cycle to cycle, it is possible that robot can be programmed to do the job.

• Higher accuracy: In situations where the accuracy of operation required is very

high.

Table: U.S. Robot sales by application

This report details the effort made in the development of a robotic material
handling system using personal computer and the motion control card to provide
the necessary controls. The robot is a 3 axis with one rotary and two linear axes. It
is a hybrid robot with one axis controlled by the servo motor while the other axes
are controlled by the pneumatic devices to reduce the total cost of the robot.
 The second chapter details an introduction to the Robots in terms of the
various functional elements present in the system. The various options possible are
briefly detailed. The next chapter deals with the control concepts of the robot. This
gives the ideas of various controlling methods possible and that are actually used in
the commercial robots. The next chapter gives the actual design concepts of the
manipulator portion of the robot. This gives the rationale of the design process
used in the design of the manipulator, which was subsequently fabricated.

The next chapter gives the robot controller design using the motion
controller card and its interface with the various control elements. The chapter
gives the details of the robot assembly process. The next two chapters give the
conclusions suggestions for future work.
 CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

An adaptive controller is a controller with adjustable parameters and a

mechanism for adjusting the parameters. Adaptive control has been widely used in
research and industrial applications on electrically actuated systems. Armstrong
and Canudas de Wit offer a good summary by presenting some typical static and
dynamic friction models.

Direct and indirect adaptive controls for friction compensation were also
discussed for general dynamic systems. Little work on adaptive friction
compensation for pneumatic system has been done because of pneumatic systems’
inherent low stiffness and highly nonlinear dynamics. Wang proposed a modified
PID controller for a servo pneumatic actuation system through time delay
minimization and target position compensation.

The mean value of position error is less than 1 mm. An experimental

comparison between six different control algorithms including PID, Fuzzy, PID
with pressure feedback, Fuzzy with pressure feedback, sliding mode and Neuro-
fuzzy control were presented in, but none of them focused on the accuracy of
position control.

Aziz and Bone proposed an automatic tuning method for accurate position
control of pneumatic actuators by combining offline model based analysis with
online iteration. The steady state error accuracy is 0.2mm to a step input with some
amount of overshoot. A highly accurate (low steady-state error) pneumatic servo
positioning system was proposed by Ning and Bone using both Position-Velocity-
Acceleration (PVA) and PV control with friction compensation. Although the
steady state error can be reduced to as small as 0.01mm, the performance is based
on the manual tuning of PVA parameters. Accurate position control of a pneumatic
actuator was also carried out through PWM algorithms using on/off solenoid
valves by Varseveld and Bone. A PID controller specifying the pulse-width of the
on/off signal, with friction compensation and position feed forward control, can
provide better than 0.21 mm steady-state accuracy with a rise time of 180 ms for
step inputs as large as 64 mm.

Industrial robots perform well at free-space tasks like welding or spray

painting, which involve precision positioning but little interaction with the
environment. Pneumatic actuators, by contrast, are natural impedances with true
mechanical compliance. Forces are controlled by manipulating the difference in
pressure between the two chambers of the actuator, and compliance is provided by
the compressibility of air.

As properly noted by Pratt etc., all in their work regarding series elastic
actuators, “lower interface stiffness has advantages as well, including greater shock
tolerance, lower reflected inertia, more accurate and stable force control, less
damage during inadvertent contact, and the potential for energy storage.” Given
their properties, pneumatic actuation systems present a viable option for force
controlled interaction tasks, especially in dealing with system and environmental
uncertainties.

Tasks that require a high degree of interaction with the environment require
the actuator to be an impedance. Many approaches have been taken to have an
actuator contact with an environment and maintain a certain contact force using
electrical systems, hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems as well. Most of these
approaches divide the task into three modes: free space mode, constrained mode
and transition mode. Different switching control strategies are used to guarantee
stability and minimize bouncing.

One of the most widely used approaches for contact task control is
impedance control. The key point of impedance control is that one controller deals
with all stages of the contact tasks. Hogan first proposed stable contact tasks using
impedance control.

Hogan also showed that if a system has the behavior of simple impedance,
then the stability of the manipulator is preserved when it is coupled to a stable
environment. The limitation of impedance control approach is that it requires
accurate environment location and stiffness information in order to artificially
impose the desired impedance with a bandwidth high enough for stable interaction
with stiff surfaces. In the language of impedance control, the advantage of a
pneumatic system is that it is already an impedance, as opposed to an admittance,
and does not require high bandwidth feedback to artificially impose this.

A passivity-based control approach for interaction tasks has been pursued by

some researchers for hydraulically and electrically actuated systems. The
directional control valve is the only non-passive device in a hydraulic actuation
system. Li has proven that if appropriate first order or second order spool dynamics
can be implemented, the spool valve can become passive.

The same dynamic passive valve method has been used in bilateral tele-
operation of a hydraulic actuator. The passivity concept was also used to design a
hydraulic backhoe/force feedback joystick system. Other than hydraulic systems,
some other passive systems, such as Cobots and smart exercise machines, have
also been designed for various human-robot interaction tasks.

As will be shown, the fundamental energetic properties of pneumatic

actuation can be exploited through passivity-based analysis to provide stable
interaction forces with any passive environment. The aim of the third part of the
work is to design a control methodology that takes advantage of the passive
dynamics of pneumatic actuation that will result in energetically efficient
oscillatory motion when dissipation is present. Recent work on high energy-density
monopropellant power supply and actuation systems for untethered robotics
motivates an energetically savvy approach to the control of such systems with
application to legged robots.

Raibert was a pioneer in legged robot locomotion research. He first

presented the design and control of a pneumatic hopping robot in. The hopping is
generated in an intuitive manner where the upper chamber is charged when the foot
is on the ground and exhausted until it reaches a predefined low pressure (15 psi)
as soon as it leaves the ground. There is a monotonic mapping between hopping
height and thrust value, but this relationship cannot be simply characterized. The
hopping height can only be chosen based on a set of empirical experimental data.
There is also a unique frequency associated with each thrust value.

Proposed Work:

To prepare any machine part, the type of material should be properly

selected, considering design, safety and following points. The selection of material
for engineering application is given by the following factors:-

1) Availability of materials.

2) Suitability of the material for the required components.

3) Suitability of the material for the desired working conditions.

4) Cost of the materials.

In addition to the above factors the other properties to be considered while

selecting the material are as follows:-

1) Availability of materials.

2) Suitability of the material for the required components.

3) Suitability of the material for the desired working conditions.

4) Cost of the materials.

In addition to the above factors the other properties to be considered while

selecting the material are as follows:-

Physical properties:-

These properties are color, shape, density, thermal conductivity, electrical

conductivity, melting point etc.

Mechanical properties:-

The properties are associated with the ability of the material to resist the
mechanical forces and load.

The various properties are:-

i) Strength: It is the property of material due to which it can resist the external
forces without breaking or yielding.

ii) Stiffness: It is the ability of material to withstand the deformation under stress.

iii) Ductility: It is the property of material due to which it can be drawn into wires
under tensile load.
iv) Malleability: It is the property of material which enables it to be rolled into
sheets.

vi) Brittleness: It is the property of material due to which it breaks into pieces with
little deformation.

vii) Hardness: It is the property of material to resist wear, deformation and the
ability to cut another material.

viii) Resilience: It is the ability of the material to store energy and resist the shock
and impact loads.

ix) Creep: It is the slow and permanent deformation induced in a part subjected to a
constant stress at high temperature. We have selected the material considering the
above factors and also as per the availability of the material. The materials which
cover most of the above properties are

MILD STEEL:

Why steel, in particular simply because, in my humble opinion, it is the

greatest material mankind has for construction. It is cheap, strong, readily
available, easily cut, joined, and formed. Wood can be light and stiff, but not very
strong.

The best aluminum is strong and light, but very difficult to join. Titanium is superb
in terms of strength to weight ratio and stiffness but it’s incredibly expensive,
difficult to obtain, and even more difficult and expensive to machine properly.
There’s no way you’re ever going to perform a battery-welded-fix on a part made
from 7075-T6 aluminum or titanium.

In the end we come back to steel from mild carbon to some of the more
exotic alloy steels pound for pound it is the most righteous material available for
our needs. Where does steel come from? Steel is not a naturally occurring
substance - it is entirely manmade. Steel is chiefly a combination of two naturally
occurring elements: iron and carbon (along with small amounts of other elements -
depending on the steel in question).

The process by which man makes steel, would, again, fill several volumes.
Here is my amateur synopsis Iron is mined from the ground in the form if a
reddish-brown rock called iron-ore. This ore is then smashed up, strained, filtered,
chemically treated etc., until ultimately it is melted in huge blast furnaces into
something called pig iron. The process uses coke (a type of coal), which in turn
imparts large amounts of carbon to the pig iron.

As a result, pig iron itself is full of impurities, brittle, and unmaking-able -

practically useless. Except - it is the raw material from which all other irons and
steels are made. Pig iron is so produced in either huge vats of molten material, or it
is cast into ingots (in fact, pig iron got its name because the ingots or ”chunks”
produced were thought to have resembled piglets).Pig iron is then refined into
either metallic iron or steel using specialized furnaces and processes. The
distinction between the two is that metallic iron has between 2-6A final words
about carbon. Carbon is critically important to our whole discussion because it is
the presence of carbon that turns the element of iron that is naturally soft and weak,
into the strong, rigid materials we know as iron and steel. Precisely how this is so
is beyond the scope of this article, sufficeto say.

The strength, hardness and toughness that make the ferrous based metals
useful to us are profoundlyinfluenced by the remarkable sensitivity of the physical
and chemical properties of iron crystals to relatively small percentages of carbon
dissolved within their matrixes (actually, the sensitivity is to the movement of
dislocations within the crystal space lattice). This sensitivity to dissolved carbon is
in fact, the very basis of ferrous metallurgy.

MACHINE CONSTRUCTION:

The machine is basically made up of mild steel.Reasons:1. Mild steel is readily

available in market2. It is economical to use3. It is available in standard sizes4. It
has good mechanical properties i.e. it is easily machinable5. It has moderate factor
of safety, because factor of safety results in unnecessary wastage of material and
heavy selection. Low factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of failure6. It has
high tensile strength7. Low co-efficient of thermal expansion Properties of Mild
Steel: M.S. has a carbon content from 0.15BRIGHT MATERIAL.

It is a machine drowned. The main basic difference between mild steel and
bright metal is that mild steel plates and bars are forged in the forging machine by
means is not forged. But the materials are drawn from the dies in the plastic state.
Therefore the material has good surface finish than mild steel and has no carbon
deposits on its surface for extrusion and formation of engineering materials thus
giving them a good surface finish and though retaining their metallic properties
poor, but perhaps useful metaphor may be the use of fibre-mat and resin in fibre
glass work. The bulk raw material of fiberglass is the fibre matting (as iron is to
steel) - but by itself the matting is of no practical use. Not until we add the resin to
it to make fibre glass (as we add carbon to iron to make steel) do we get a useful
product.

In both cases, neither raw material is much use alone, but combines them nor
do we really have something. Similarly, though carbon may only be present in
small quantities, Justas the amount of hardener added to fibre glass resin has a
profound effect on the material, so does the small amount of carbon present in
useful metallic iron and steel

CHAPTER-4

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are
transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the
creation of the materials from which the design is made. These materials are then
modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part.
Manufacturing processes can include treating (such as heat treating or coating),
machining, or reshaping the material. The manufacturing process also includes
tests and checks for quality assurance during or after the manufacturing, and
planning the production process prior to manufacturing.
METAL CUTTING:

Metal cutting or machining is the process of by removing unwanted material

from a block of metal in the form of chips.
 Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is processed.
Usually, the portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces, called chips.
Common cutting processes include sawing, shaping (or planning), broaching,
drilling, grinding, turning and milling. Although the actual machines, tools and
processes for cutting look very different from each other, the basic mechanism for
causing the fracture can be understood by just a simple model called for orthogonal
cutting.
 In all machining processes, the work piece is a shape that can entirely cover
the final part shape. The objective is to cut away the excess material and obtain the
final part. This cutting usually requires to be completed in several steps – in each
step, the part is held in a fixture, and the exposed portion can be accessed by the
tool to machine in that portion. Common fixtures include vise, clamps, 3-jaw or 4-
jaw chucks, etc. Each position of holding the part is called a setup. One or more
cutting operation may be performed, using one or more cutting tools, in each setup.
To switch from one setup to the next, we must release the part from the previous
fixture, change the fixture on the machine, clamp the part in the new position on
the new fixture, set the coordinates of the machine tool with respect to the new
location of the part, and finally start the machining operations for this setup.
 Therefore, setup changes are time-consuming and expensive, and so we
should try to do the entire cutting process in a minimum number of setups; the task
of determining the sequence of the individual operations, grouping them into (a
minimum number of) setups, and determination of the fixture used for each setup,
is called process planning.
These notes will be organized in three sections:
(i) Introduction to the processes,
(ii) The orthogonal cutting model and tool life optimization and
(iii) Process planning and machining planning for milling.

SAWING:
Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through
various types of metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with
the action that takes place during the cutting process, which manages to keep both
the metal and the blade from becoming too hot. A cold saw is powered with
electricity and is usually a stationary type of saw machine rather than a portable
type of saw.
 The circular saw blades used with a cold saw are often constructed of high
speed steel. Steel blades of this type are resistant to wear even under daily usage.
The end result is that it is possible to complete a number of cutting projects before
there is a need to replace the blade. High speed steel blades are especially useful
when the saws are used for cutting through thicker sections of metal.

Along with the high speed steel blades, a cold saw may also be equipped
with a blade that is tipped with tungsten carbide. This type of blade construction
also helps to resist wear and tear. One major difference is that tungsten tipped
blades can be re-sharpened from time to time, extending the life of the blade. This
type of blade is a good fit for use with sheet metal and other metallic components
that are relatively thin in design.
WELDING:

Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals by

melting and fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied.
Welding employs pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-
based metals such as steel and stainless steel. Weld joints are usually stronger than
or as strong as the base metals being joined.

Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture

of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural
works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.
OPERATION:

Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a
few are considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known
as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding. 

In this process an electrical machine (which may be DC or AC, but

nowadays is usually AC) supplies current to an electrode holder which carries an
electrode which is normally coated with a mixture of chemicals or flux. An earth
cable connects the work piece to the welding machine to provide a return path for
the current. The weld is initiated by tapping ('striking') the tip of the electrode
against the work piece which initiates an electric arc. The high temperature
generated (about 6000oC) almost instantly produces a molten pool and the end of
the electrode continuously melts into this pool and forms the joint.

The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work
piece while moving the electrode along the joint.
 In the shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW) the 'stick' electrode is
covered with an extruded coating of flux. The heat of the arc melts the flux which
generates a gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten pool and also flux
ingredients react with unwanted impurities such as surface oxides, creating a slag
which floats to the surface of the weld pool. This forms a crust which protects the
weld while it is cooling. When the weld is cold the slag is chipped off.

The SMAW process cannot be used on steel thinner than about 3mm and
being a discontinuous process it is only suitable for manual operation. It is very
widely used in jobbing shops and for onsite steel construction work. A wide range
of electrode materials and coatings are available enabling the process to be applied
to most steels, heat resisting alloys and many types of cast iron.
DRILLNG:
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of
circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work piece, cutting off chips (sward) from the hole as it is drilled.

OPERATION:
The geometry of the common twist drill tool (called drill bit) is complex; it
has straight cutting teeth at the bottom – these teeth do most of the metal cutting,
and it has curved cutting teeth along its cylindrical surface. The grooves created by
the helical teeth are called flutes, and are useful in pushing the chips out from the
hole as it is being machined. Clearly, the velocity of the tip of the drill is zero, and
so this region of the tool cannot do much cutting. Therefore it is common to
machine a small hole in the material, called a center-hole, before utilizing the drill.
Center-holes are made by special drills called center-drills; they also provide a
good way for the drill bit to get aligned with the location of the center of the hole.
There are hundreds of different types of drill shapes and sizes; here, we will only
restrict ourselves to some general facts about drills.

Common drill bit materials include hardened steel (High Speed Steel,
Titanium Nitride coated steel); for cutting harder materials, drills with hard inserts,
e.g. carbide or CBN inserts, are used;
In general, drills for cutting softer materials have smaller point angle, while
those for cutting hard and brittle materials have larger point angle;
If the Length/Diameter ratio of the hole to be machined is large, then we
need a special guiding support for the drill, which itself has to be very long; such
operations are called gun-drilling. This process is used for holes with diameter of
few mm or more, and L/D ratio up to 300. These are used for making barrels of
guns;
 Drilling is not useful for very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm), since
the tool may break and get stuck in the work piece; - Usually, the size of the hole
made by a drill is slightly larger than the measured diameter of the drill – this is
mainly because of vibration of the tool spindle as it rotates, possible misalignment
of the drill with the spindle axis, and some other factors;
For tight dimension control on hole diameter, we first drill a hole that is
slightly smaller than required size (e.g. 0.25 mm smaller), and then use a special
Type of drill called a reamer. Reaming has very low material removal rate,
low depth of cut, but gives good dimension accuracy.
 CHAPTER 5

COMPONENTS AND DETAILS

 Flow control valve.

 Three way junction.
 Directional control valve.
 Pneumatic cylinder.
 Arm.
 Rack and pinion arrangement.
 Frame
 Polyurethane tube.
 Bearing with bearing cap.

PNEUMATIC CYLINDER:

Cylinder is a device which converts fluid power into liner mechanical force
and motion. These cylinders are widely used in industrial pneumatic systems.
These cylinders are also called as linear motors and reciprocating motors
pneumatic cylinders are designed for a variety of services.

Pneumatic cylinders are designed for a variety of services. Pneumatic

cylinders transforms the flow of pressured fluid into a push or pull of the piston rod
since out system uses double acting cylinders we shall see some details about
them.

Double acting cylinders are in one in which fluid force can be applied to the
movable element in two directories. The force exerted by the compressed air
moves the piston in two directories in a double acting cylinder. They are used
particularly. The piston is required to perform work not only on the advance
movement but also on the return. In principle, the stroke length is unlimited,
although bucking and bending must be considered before we select a particular
size of piston diameter, rod length and stroke length.

The main component of any pneumatic system is the cylinder, which

receivers air under pressure and the pressurized air helps to move the piston to and
fro. The force acting on the piston will be equal to the product of the pressure of
air and the area of the cylinder.

The amount of air delivered into the cylinder into the cylinder decides the
rate of doing work. A cylinder is a hollow circular section with the top and bottom
flange provided to prevent the leakage of air.

The compressed air is used to actuate the piston. In order to move the piston
to and fro, the air is supplied to the top and bottom of the cylinder alternatively.

Cylinder is mainly classified into two types namely,

 Single acting cylinder.

 Double acting cylinder.

In single acting cylinder, using the spring provided around the piston rod
attains the return stroke, but it is not efficient. So, the double acting cylinder is
used in which the return stroke is attained using compressed air.

Double Acting Cylinder

In this the force exerted by the compressed air moves the piston in two
directions. They are used partially when the piston is required to perform work not
only on the advance movement but also on the return stroke. This principle, the
stroke length is unlimited, although bucking and bending must be considered
before selecting the particular size of piston diameter, rod length and stroke length.

DOUBLE ACTING PNEUMATIC CYLINDER:

• Stroke length : Cylinder stoker length 160 mm = 0.16 m

• Quantity : 1

• Seals : Nitride (Buna-N) Elastomer

• End cones : Cast iron

• Piston : EN – 8

• Media : Air

• Temperature : 0-80 º C

• Pressure Range : 8 N/m².

PNEUMATIC CYLINDER DESIGN:

Design of Piston rod:

Load due to air Pressure.

Diameter of the Piston (d) = 40 mm

Pressure acting (p) = 6 kgf/cm²

= 6 ×0.981

= 5.886 bar = 0.5886N/mm2

Material used for rod = C 45

 (Data book page no 1.12)

Yield stress (σy) = 36 kgf/mm²

= 36×98.1

= 3531.6 bar

= 353.16N/mm2

Factor of safety = 2(data book page.no 8.19)

Force acting on the rod (F) = Pressure x Area

= p x (Πd² / 4)

= 0.5886 x {( Π x 40² ) / 4 }

F = 739.6 N

Design Stress(σy) = σy / F0 S

= 353.16 / 2
= 176.5N/mm2

∴d = √4F/π [σy]

= √ (4×739.6)/ π[176.5]

∴ Minimum diameter of rod required for the load = 2.3 mm

We assume diameter of the rod = 15 mm

Length of piston rod:

Approach stroke = 160 mm

 Length of threads = 2 x 20= 40mm

Extra length due to front cover = 12 mm

Extra length of accommodate head = 20 mm

Total length of the piston rod =160 + 40 + 12 + 20

= 232 mm

By standardizing, length of the piston rod = 230 mm.

Solenoid Valve

The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system.

Commonly known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in
the pneumatic system. The directional valve does this by changing the position of
its internal movable parts.

This valve was selected for speedy operation and to reduce the manual
effort and also for the modification of the machine into automatic machine by
means of using a solenoid valve. A solenoid is an electrical device that converts
electrical energy into straight line motion and force. These are also used to operate
a mechanical operation which in turn operates the valve mechanism.

Solenoids may be push type or pull type. The push type solenoid is one in
which the plunger is pushed when the solenoid is energized electrically. The pull
type solenoid is one is which the plunger is pulled when the solenoid is energized.

The name of the parts of the solenoid should be learned so that they can be
recognized when called upon to make repairs, to do service work or to install them.
Working of Solenoid Valve

The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensure easy exhausting of 5/2
valve. The spool of the 5/2 valve slide inside the main bore according to spool
position; the ports get connected and disconnected. The working principle is as
follows.

Position-1

When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port ‘P’ gets connected to
‘B’ and ‘S’ remains closed while ‘A’ gets connected to ‘R’

Poisition-2
 When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port ‘P’ and ‘A’ gets
connected to each other and ‘B’ to ‘S’ while port ‘R’ remains closed.

HOUSE AND FITINGS:

It is provided for the passage of compressed air from the compressor outlet
to the operating valve.

Two separate pipes also connect the operating valve with the working
cylinder pressure drop through and airline depends on the flow rate, pipe diameter,
and pipe length and pipe geometry. It can be determined directly for straight pipes
of any given length. A small chaining bore size can have marked effect on
pressure drop, whereas even doubling the pipe length, will only result in doubling
the pressure drop.

Pressure drop through bends and fittings can only be determined by

empirical tests, since it is specific to the internal geometry involved. Rigid pipes
however are less manipulated through remain form of bends with arrangements
increase and variable air have to flow and the flow itself may be of fluctuating or
pulsating nature. In this case it is thus normally based on practical
recommendation.

FLOW CONTROL VALVE:

Flow Control Valves are fitted to all the distribution tubes. This valve is
made of brass. Both the ends have stepped surface to insert hoses. A handle is
provided to control the flow of oil in every valve.

(a) Technical Data:

Size : ¼”

Media : Air

Port size : 0.635 x 10 ֿ² m

Pressure : 0-8 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

Media : Air

Quantity : 1

CONNECTOR:

• Max working pressure : 10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

• Temperature : 0-100 º C

• Fluid media : Air

• Material : Brass.

HOSE SPECIFICATION:

• Max pressure : 10 x 10 ⁵ N/m²

• Outer diameter : 6 mm = 6 x 10 ˉ ³m

• Inner diameter : 3.5 mm = 3.5 x 10 ˉ ³m.

(b) Purpose:
 This valve is used to speed up the piston movement and also it acts as a one
– way restriction valve which means that the air can pass through only one way
and it can’t return back.

By using this valve the time consumption is reduced because of the faster
movement of the piston.

BEARING WITH BEARING CAP:

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered
the bearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upon steel material and bearing
cap is mild steel.

INTRODUCTION:

Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in
order to minimize friction and power loss.  While the concept of the ball bearing
dates back at least to Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has become
remarkably sophisticated.

This  technology  was  brought  to  its  p resent  state  of  perfection  only
after  a  long  period  of research and development.  The benefits of such
specialized research can be obtained when it is possible to use a standardized
bearing of the proper size and type.  However, such bearings cannot be used
indiscriminately without a careful study of the loads and operating conditions.  In
addition, the bearing must be provided with adequate mounting, lubrication and
sealing. Design engineers have usually two possible sources for obtaining
information which they can use to select a bearing for their particular application:
 a)  Textbooks

b)  Manufacturers’

Catalogs Textbooks are excellent sources; however, they tend to be overly

detailed and aimed at the student of the subject matter rather than the practicing
designer.  They, in most cases, contain information on how to design rather than
how to select a bearing for a particular application. Manufacturers’ catalogs, in
turn, are also excellent and contain a wealth of information which relates to the
products of the particular manufacturer.  These catalogs, however, fail to provide
alternatives – which may divert the designer’s interest to products not
manufactured by them. Our Company, however, provides the broadest selection of
many types of bearings made by different manufacturers.  

For this reason, we are interested in providing a condensed overview of the

subject matter in an objective manner, using data obtained from different texts,
handbooks and manufacturers’ literature.  This information will enable the reader
to select the proper bearing in an expeditious manner. If the designer’s interest
exceeds the scope of the presented material, a list of references is provided at the
end of the Technical Section. At the same time, we are expressing our thanks and
are providing credit to the sources which supplied the material presented here.

Construction and Types of Ball Bearings:

A ball bearing usually consists of three parts:  an inner ring, an outer ring,
the balls and the cage or separator.

 To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the balls
run in curvilinear grooves in the rings.  The radius of the groove is slightly larger
than the radius of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be
provided.  The bearing is thus permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of angular
misalignment between the assembled shaft and mounting.  The separator keeps the
balls evenly spaced and prevents them from touching each other on the sides where
their relative velocities are the greatest. Ball bearings are made in a wide variety of
types and sizes.  Single-row radial bearings are made in three series, extra light,
light, medium, and heavy, for each bore, as illustrated in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).

100 Series 200 Series 300 Series Axial Thrust Angular Contact
Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings

The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400.  Most, but not all,
manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are
multiplied by 5, the result will be the bore in millimeters.  

The digit in the third place from the right indicates the series number. Thus,
bearing 307 signifies a medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore.  For additional
digits, which may be present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer to
manufacturer’s details.

 Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of balls.
For bearing designations of Quality Bearings &
Components (QBC), see special pages devoted to
this purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a
considerable amount of axial thrust.  However,
when the load is directed entirely along the axis,
the thrust type of bearing should be used.  The
angular contact bear- ing will take care of both radial and axial loads.  The self-
aligning  ball  bearing  will  take  care  of  large amounts  of  angular
misalignment.   An increase in radial capacity may be secured by using rings with
deep grooves, or by employing a double-row radial bearing. Radial bearings are
divided into two general classes, depending on the method of assembly.  These are
the Conrad, or no filling-notch type, and the maximum, or filling-notch type.  In
the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed between the rings as shown in Fig. 1-4(a).
Then they are evenly spaced and the separator is riveted in place.    In  the
maximum-type  bearing,  the  balls  are a (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 100 Series Extra
Light 200 Series Light 300 Series Medium Axial Thrust Bearing Angular Contact
Bearing Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3  Types of Ball Bearings Fig. 1-4  Methods
of Assembly        for Ball Bearings (a) Conrad or non-filling notch type (b)
Maximum or filling notch type.

DESIGN OF BALL BEARING:

Bearing No. 6202 (Data book page.no 4.13)

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 35 mm

Thickness of Bearing (B) = 12 mm

Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 15 mm

r₁ = Corner radii on shaft and housing

r₁ = 1(From design data book)

Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From design data book)

Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2

= (35 + 15) / 2

dm = 25 mm.
Rack-pinion mechanism:

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair

of gears which convert rotational motion into linear motion. A circular gear called
"the pinion" engages teeth on a linear "gear" bar called "the
rack"; rotational motion applied to the pinion causes the rack to move, thereby
translating the rotational motion of the pinion into the linear motion of the rack.

Main principle of the rack and pinion arrangement is mechanical energy is

converted to electrical energy.

Fig: rack and pinion.

GEAR SPECIFICATIONS:

For a rack and pinion to mesh together properly, the pitch of rack and pinion
must be equal, i.e., ppinion = prack. The gear ratio equation is given by
 CHAPTER 6

WORKING PRINCIPLE
The experimental setup consist of three cylinders, all are of double acting
type. The cylinder1 is used to actuate rack and pinion assembly, piston rod of
cylinder 1is connected to rack, which is meshed with the pinion. By operating the
cylinder1, rack and pinion turns the whole assembly for 260.

By varying the length of the rack the turning angle can be altered. Vertical
cylinder or cylinder2 is used to increase the height of the setup. The height is
limited to piston rod length. Horizontal cylinder or cylinder3 is used to increase the
arm length, the working area of the arm is limited to length of the piston rod
length. Gripper cylinder or cylinder4 is used to actuate the gripper.
 CHAPTER 7

LAYOUT OF PROJECT
 CHAPTER 8

ADVANTAGE AND APPLICATION

ADVANTAGES:

• The pneumatic arm is more efficient in the technical field

• Quick response is achieved

• Simple in construction

• Easy to maintain and repair

• Cost of the unit is less when compared to other robotics

• No fire hazard problem due to over loading

• Comparatively the operation cost is less

• The operation of arm is faster because the medium used to operate is air

• Continuous operation is possible without stopping.

APPLICATION:

Discharge of work piece:

The arm feed has a wide application in low cost automation industries. It can
be used in automated assembly lines to pick up the finished product from
workstation and place them in bins. It can also be used to pick raw material and
place them on the conveyor belts.

Work clamping:

This unit can also be used in clamping. Operation in certain areas of mass
production where clamping and a clamping have to be done at high speeds. The
application of these units is limited to operations which involved moderate
clamping forces.

Tool Changing Application:

When the pneumatic arms are made smaller in size they can be used in
automatic tool changes in CNC turning and drilling machines, by attaching tool
holding device to the rotary cylinder.
 CHAPTER-9

LIST OF MATERIALS:
Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Material

i. Pneumatic Double Acting Cylinder 1 M.S

ii. 5/2 Direction Control Valve 1 Aluminum

iii. Flow control valve 1 Brass

iv. Three way junction 4 Rubber

v. Bearing with Bearing Cap 4 Fiber

vi. Polyethylene Tube - Polyurethane

vii. Hose Collar and Reducer - Brass

Viii Stand (Frame) 1 Mild steel

Ix directional control valve 1 Plastic

X Arm 1 Cast iron

Xi Rack and pinion arrangement 1 Cast iron

CHAPTER-10

COST ESTIMATION

MATERIAL COST:

Sl. PARTS Qty. Material Amount

No. (Rs)
i. Pneumatic Double Acting 3 M.S
Cylinder
ii. 5/2 Direction Control Valve 1 Aluminum
iii. Flow control valve 1 Brass
iv. Three way junction 4 Rubber
v. Bearing with Bearing Cap 4 Fiber
vi. Polyethylene Tube - Polyurethane
vii. Hose Collar and Reducer - Brass
Viii Stand (Frame) 1 Mild steel
Ix directional control valve 1 Plastic
X Arm 1 Cast iron
Xi Rack and pinion arrangement 1 Cast iron
TOTAL =

CHAPTER-11

CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience,

to use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding,
planning, purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work.
We feel that the project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between
institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time
successfully. The “FABRICATION OF THREE AXIS MATERIAL
HANDLING EQUIPMENT” is working with satisfactory conditions. We are
able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality.
We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities.
In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our
impression project work.

Thus we have developed a “FABRICATION OF THREE AXIS

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT” which helps to know how to achieve
low cost automation. The operating procedure of this system is very simple, so any
person can operate. By using more techniques, they can be modified and developed
according to the applications.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. G.B.S. Narang, “Automobile Engineering”, Khanna Publishers, Delhi,

1991, pp 671.
2. William H. Crowse, “Automobile Engineering”.
3. MECHANISMS IN MODERN ENGINEERING DESIGN Vol. V. PART
I

4. ELEMENTS OF WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY – VOL II

-S.K. HAJRA CHOUDHURY

-S.K. BOSE

-A.K. HAJRA CHOUDHERY

5. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS -I.B. PRASAD

PHOTOGRAPHY