Date:

PRACTICAL
SYMBOLS and P & ID Diagram
AIM: STUDY OF SYMBOLS AND STANDARD IDENTIFICATION

APPARATUS: PI diagram (Andrew, LPG Filling)

THEORY:

Symbols of various instrument and equipments are generally giving the information
efficiently among the users of engineering data in these disciplines.

The symbols are often used as standard by manufacturer, processors, and other user of
these types of communications.

A wide variety of equipment, piping & instrument symbols is used on process,

mechanical & utility flow diagram to convey quickly and clearly information to users of
these drawings. This is accomplishing by standardizing the presentations.

In 1961, American society of mechanical engineers titled “Graphical symbols for process
flow diagram" published. Some of symbols, which are important as instrumentation
point of view, are given below

SYMBOLS

N
NAME SYMBOL
o.

1 LINES (Feed Stocks)

2 Products (identify by Name)

3 Connecting lines

4 Crossover lines

5 Main process line

Secondary process line & Auxiliary

6
line
1
 Instrument air signal (pneumatic
7
Signal)

8 Battery line

9 Electrical signal

10 Hydraulic Signal

11 Vehicle Route

12 Screwed cap

13 Weld cap

14 Blind flange

15 Insulated line

16 Instrument capillary tubing

17 Hose connection

18 Flexible hose connection

2
19 Removable pipe spool

Line Accessories & Valves

20 Steam traced line

21 Steam jacketed line

22 Duct

23 Spectacle blind

24 Hammer blind

25 Expansion joint

26 Open drain to sewer

27 Damper

28 Gate valve

29 Globe valve

3
30 Needle valve

31 Vee ball valve

32 Ball valve

33 Angle valve

34 3-way valve

35 4-way valve

36 Plug valve

37 Check valve

38 Butterfly valve

39 Rotary valve

40 Diaphragm valve

41 Hand operating control valve

4
 Pneumatically operating control
42
valve

43 Solenoid valve

44 Digital actuating control valve

45 Motor operated control valve

46 Suction tee joint

47 Safety showers ‘S’ Eye wash ‘E’

48 Air filter

49 Steam trap-intermittent

50 Steam trap-continuous drainer

51 Twin basket filter

5
 General instrument OR function symbols

Primary Auxiliary
Instrumen
Location location
Field ts located
(Normally (Normally
mounted Behind
accessible accessible to
panel
to operator) operator)

Discrete
Instruments
Shared Display,
Shared Control
(SCADA)

Computer Function
(DCS)

PLC Function

52 Pilot Light

53 Diaphragm seal

Instruments sharing common

54
housing

Actuators

55 Diaphragm actuator (pneumatic)

Pressure balanced diaphragm

56
actuator (pneumatic)

57 Rotary motor actuator

6
58 Digital actuator

59 Solenoid actuator

Double acting piston actuator

60
(Pneumatic)

61 Electro-hydraulic actuator

62 Hand operating actuator

Self Actuated Regulators

63 Hand control valve in process line

Pressure reducing regulator

64
self contained with hand set-point

65 Pressure relief safety valve

66 Vacuum relief Safety valve

7
 Primary Elements

Specific gravity, Diff. pressure

67
transmitter

68 Primary propeller element

Conductivity cell connected to point

5 of multipoint scanning
69
conductivity recorder

Density/ Diff. pressure x’mitter

70
(externally connected)

71 Orifice

Orifice plate with vena-contracta

72
taps

Radius tap test connections without

73
orifice plate

74 Orifice plate in quick-change fitting

Single port pitot tube OR pitot

75
venture tube

8
76 Flow nozzle

77 Venture tube

78 Target flow sensor

79 Averaging pitot tube

80 Flume

Variable area flow-meter, Rota-

81
meter

Positive displacement type flow

82
totalizing indicator

83 Vortex flow sensor

9
 Magnetic flow-meter connected to
84
level transmitter

Level switch; paddle wheel or lever

85
type to measure level of solids

86 Speed transmitter

Temperature test connection with

87
well

Temperature test connection

88
without well

Magnetic flow-meter with integral

89
x’mitter

Gauge glass, internally mounted on

90
tank float type

Capacitance or Dielectric type level

91
element

10
 Gauge glass, externally mounted
92
with tank

93 Level indicator

94 Temperature element without well

95 Temperature element with well

Filled system type temperature

96
indicator with well

Bimetallic thermometer, Glass

97
thermometer & indicator

Thermal radiation type temperature

98
element

99 Vibration transmitter for motor

10 Weight transmitter direct

0 connection

11
10 Turbine shell/rotor differential
1 expansion transmitter

10
Horn
2

10
Air cleaner
3

P&ID ELEMENT IDENTIFICATION LETTERS

ALPHABATS FIRST LETTER SUBSEQUENT LETTER

A ANNALYSIS ALARM
B BUNER COUMBIUSTION -
C UNSPECIFIED CONTROL.CONTOLLER
D UNSPECIFIED -
E VOLTAGE SENSOR,PRIMARY ELEMENT
F FLOW RATE -
G UNSPECIFIED GLASS,VIEWING DEVICE
H HAND HIGH
I CURRENT INDICATION,READOUT
J POWER -
K TIME,TIME SECDULE CONTROL STATION
L LEVEL LIGHT,LOW
M UNSPECIFIED MIDDLE,INTERMIDIATE
N UNSPECIFIED -
O UNSPECIFIED ORIFICE,RECTRICTION
P PRESSURE,VECCUM POINT,TEST POINT
Q QUALITY -
R RADIATION RECORD,RECORDER
S SPEED,FREQUENCY SWITCH
T TEMPERATURE TRANSMITT,TRANSMITTER
U MULTIVERIABLE MULTIPLICATION
V VIBRATION.MECHANICAL VALVE,DAMPER,LOUVER
12
 W WEIGHT.FORCE WELL
X UNSPECIFIED -
Y EVENT,STATE RELAY,COMPUTE,CONVERT
Z POSTIOIN,DIMENSION DRIVER,ACTUATER

Standard Identifications:

Instrument identrification consists of Functional Identification and Loop Identification.

Instruments are identified by system of letters & numbers as shown below.

T R C - 2 00
First letter Succeeding Section Suffix (Device No)
(Parameter) Letters Loop
(Function) No.

Functional Identification:
 The first two letters identify function of instrument & are selected from table 2.2.
The succeeding numbers & letters identify particular loop.
 The first letter designates the measured or initiating variable such as T-
temperature, L- level,F- flow, P-Preesure etc. modifying letter such as D for
differential F for ratio & Q for totalizing may follow the first letter.
 For example TDI is differential temp. Indicator & FOR is flow recorder with an
integrator in loop.
 The successive letter designate one or more function of loop such as read out,
passive function or output.
 For Example C- Control, H- High, I – Indicate, L- Low or light, R-Record, S- Switch,
T- Transmit, V- Valve, Y – Relay, Converter, Compute
Loop Identification:
 The loop identification method assigns a no. to each loop. It may begin with section
no. and followed by loop no. such as 201 or 602 or 1201.
 For loop that have more than one instrument with same functional identification
suffix should be added to the loop. E.g. FV-2A, FV-2B, FV-2C etc.
Note:
 If Control Valve is given tag name according to it control the controlled variable.
For example if control valve control is used in Temperature loop to control
temperature it is termed as TCV (Temperature Control Valve). Similarly PCV, FCV,
LCV.
 Controller having same type of input and output signal
 Converter have different input and output quantity. Ex. P to I Converter converts
Pneumatic signal (3-15 PSIG) into current signal(4-20mA) has Pneumantic
Pressure as input and Current as output signal.
 I to P or P to I Converter is used in Temperature loop termed as TY, Pressure loop

13
 termed as PY, Flow loop – FY, Level Loop LY
 We require I to P Converter if transmitter having electrical output but control
valve is operate on Pneumatic Signal.
 DP Transmitter can be use for measurement of Level, Pressure, Flow, Density
depend on that it is given name LT, PT, FT.

Main / Auxillary Panel Back of the Panel/ Not

Field Mounted
Mounted accessible to Operator
Controller, Indicator,
Control Valve, Converter,
Recorder, Light, Alarm, Relay, Contators
Transmitter, Switches
Push button

Table 2 Instrument location

CONCLUSION:

Assignment:

1. Draw P&I Diagram for a tank maintaining level by measuring with the help of
differential pressure transmitter with pneumatic output, panel mounted level
indicating controller & pneumatically operated control valve is installed on the
process fluid coming out from a tank.

14
2. Draw P&I Diagram for a heater maintaining the temperature of outlet fluid with
help of temperature transmitter having electric output signal, panel mounted
temperature recording controller & pneumatically operated control valve is
installed on a steam inlet pipeline to the coil side of the heater.

15
 PRACTICAL:
CONTOL VALVE
AIM: TO STUDY CONTROL VALVE CUT SECTION

THEORY:
A control valve is the most commonly used final control element to throttle the fluid
flow of manipulated variable commanded by controller such that the controlled variable
remains near to the set point.

VALVE TERMINOLOGY:
 CAPACITY: It is the rate of flow through a valve under stated condition.

 CORROSION: It is the reaction between materials of the valve body & internal
and the fluid handled which cause valve deterioration.

 VALVE FLOW COEFFICIENT Cv : It is the flow co-efficient, the unit of

measurement to define the capacity of a valve. It is defined as the number of
gallons per minute of water at 60 deg F which will pass through a given flow
restriction of control valve with a differential pressure across of 1 PSI(G) across
it.

 DIAPHRAGM ACTUATER: It is pneumatically operated device using the spring

to create the force on the actuator stem, in relation to the pressure signal.

 EROSION: It is a wearing action on valve trim and body resulting from a flow of
high velocity fluids and fluids containing solid particles.

 NORMALLY CLOSED VALVE: This term is used for a normally closed control
valve assembly one which is closed when the actuator pressure is reduced to
atmospheric.

 NORMALLY OPEN VALVE: This term is used for a normally open control valve
assembly one which opens when the actuator pressure is reduced to
atmospheric.

 PLUG: It is the movable part which provides the variable restriction in the port
of a control body.

 RANGEABILITY: It is the ratio of maximum controllable flow of the minimum

controllable flow.

 STEM: It is a rod extending through the bonnet assembly to permit positioning of

valve plug.

 YOKE: It is a structure by which the diaphragm case assembly is supported

rigidly on the bonnet assembly.
 TURN DOWN: It is a ratio of max. to min. flow requirements.
16
 SEAT: A portion of seat ring or a valve body which comes in contact for the
closure of valve.

 TRIM: The part of control valve except the valve body which comes in contact
with the process fluid. The trim consists of the plug, seat, seat rings and plug
stem.

 CAVITATION: The formation and subsequent collapse of void or cavity in the

valve body resulting from the increased fluid velocity through the restricted area
of valve. It occurs in liquid when the valve operates near the vapour pressure of
fluid.

 BELLOW SEAL: It the physical barrier or a seal which uses a bellow for sealing
against the leakages around the plug stem of control valve.

 EQUAL PERCENTAGE FLOW CHARACTERISITCS: This is an inherent flow

characteristic of control valve which for equal increment of rated travel will
ideally give equal percentage changes in previous flow.

 LINEAR FLOW CHARACTERISITCS: It is a flow characteristics of control valve

which is represented by a straight line in a rectangular plot of flow verses
percentage rated travel of a valve.

SPECIFICATIONS OF CONTROL VALVE:

VALUE RATINGS

Size 15mm
Cv 2
Flange rating 150 RF #
Body Material A 216 GR-WCB
Trim Material SS-316
Characteristics Linear
Travel 28mm
Special Range 0.2 to 1 kg/cm2 (g)
Supply Failure Close
Positioner

% opening of valve
Pressure in Pressure Current Normally
kg/cm2 in PSIG in mA Normally Open/
Close/ Air To
Air To Close
Open
0.2 3 4 0 100
0.4 6 8 25 75
0.6 9 12 50 50
0.8 12 16 75 25
1.0 15 20 100 0

17
Fig 2.1 SKETCH OF TWO WAY, SINGLE SEATED NORMALLY CLOSED AIR TO OPEN
DIAPHRAGM AND SPRING ACTUATED GLOBE TYPE CONTROL VALVE

18
 CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNEMENT:

1) Classify the control valves.

2) Explain the term Cavitation & Flashing in the control valves.

19
 Date:
PRACTICAL:
CONTROL VALVE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: TO PLOT CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS.

THEORY: Control valve is essentially a variable resistance to the flow of fluid, in which the
resistance and therefore the flow can be changed. The valve body consists of a housing the
actuator and connections for attachment of the valve to a supply line and a delivery line. The
trim enclosed within the body consists of a plug, valve seat and a valve stem. The control
valves used in the control valve characteristics experiments are of the pressure-to-open type
in which the stem is raised when pressure is applied to the under side of the diaphragm.

VALVE CHARACTERISTICS:

The Function of a control valve is to vary the flow of the fluid through the valve by
means of a change in pressure to diaphragm actuator of the valve. The relation between the
flow through the valve and valve stem position is called valve characteristics.
In general the flow through a control valve at a given temperature can be expressed as:

Where
Q=volumetric flow rate
G = Specific Gravity
ΔP = P0 – P1
po=upstream pressure
p1= down stream pressure

In terms of valve characteristics, valve can be divided into three types:

 Decreasing sensitivity i.e. Quick opening,

 Linear &
 Increasing sensitivity i.e. Equal Percentage.

Valve characteristics curves can be obtained for any valve by measuring the flow through the
valve as a function of lift or travel under conditions of constant upstream and downstream
pressures. Three types of valves that are widely used are the linear valve, quick opening, and
the equal percentage valve. The linear valve is one in which sensitivity is constant and the
relation between flow and lift is linear. The equal percentage valve is of the increasing
sensitivity type. Quick opening valve is mostly like ON-OFF valve.
Inherent characteristics of valve are determined when the pressure drop across the valve is
constant. When a valve is placed in a line that offers resistance to flow, the inherent
characteristics of the valve will be altered. The relation between the flow and stem position
for a valve installed in a process line will be called effective valve characteristics.

20
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the common compressor and allow it to be filled up till it gets cut-off
automatically.
2. Adjust the pneumatic signal from 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 to 1.0 kg/cm2(g) or 3,6,9,12 &
15 psi(g) to open any one out 3 valves at a time i.e. Valve with linear, equal
percentage and quick opening plugs from 0, 25, 50, 75 & 100 % open
3. Empty the upper tank fully..
4. Start the pump and keep the Differential pressure across the valve at 1 psi(g) by
adjusting the manual valve at the discharge of pump.
5. At every stage of opening of the valve from 0 to 100%, collect the water quantity
in upper tank for exact 1 min. duration which is done by using a timer and
measure the quantity of water collected in the tank with the help of measuring
flasks.
6. Repeat above procedure for all three valves and the plot the graph of percentage
of flow verses percentage of rated travel of valve.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Flow through the valve

Sr % Opening of the Pressure in
Quick Opening Equal Percentage Linear
No control valve kg/cm2
LPM % LPM % LPM %

1 0 0.2

2 25 0.4

3 50 0.6

4 75 0.8

5 100 1.0

Quick Opening Equal Percentage Linear

Fig. 3.1 valve trims possessing various flow characteristics

CONCLUSION:

ASSIGNMENT:

1) What are different types of flow characteristics of control valves?

21
 2) Explain Characteristics of Control Valve with valve plug shape and selection
criteria as per application.
Date:

PRACTICAL:
P to I Converter

Aim: To study the operation of Pressure to Current (P/I) Converter.

Pressure measurement is one of the most important measurements in industry.

Pressure is represented as Force per unit Area. In Industrial applications, the pressure
is usually measured by means of indicating gauges or recorders. These instruments may
be mechanical, electromechanical, electric or electronic in operation.

Mechanical Instruments:
These instruments may be classified in two groups. The first group includes those
instruments where pressure measurement is made by balancing an unknown force with
a known force. The second includes those employing quantitative deformation of an
elastic membrane for pressure measurement.

Electromechanical:
These instruments usually employ a mechanical means of detecting pressure and
electrical means of indicating or recording the detected pressure.

Electronic Instruments
Electronic pressure measuring measurements normally depend on some physical
change that can be detected and indicated or recorded electronically.

Electronic Type Pressure measurement instruments

 Resistive Strain gauge
 LVDT
 Photoelectric
 Inductive
 Capacitive
 Piezoresistive transducer

The demonstrator utilizes Piezoresistive type of transducers. The output of sensor is

4 – 20 mA for input pressure 0 – 6 kg/cm2 . There are 4 active Piezoresistive sensors
mounted on membrane. The bridge is excited by a 9 V DC supply. This Piezoresistive
sensor is designed with 316L stainless still diaphragm for application such as these
found in process control and medical instrumentation where the sensing device
needs to be isolated from the media being measured or protected from the
environment. The output of sensor is in analog form which is connected to digital
voltmeter calibrated to display pressure directly.

Operating Instructions:
Equipment Required:
22
  Foot Pump or Compressor ( 7 kg/cm2)
 0 – 20 mA Current meter

Procedure:
1. Connect the current meter of 20 mA range to terminal provided on front panel.
2. Connect the foot pump to input of pressure cell
3. Plug in two pin power chord to main supply of 230 V, 50 Hz.
4. Start pumping the foot pump. The digital indicator will display the pressure
directly in kg/cm2 and current meter will indicate the corresponding current.
5. Tabulate the result in observation table.
6. Plot graph between the Input Pressure and Current indicated in mA Meter.
Note: Foot pump can be replaced by pressure source from compressor.

Observation Table:

Input Digital Display

Current
Pressure Pressure
Meter mA
kg/cm2 kg/cm2
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6

Conclusion:

23
 Date:
PRACTICAL:
I to P Converter
Aim: To study the operation of Current to Pressure (I/P) Converter.

Apparatus:

 Adtron’s Trainer kit

 Compressor ( 7 kg/cm2)

Theory:
The EP- 8000 is designed to output a proportional pneumatic control signal in response
to an electronic control signal. A change in electrical input signal modulates the amount
of air that exhaust from the leak port, producing an output pressure directly
proportional to input signal.
Standard Current signals are 4 – 20 mA and 0 – 10mA, and I/P converter converts these
current signals into standard 3 to 15 PSI pneumatic signals. Fig 1. Shows a schematic
arrangement. A multiturn coil through which current signal flows is to mount flexurally
& suspended in a gap formed between the body & the magnet pole piece. It is actually
integrally mounted with the float. A high quality permanent magnet creates a field
which posses through the steel body and across the small air gap to the pole piece.
When current flows through the coil, it creates an electromagnetic force, which tends to
repel through coil & converts the current signal in to a mechanical force.

Fig 1. Construction of Current to Pressure Converter

A reaction nozzle is used to convert mechanical force in to a pneumatic output pressure.

Nozzle gets air from air supply through a restrictor and the pressure in it is varies
according to the restrictive effect imposed at nozzle seat by the shaft carrying inductive
24
coil. The counter balancing force to the coil motor is supplied by the reaction of the air
jet impinging against the nozzle seat and nozzle backpressure is the output signal,
which is directly proportional to the current input.

The float is so sized that its buoyant force equal the weight of assembly and as the float
flows in the silicon oil, vibration have no effect. The zero is adjusted by leaf spring force
and the range by a screw, which varies the air gap between magnet and screw and thus
some magnetic field, is shunted away from the pole.

The current through a coil produces a force that will tend to pull the flapper down and
close off the gap. A high current produces a high pressure so that device is direct acting.
Adjustment of springs and perhaps the position relative to the pivot to which they are
attached allows the unit to be calibrated so that 4 mA corresponds to 3 PSIG and 20 mA
corresponds to 15 PSIG

Fig. 2 I/P Converter using Flapper Nozzle Fig. 3 Principle of Flapper Nozzle
Mechanism Mechanism

Procedure:

1. Connect the inlet pipe of the I/P converter to the compressor.

2. Swith on the compressor and maintain the inlet pressure to above 2 – 3 kg/cm2
3. Connect the mains supply to the I/P demonstration unit.
4. Adjust the current control pot, so that current meter reads 4 mA and observe the
pressure gauge connected at the outlet of the converter. Note down the reading.
5. Now slowly increase the current in steps of 1mA to a maximum 19.99mA and for
each step observe and pressure gauge reading.
6. Plot a graph of current meter reading v/s pressure gauge reading.

25
Circuit Diagram

Fig 4 Practical Setup for Current to Pressure (I/P) Converter

Observation Table:

Input Current Output

Meter mA Pressure kg/cm2
4
6
8
12
14
16
18
20

Conclusion:

26
 Date:
PRACTICAL:
CONTROL PANEL

AIM: STUDY THE CONTROL PANEL & ITS COMPONENTS

THEORY

What is control panel?

A panel in which meters and other indicating instruments display the condition of a
system, and dials, switches, and other devices are used to modify circuits to control the
system. It is a flat, often vertical, area where control or monitoring instruments are
displayed. A typical 8 foot by 7 foot high panel might contain more than 100 controllers
and recorders plus additional indicators, alarms and other additional devices.

VARIOUS TYPES OF CONTROL PANELS

There are three basic panel types: Flatface, breakfront and console.

1) FLATFACE PANELS

For many years flatface panels have been the most popular design. These designs are
further divided into 3 types:

 Turnback Design

The flatface panel of 10 gauge steel with 2 inch turnback construction is a simple
economical design. It is usually fabricated in sizes from 2 to 4 feet wide and heights
from 6 to 8 feet and depths ranging from 18 to 36 inches. They are often mounted on a 6
inch concrete curb or steel channel base with independent bracing at the top of the
panel. The bracing members serve an additional function as conduit and tubing
supports. This type of panel design is used for simple gauge panels, for direct connected
large case recorders and controllers and for small groups of local instruments which
require minimum rear of panel support and only a few mounted auxiliaries.

 Open Angle Frame Design

The frame is self supporting, and the panels are usually made of 3/16 or ¼ inch steel
plate with a 2 inch turnback and an open angle iron frame extending from 24 to 36
inches to the rear of the panel face. The panel face with its 2 inch turn back serves as the
front frame. The width of this panel varies considerably. The panel height is usually 7
feet, 6 inches and it may be mounted directly to the floor or placed on a curb or channel
iron. This type of panel construction is generally devoted to small units where there are
no requirements for top or end closing.

27
Angle Frame Enclosed Design

This type uses an angle frame design enclosed construction, the essential difference
being the attachment of enclosing sections on the sides, top and rear. Heights range
usually from 7 to 8 feet, 30 inch depths is common, and 4 foot modules are typical
widths. A 1/16 inch panel overhang on each side of the 4 foot frame is usually allowed
to assure tight fits at seams between panel sections. The complete group of panels is
usually mounted on studs with panel bottoms at or near floor level. It is most commonly
used at present time and it is adaptable to all types of instruments. Provision can easily
be made for rear of panel mounted components, piping and wiring.

28
 2) BREAKFRONT PANELS

It is sometimes referred to as the “stand-up console”. The panel front is formed or

broke into several planes to effectively increase the usable area of the panel front
without a corresponding increase in overall height. It has a basic 1 ½ x 1 ½ x ¼ angle
iron frame with a formed panel front. The lower “bench” section should be 3/16 or ¼
inch plate to support the weight of the mounted instruments properly. The angle or
centre section maybe 10 gauge steel with internal cross members to support the
instrument cases, front and rear. The top vertical portion of the panel may be 10 gauge
steel, or ¼ inch phenolic may be used. The overall height of this type varies from 6 to 7
feet and panel width from 4 to 6 feet. For ease of maintenance, the section of panel front
beneath the panel bench break should be removable, and two full doors should be
provided at the rear. Removable panels should be used for end closures. The breakfront
panel design lends itself to high density instrumentation which utilizes miniature or
multicased instruments and requires many push buttons and pilot lights that must be
observed by operators.

3) CONSOLES

A console by definition is a panel or a desk on which are mounted dials, switches and
other apparatus used in centrally controlling electrical and mechanical devices. Two
typical designs and configurations are discussed here:

Desk Type

An economical console maybe made by modifying a commercially available office desk.

The additionally small panel for attachment to the desk top often meets the
29
requirements of a console application. The addition maybe formed from a 10 gauge
metal, fabricated from phenolic plastic or a combination of both metal and plastic. This
type of assembly and fabrication is used for multipoint read out systems for
temperature, level or other functions that can be monitored on a single unit.

Custom Type
A custom built console may have a vertical full graphic panel in use. The operators have
key data digitally displayed on CRTs on the console and are able to observe the status of
the key valves and circuit breakers on the active graphic panel. Analog recorders,
controllers, and indicators for important process loops are located on adjacent auxiliary
consoles and vertical panels. The construction of this type of panel is usually of specially
formed steel sections assembled with welded seams. Special under floor ducts or
computer flooring is normally used for connecting cables.

CONCLUSION:

30
 PRACTICAL

ALARM ANNUNCIATOR SYSTEM.

AIM: To study alarm annunciator system for industrial control system.

APPARATUS:
THEORY:
Alarm annunciator is used in industries to alert the plant operator of any abnormality
taking place in the plant. Based upon the type of abnormality, the operator has to take
action to bring back that abnormal parameter in normal condition.

Fail Safe mode of control system:

All relays are in energized condition when all operating parameters in the plant are
normal. Whenever any parameter goes abnormal, the annunciator shall produce an
audio & visual display. Also in case of failure of any component/relay in the annunciator
system, there shall be also an audio & video display.

Operation of Alarm Annunciator:

1) When all conditions are normal, there is no audio & visual display
2) When process parameter is abnormal, the switch contacts opens and relay R1 is
de-energized in line No. 1
3) NC contact of relay R1 (The term NC or NO of relay / contactor refers to the
condition of contact when relay contactor is in de-energized condition) in line
No. 2 closes, also the contact of relay R2 is already in closed condition, hence the
Hooter/buzzer sounds.
4) Contact of R1 in line No. 4 (NC contact) closes when R1 is de-energized & the
lamp indicates the abnormal condition of process parameter.
5) Upon hearing hooter/buzzer, the operator pushes the Acknowledgement push
button, the relay R2 is de-energized; its NO contact in line No. 2 opens & hooter
will be OFF.
6) The test push button in line No. 3, when pressed, all lamps will start flashing & it
will show the healthy condition of lamps.

Types of Displays:

1. Bulbs Eye Indicator :

This is single lamp indicator of 1” diameter in Red, while or Green in colour. They
are provided installed of control panel.
2. Lighted Windows:
These are the most widely used, available with alarm annunciators and are
manufactured in various shapes & sizes. They are available in transparent colours.
Generally, amber/white colour is selected for high & low alarms windows of process
parameters while red colour is used for High-High & Low-Low (very high & very
low) alarm conditions used for tripping/shunting down of process section or some
times of entire plant.

31
Sequences:

There are varies types of sequences of alarms used in industries. Commonly used
sequences are Normal sequence, Alert Sequence & First out sequence

(a) Normal Sequence:

It is used for non-critical system. Hence RESET Pushbutton is not required.

(b) Alert Sequence:

It is used for semi-critical system where the plant operator is necessary to know the

return of abnormal process parameter to normal condition. The RESET push button

is provided in the alarm annunciator system to reset & make it ready for next set of

alarms as shown in comparative statement. The alarm window will be off only after

RESET push button is pressed.

(c) First Out Sequence:

It is used for the process where large numbers of process parameters are involved

for start up and shutdown e.g. Boiler, Turbine, compressor systems etc. In the event

of tripping of such process, lot of parameters go in abnormal conditions almost

simultaneously & it is very difficult to find out which parameter has caused tripping

of system. In first out sequence, for the first parameter appearing in sequence, the

lamp indication/alarm window will start flashing/flickering even after

acknowledgement of alarm as shown in comparative table and it will remain

flashing/flickering till that parameter does not return back to normal condition.

While for other subsequent parameters, the alarm window will be in steady state

after acknowledgement. Those alarm windows will be off after returning of

parameters in normal conditions. The RESET push button is used to bring back

alarm annunicator in ready condition for next set of alarms by having all alarm

windows in off state

32
Types of Alarm Annunciations :

A) Electromechanical Annunciator :
These are using modular, fail safe plug in cards, relay etc.

B) Electronic Annunciator:
These are using solid-state circuitry & packed in smaller size cabinets compared
with electromechanical types.

C) PC based annunciator :
There is no any hardware used in this type. The alarm generation, indication,
acknowledgement, reset etc. Are software programmed & displayed on alarm
window page on PC.

Comparative Statement of Alarm Annunciation Sequences :

Reset
Condition after
Sequence Signal Normal Alert Return to Return
Device Condition Condition ACK Normal to
Normal
Normal Visual OFF FLASH ON OFF -
(Steady)
Audible OFF ON OFF OFF -
Visual OFF FLASH ON ON OFF
Alert (Steady) (Steady)
Audible OFF ON OFF OFF OFF
Visual 1 OFF FLASH FLASH ON OFF
First Out Visual 2 & OFF FLASH ON OFF OFF
Subsequent (steady)
Audible OFF ON OFF OFF OFF

33
 Circuit Diagram:

CONCLUSION:

34
 PRACTICAL
V TO I AND I TO V CONVERTER USING MULTISIM

AIM: Design current (I) to voltage (V) and voltage (V) to current (I) converter
Using Op-amp in Multisim Software.

APPARATUS: Multisim Software installed in computer

THEORY:

Current to Voltage Converter:

Inverting amplifier ideal voltage gain is:
vo / vin = - RF / R1
Therfore,
vo = - (vin /R1) RF

However since v1 = 0 V and v1 = v2.

vin / R1 = iin
and
vo = - iin RF

This means that if we replace the vin and and R1 combination by a current source iin as
shown in circuit diagram, the output voltage vo becomes proportional to the input
current iin. In other works, the circuit shown in circuit diagram converts the input
current into a proportional output voltage.

One of the most common uses of the current to voltage converter is in sensing current
from photo detector and in digital to analog converter applications.

35
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

36
Voltage to Current Converter:

In this circuit, one terminal of the load is grounded and load current is controlled by an
input voltage. The analysis of the circuit is accomplished by first determining the
voltage V1 at the no inverting input terminal and then establishing the relationship
between V1 and the load current.

Writing Kirchoff’s current equation at node V1,

I1 + I2 – IL

Vin – V1 + Vo – V1 = IL
R R
Vin + Vo – 2V1 = IL R

Therfore,
V1 = Vin + Vo – IL R
2
Since the op-amp is connected in the non inverting mode, the gain of the circuit is 1 +
R/R = 2. Then the output voltage is,

Vo = 2V1
= Vin + Vo – IL R
That is,
Vin = IL R
or
IL = Vin/R

This means that the load current depends on the input voltage Vin and resistor R. Notice
that all resistors must be equal in value.

The voltage to current converter of circuit diagram may; also be used in testing such
devices as zener and LEDs forming a ground load. However, the circuit will perform
satisfactorily provide that load size<= R value.

37
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CONCLUSION:

38
 PRACTICAL

AIM: TO STUDY THE INSTRUMENT AIR SUPPLY AND

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

THEORY
In any process industry we mostly find two types of air: (a) Plant air (b) Instrument air.

(a) Plant air: It is mostly used for cleaning purpose to create a required pressure.
The compressor is used. There is no need to dry or clean this type of air.
Sometimes this air supply stands by option.
(b) Instrument air: This type of air is very critical in the industries. The instruments
find in the industries .The instruments find in industries can be classified into
given three groups.

1. Pneumatic Type
2. Electrical or Electronic Type
3. Hydraulic Type

For the pneumatic type instruments the working media is air so to operate this kind of
instrument uninterrupted and regulated air supply required. The air must be clean, dry
and oil free to ensure that small lines, restrictions and nozzle should not be plunged by
dirt oil or water. Some important features that should be considered in designing of
instrument sir system as listed below:

1. Sizing Criteria
2. Pressure Level
3. Source Inertia
4. Compressor Selection
5. Dryer Selection
6. Distribution System

1. SIZING CRITERIA
The capacity required of an air system is determined by listing the entire instrument,
which is to operate simultaneously many of the instruments many of the instruments
are constant bleed type; they require constant air to operate. The entire instrument
classified into some air user group which is helpful to find out the exact air volume
Consumption of instrument for sizing criterion.

Spare capacity for further addition should be included; it should be at least 10% extra.
Capacity should be allowed for air dryer losses and leaks in the distribution system in
determining compressor requirement another 20% of the max. System demand should
be added to avoid overloading of compressor.
2. PRESSURE LEVEL
The pressure levels used for system vary from about 40 psig to as high as 120 psig. Most
common is between 80-100 psig. The factors required for finding out the pressure level
are
39
40
[Figure 1: Instrument Air Supply Distribution in Chemical Plant]
Pressure drops in the main distribution, header and pressure drops in drying and
accessory equipment. 10-15 psig should be allowed for the entire cleaning and drying
process.

3. SOURCE CRITERIA

There are two distinct system used in the industries.

1. An instrument air
2. Plant air

Which air capacities required for small self-contaminated system in which there is a
spare unit of compressor is installed to meet the emergency failure. If the instrument air
supply system is large, the redundancy lies in the plant air system. This way the source
of the instrument air supply system maybe different due to the capacity of the
requirement.

4. COMPRESSOR SELECTION

After the system capacity has been determined the type and size of compressor must be
selected for satisfactory operation Compressor and its accessories must be sufficiently
large to meet the demand. Two general types of compressor are used to furnish the air
for instrument use.

a) Positive displacement Type:

These are machines in which successive of air or gas confined within a closed space
reduction in volume of air the space results in an increase in pressure

1. Reciprocating
2. Sliding valve rotary
3. Screw compressor
4. Liquid Piston compressor

b) Dynamic Compressor:

They are machines in which air or gas is pressurized by the compressor very fast. The
air is accelerated through the rotating blades or vanes then the kinetic energy converts
into the form of pressure through the diffuser which is located at the boundary of the
blades. It is classified as:

1. Centrifugal
2. Axial Flow

c) Non Lubricated compressor:

Where high air purity is required these compressors are considered. The reciprocating
model with carbon or Teflon rings is used.
41
5. DRYER SELECTION

Atmospheric air contains some water vapor. This water vapor may cause serious
problem in the system. This vapor again is converted into water particles whenever
pressure drop

[Figure 2: Instrument Air Dryer System]

42
Across. This particle is sense dust, and corrodes the piping. Filling to remove the water
particles from the instrument air is the first step to provide after cooler. The remaining
water particles will be removed by the use of dryers classified as

A. Refrigeration type
B. Desiccant type

A. Refrigeration Type

Cooling is a simple and positive way to remove vapor from the inst. Air. These dryer is
used in a refrigerant to cool the air to lower temp. Such that it reaches below the dew
point so all vapors converted to water particles and then it can be removed. Heat
Exchanger is used to remove the heat from the air before entering into the dryer. This
type of dryer has limited use compared to the desiccant type of dryer has limited use
compared to the desiccant type.

B. Desiccant type

These dryer is most commonly used in inst. system. There are hygroscopic materials i.e.
they readily surfaces on typical desiccant materials can absorb water approximately
45% wt. dryers are filled with solid material such as activated alumina or silica gel,
which move water vapor as the air passes through the desiccant.

1. Heated Dryers

It normally consists of few desiccant filled chambers which are connected in parallel to
each other. One of the two chambers is used to dry the air. The heat may be any type
like an electrical heater vapor drawn off is allocated to pass into the atmosphere.

2. Heatless Dryers

It is similar to the heated dryer except that no external het is required for regeneration
of the desiccant material to regenerate the material in the chamber. Some of the dry are
allowed to pass over the material so it will dry the material and again. This type of set
up for the dryer is very helpful fir external power supply.

6. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The final step is planning of properly balanced rust air system is to design the
distribution system that it can be provided delivery to all air users with a main supply
variation in pressure and flow distribution of Inst. Air.

1. Loop
2. The Radial
The main header and sub header or branches in a distribution system should be so that
the pressure chops to the end of the branches does not exceed 5 psi. The main pipe size
is 0.5 inch.
43
Material is very important factor in the design to the distribution system, inst. Air
header s and branches are normally made of galvanized steel pipe and malleable iron
fitting galvanized prevents most rust the scale.

Other materials that are used occasionally includes brass, copper and aluminum, copper
pipes are frequently used for air supply to control panel.

Take off inst. Air header and branches should be similar to that shown in fig. as many as
4 users may be supplied from 0.5 “pipe. The takeoff always should come off the top of
the header so that moisture, dirt on impurities in the pipe is less like to get into the inst.
Several valves should be mounted next to header so that header is protected in case the
branch is broken in the requirement of replace is generated filters regulated all
provided at the end of users because the pressure level required for each inst. Header
and Sub-Headers should be normally sized well over the present expected so that
additional air users can be added without system shutdown.

CONCLUSION:

44
 PRACTICAL-
AIM: TO STUDY Hazardous Area classification as per NEC500

THEORY:
Potentially Explosive Atmospheres exist where there is a risk of explosion due to
mixtures of gas/air, vapour/air, dust/air or other flammable combinations.
In such areas there is a necessity to eliminate sources of ignition such as sparks,
hot surfaces or static electricity which may ignite these mixtures.
Where electrical equipment has to be used in these areas it must be so designed
and constructed as to not create sources of ignition capable of igniting these
mixtures.
Before electrical equipment can be used in a potentially explosive atmosphere a
representative sample has to be fully tested and certified by an independent
authority such as BASEEFA in the U.K. or UL in the U.S.A.

Hazardous Area classification as per NEC500

Classes
Class I Flammable gases or vapors are present in the air in quantities
sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
Class II Combustible or conductive dusts are present.
Class III Ignitable fibers or flying are present, but not likely to be in
suspension in sufficient quantities to produce ignitable mixtures.
(Group classifications are not applied to this class.)
Divisions
Division 1 The substance referred to by class is present during normal
conditions.
Division 2 The substance referred to by class is present only in abnormal
conditions, such as a container failure or system breakdown.
Groups
Group A Acetylene
Group B Hydrogen (or gases of equivalent hazard)
Group C Ethylene (or gases of equivalent hazard)
Group D Gasoline (or gases of equivalent hazard)
Group E Metal Dust
Group F Coal Dust
Group G Grain Dust

Typical Class I Locations:

 Petroleum refineries, and gasoline storage and dispensing areas.
 Industrial firms that use flammable liquids in dip tanks for parts cleaning
or other operations.
 Petrochemical companies that manufacture chemicals from gas and oil.
 Dry cleaning plants where vapors from cleaning fluids can be present.
 Companies that have spraying areas where they coat products with paint or
plastics.
 Aircraft hangars and fuel servicing areas.

45
  Utility gas plants, and operations involving storage and handling of
liquefied petroleum gas or natural gas.
Typical Class II Locations:
 Grain elevators, flour and feed mills.
 Plants that manufacture, use, or store magnesium or aluminum powders.
 Plants that have chemical or metallurgical processes or plastics, medicines
and fireworks, etc.
 Producers or starch or candies.
 Spice-grinding plants, sugar plants and cocoa plants.
 Coal preparation plants and other carbon-handling or processing areas.
Typical Class III Locations:
 Textile mills, cotton gins, cotton seed mills, and flax processing plants.
 Any plant that shapes, pulverizes, or cuts wood and creates sawdust or
flyings.
NOTE: fibers and flyings are not likely to be suspended in the air, but can collect
around machinery or on lighting fixtures and where heat, a spark, or hot metal
can ignite them.:

Area Classification (European and IEC method)

Process plants are divided into Zones or Divisions (North American method)
according to the likelihood of a potentially explosive atmosphere being present.

European & IEC Definition of zone or division North American

Classification Classification
An area in which an explosive mixture Class I Division 1
Zone 0 (gases)
is continuously present or present for (gases)
long periods Class II Division
Zone 20 (dusts)
1 (dusts)
An area in which an explosive mixture Class I Division 1
Zone 1 (gases)
is likely to occur in normal operation (gases)
Class II Division
Zone 21 (dusts)
1 (dusts)
An area in which an explosive mixture Class I Division 2
Zone 2 (gases)
is not likely to occur in normal (gases)
operation and if it occurs it will exist Class II Division
Zone 22 (dusts) only for a short time
2 (dusts)
Class III Division
1 (fibres)
Class III Division
2 (fibres)
Gas Groups (plus dusts and fibres)
There are two main gas groups, Group I – Mining only and Group II – Surface
Industries
These categories are used in European and I.E.C. groupings.
Group I is concerned only with underground mining where methane and coal dust
are present.
Group II gases occurring in surface industries, are sub-grouped according to their
volatility. This enables electrical equipment to be designed to less onerous
Tolerances if it is to be used with the least volatile gases.
46
 Typical European/I.E.C. Gas North American Gas
gas/material Group Group
Methane I -
Acetylene IIC A
Hydrogen IIC B
Ethylene IIB C
Propane IIA D
Metal dust - E
Coal dust - F
Grain dust - G
Note : North American legislation now allows Zones to be used to classify areas,
where this practice is used it follows the IEC Zone method.

Temperature
Hot surfaces can ignite explosive atmospheres. To guard against this all Electrical
Equipment intended for use in a potentially explosive atmosphere is classified
according to the maximum surface temperature it will reach in service. This
temperature is normally based on a surrounding ambient temperature of 40
degrees Centigrade (102 degrees Fahrenheit). This temperature can then be
compared to the ignition temperature of the gas(es) which may come into contact
with the equipment and a judgement reached as to the suitability of the
equipment to be used in that area.
Many MEDC products are certified for use in ambient temperatures up to 55
degrees Centigrade, see individual data sheets for details.

Temperature Classification Maximum Surface Temperature

European/I.E.C. North American
T1 T1 450° C
T2 T2 300° C
T2A 280° C
. T2B 260° C
T2C 230° C
. T2D 215° C
T3 T3 200° C
. T3A 180° C
T3B 165° C
. T3C 160° C
T4 T4 135° C
. T4A 120° C
T5 T5 100° C
T6 T6 85° C
e.g. Butane has an ignition temperature of 365 degrees Centigrade, equipment
used in the vicinity of this gas would need a T rating of T2 or higher

CONCLUSION:
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