There are 5 basic

Th b i laws
l off chemical
h i l
combinations that govern every reaction,
• Law of Conservation of mass

• Law of definite proportion

• Law of multiple proportions

• Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes

• Avogadro law
Law of Conservation of mass

Antoine Lavoisier established the

Law of Conservation of Mass. It
states that matter can neither be
created nor destroyed. In other
words we can say that during any
words,
physical or chemical change, the
total mass of reactants is equal to
the total mass of products.
Example:
l What h mass off silver
l nitrate willll react with
h 5.85 g
of sodium chloride to produce 14.35 g of silver chloride
and 88.5
5 g of sodium nitrate
nitrate, if the law of conservation of
mass is true?

Solution:
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
xg 5.85g 14.35g 8.5g

x+5.85=
x+5 85 14.35
14 35 + 8 5
x= 17.0 g
Law of definite proportion

JJosephh Proust
P t showed
h d
that a given compound
always contains exactly
the same proportion of
elements by y weight.
g
For example
example, carbon dioxide can be obtained by using
anyone of the following methods:
(a) by heating calcium carbonate,
(b) by heating sodium bicarbonate,
(c) by burning carbon in oxygen,
(d) by
b reacting
i calcium
l i carbonate
b with
i h hydrochloric
h d hl i
acid.

Whatever sample of carbon dioxide is taken, it is

observed that carbon and oxygen yg are always
y combined
in the ratio of 12 : 32 or 3 : 8.
Law of multiple proportions

Dalton proposed the law of

multiple proportions. According to
this law if two elements can
combine
bi to fform more than
h one
compound, the mass of one
element that combines with the
fixed mass of the other element is
in the ratio of small whole
numbers
For example:
H d
Hydrogen andd oxygen combine
bi to form
f two compounds
d
H2O (water) and H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide).

In water, Hydrogen 2 parts Oxygen 16 parts

In hydrogen
y g peroxide,
p , Hydrogen
y g 2 parts
p Oxygen
yg 32 parts
p
The masses of oxygen which combine with same mass of
hydrogen in these two compounds bear a simple ratio
1:2.
Nitrogen and oxygen combine to form five oxides such as nitrous
oxide (N2O) ,nitric oxide (NO),nitrogen trioxide (N2O3),nitrogen
t t
tetraoxide
id (N2O4) and d nitrogen
it pentaoxide
t id (N2O5). )
Oxides Wt. of Nitrogen Wt. of Oxygen Fixed wt. of Wt. of oxygen
of Nitrogen nitrogen used with the
Fixed wt. of
nitrogen

N2O 28 16 28 16
NO 14 16 28 32
N2O3 28 48 28 48
N2O4 28 64 28 64
N2O5 28 80 28 80

Ratio of oxygen in different compounds which combine with same weight of

nitrogen
16 : 32 : 48 : 64 : 80
1 :2 : 3: 4: 5
The simple whole number ratio favours Law of multiple proportion.
Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes

When gases combine or are

produced in a chemical
reaction they do so in a
simple ratio by volume,
provided all the gases are at
same temperature
t t and
d
pressure.
Examples:
p
H2 + Cl2 = 2HCI ratio 1:1:2
Ivol Ivol 2vol
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O ratio 2: 1: 2
2vol Ivol 2 vol
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3 ratio 1:3:2
1vol 3vol 2vol
Avogadro law
At the same
temperature and
pressure, equal
volumes of gases
contain equal number
of moles.
In other words
Volume of ggas is directlyy
proportional to amount
of gas at constant
temperature and
pressure
For example

H2 (g)
(g)+ Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
(g)
1vol. 1vol. 2vol.
1mole 1mole 2mole
Names and formulae
off some common
chemical compounds
ATOMIC MASS
Atomic mass of an element
can be defined as the
number which indicates how
many times the mass of one
atom of the element is
heavier in comparison to
1/12th part of the mass of
one atom of carbon-12.
It is the mass of one atom of
an element.
 UNIT OF ATOMIC MASS
Its unit is atomic mass unit (amu) or unified
mass (u).
( )

Relationship between amu and

gram (g)
1 g
1
1amu or 1u
1 =
6.022 x 1023

1amu or 1unified mass (u) = 1.66 x 10-24g

Atomic masses of some common elements
 Average atomic mass
It is clear from the list of atomic masses that atomic
masses of a number of elements are not nearly whole
numbers. Actually, the values are average atomic
masses. Most of the elements occur in nature as a
mixture of isotopes. (Isotopes-the atoms, of the same
element having different atomic masses same atomic
number). Chlorine is found in nature as a mixture
containing two isotopes CI-35 (34.969amu) and CI-37
(36 966amu) These are found in the ratio of75.53%
(36.966amu).These of75 53%
(CI-35) and 24.47% (CI-37). Therefore, the average
relative mass of chlorine is 35.5amu
 Formulae of average atomic mass

Here, x, y are percentage abundance of

two isotopes a and b
Example 1. Boron has two isotopes boron-10 and
boron-11 whose percentage abundances are 19.6%
and 80.4% respectively. What is the average atomic
mass of boron?
S l ti
Solution:
Contribution of boron-10 = 10.0 X 0.196 = 1.96amu
Contribution of boron-11 = 11.0x
11 0x 0.804
0 804 = 8.844amu
8 844amu
Adding both =1.96+ 8.844 = 10.804amu
Thus,, the average
g atomic mass of boron is 10.804amu.
Example 2. Carbon occurs in nature as a mixture of
carbon 12 and carbon-13.
carbon-12 carbon 13 The average atomic mass of
carbon is 12.011. What is the percentage abundance of
carbon-12
carbon 12 in nature?
Solution: Let x be the percentage abundance of
carbon-12; then (100 - x) will be the percentage
abundance of carbon-I 3.

Abundance of carbon-12 is 98.9%.

Gram-atomic Mass Or Gram Atom
Gram-atomic mass can be defined as the absolute
mass in
i grams off 1 mole
l atoms off any element.
l

Atomic mass Gram-atomic

Gram atomic mass
1. It is the mass of one 1. It is the mass of one
atom off any element
l molel atoms off any
element

2. It’s unit is amu or u. 2. It’s unit is g mol-1.

 Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is a number which indicates how
manyy times one molecule of a substance is
heavier in comparison to 1/12th of the mass of
one atom of carbon-12. it is a mass of one
molecule of any substance. It’s unit is amu or u.
Gram molecular Mass or Gram
Gram-molecular
Molecule or Molar mass
Gram-molecular
G l l mass or Molar
M l mass can beb
defined as the absolute mass in grams of 1
molel molecule
l l off any substance.
b
It’s unit is gmol-1
For Example:
Molecular mass of nitric acid
(HNO3 ) is 63,
i. e. , = 1+ 14 + 3 x 16 = 63 amu

Gram-molecular mass of nitric

acid = 63 gmol-11.
 MOLE CONCEPT

For the counting of articles, the unit dozen or unit

ggross is commonlyy used irrespective
p of their
nature. For example, one dozen pencils means 12
pencils or one dozen apples
p pp means 12 apples pp or
one gross books means 144 books or one gross
g means 144 oranges.
oranges g In a similar way, y, for
counting of atoms, molecules, ions, etc., chemists
use the unit mole.
 Define moles
Define moles
One mole is the amount of
substance
One mole isthat contains as many
the amount
entities or particles
of substance that as there are
present
containsinas 12many
g of C-12 atom which is
entities
exactly equalas
or particles tothere 1023 particles.
6 02 xare
6.02 particles
present in 12 g of C-12
Here
atom x 1023isis
6 02which
6.02 i exactly
the Avogadro
A number
or Avogadro 6.02 x 1023
equal to constant
particles.
The term mole was introduced by Ostwald in
1896 This is the Latin word 'moles'
1896. moles meaning
heap or pile.

A mole contains 6.022 x 1023 units. These units

can be atoms,
atoms molecules,
molecules ions,
ions electrons or
anything else.

6.022 x 1023 is known as Avogadro's number

named in honour of Amedeo Avogadro (1776 -
1856).
Note: Mole is not a useful measure for things which are much
larger than atoms and molecules in size or mass.
 How we calculated
A
Avogadro
d constant?
t t?
Mass off a C-12
C atom = 1.99 x 10-23
23g

(determined by mass spectrometer)

Knowing that one mole of the carbon atom

weighs
i h 12g,
12 the
h number b off atoms in
i iti is
i
equal to
12 /mol
12g / l
1.99x10-23 g/atom

¾ 6.02 x 1023 atoms

 22.4 L of a
G at SS.T.P.
Gas TP

Particles means atom, ion

Molecule, compound,
Electron, proton, neutron
Etc.
 Important formulae related to mole concept

M
Mass off substance
bt in
i gram
1. No. of moles of substance =
Gram atomic mass or
Gram molecular mass
of substance

6.022 x 1023 x Mass of element (g)

2. No. of atoms in Element =
Gram atomic mass

6.022 x 1023 x Mass of compound (g)

3. No. of molecules in compound =
Gram molecular mass
 Contd.

Atomicity x 6.022 x 1023

x Mass of molecule (g)
4. No. of atoms in molecules =
Gram molecular mass

No. of subatomic particle x

Atomicity x 6.022 x 1023 x Mass
of molecule (g)
5. No. of subatomic particle =
in molecules Gram molecular mass

Subatomic particle = electron, proton, neutron

Atomicity = no. of atoms present in a molecule
H2SO4 = atomicity is 7
Americium
A i i i an element
is l t that
th t does
d
not occur naturally.
(At. mass=243amu)
It can be made in very small
amounts in a particle accelerator.
Calculate the mass in grams of a
sample of americium containing
only
l six
i atoms.
t
6 atoms 1 mol 243 grams
6.022 x 1023 1 mol
atoms

= 2.42
2 42 x 10 -21
21 grams of
f Am
A
A silicon chip used in an
integrated circuit of a
microcomputer
p has a mass of
5.68 mg. How many silicon
(Si) atoms are present in the
chip?
 6.022 x 1023
5 68 mg
5.68 1g 1 moll Si atoms
t
1000 mg 28.09 g Si 1 mol Si

= 1.22 x 10 20 atoms of Si
Aluminum is often used for the
str ct re of light
structure light-weight
eight bicycle
bic cle
frames.
How many atoms of Al are in
20 00 grams of Al?
20.00
 66.022
022 x 1023
20.00 g Al 1 mol Al atoms Al
26.98 g Al 1 mol Al

= 4.46
4 46 x 1023 atoms
t Al
The artificial sweetener aspartame
(Nutri-Sweet) formula C14H18N2O5 is
used to sweeten diet foods,
foods coffee
and soft drinks. How many moles of
aspartame are present in 225 mg of
aspartame?
 C14H18N2O5 = 294 g/mol

225 mg 1g 1 mol
1000 mg 294 g

= 7.65
7 65 x 10-44 moll
Prozac, C17H18F3NO, is a widely used
antidepressant that inhibits the uptake of
serotonin by the brain.
brain How many atoms
of carbon are in 0.003 grams of Prozac?
 C17H18F3NO = 309 g/mol

6.022 x 1023
0 003 g 1 mol C17H18F3NO 17 mol C
0.003 atoms
t C
309 g 1 mol C17H18F3NO 1 mol C

= 9.94 x 1019 atoms C

Penicillin, the first of a
now large
l number
b off
antibiotics, has the
formula C14H20N2SO4.
Calculate the mass of
2.0 x 1010 molecules of
penicillin.
penicillin
 Molar mass C14H20N2SO4 = 312.4
312 4 grams

2.0 x 1010 molecules 1 mol 312.4 grams

6.022
6 022 x 1023 1 mol
molecules

= 1.04
1 04 x 10-11
11 grams of
f penicillin
i illi
A student drinks 3 cups of
coffee in order to stay
awake and study. Coffee
contains the compound
caffeine, a stimulant , with
the formula C8H10N4O2
If the caffeine content in
an average cup of coffee is
0 5 mg.
0.5 mg How many
molecules of caffeine did
the student ingest?
 (0.5 mg) (3) = 1.5 mg

molar mass caffeine = 194.2 grams

g

6.022 x 1023
1.5 mg 1 g 1 mol molecules
1000 mg 194.2
194 2 g 1 mol

= 4.65 x 1018 molecules of caffeine

 Humulone, C21H30O5, is one of the flavor
components that gives a bitter taste to beer.
What is the molar
mass of humulone?
How many moles are
in 275 mg of
humulone?

What isi the mass off

9.00 x 1018 molecules of
h
humulone?
l ?
 Molar mass = 362.45 grams

275 mg 1 g 1 mol
1000 mg 362.45 = 7.59 x10-4 mol
362 45 g

7.59 x10-4 mol 6.022 x 1023 molecules

1 mol
= 4.57 x 1020 molecules
Isopentyl acetate (C7H14O2) is the compound
responsible for the scent of bananas.
bananas Bees
release about 1μg of this compound when
th sting.
they ti Th resulting
The lti scentt attracts
tt t other
th
bees to join the attack.
How many molecules of isopentyl acetate
(C7H14O2) are released
l d in
i a typical
i l bee
b
μg ((1 x 10-6 g) ?
stingg of about 1μg
 Molar mass = 130.18 grams

1.0 x 10-6 g 1 mol 66.022

022 x 1023 molecules
130.18 g 1 mol

= 4.626 x 1015 molecules

How many atoms of carbon
would
ld be
b in
i the
th 4.626
4 626 x 1015
molecules of isopentyl
acetate (C7H14O2) ?
 Has 7 atoms of carbon
C7H14O2
for every one molecule

4.626 x 1015 molecules 7 atoms C

1 molecule C7H14O2

= 3.24
3 24 x 1016 atoms of C
Diamond is a natural form of ppure carbon

A diamond contains
5.0 x1021 atoms of
carbon. How many
moles of carbon and
how many grams of
carbon are in this
diamond?
5.01 x 1021 atoms C 1 mol C
6.022 x 1023 atoms C

8 32 x 10-33 mol C
8.32 12 01 g C
12.01
1 mol C
= 0.099 g C
How many atoms of carbon are in a
2.00 carat diamond?
( 1.00 carat = 0.200 grams )
2 carat 0.200 g 1 mol 6.022 x 1023 atoms
1 carat 12.01
12 01 g 1 mol

= 2.006 x 1022 atom of carbon

The formula for
acetylsalicylic acid
(aspirin) is C9H8O4
A typical
yp aspirin
p tablet
contains 1.67 x 1021
molecules of aspirin.
How many moles and
how many grams of
aspirin are in a typical
t bl t?
tablet?
 C9H8O4 = 180.154 grams

1.67 x 1021 molecules 1 mol

6.022 x 1023 molecules

0 00277 mol
0.00277 180.154 g
= 0.499
0 499 g
1 mol
500 mg
Sucrose or table
sugar has the
formula C12H22O11
How manyy moles of
sugar are in 20
grams of sugar?
What is the mass of
1.00 x 1020 molecules
of sugar?
 Molar mass = 342.296
342 296 g

20 g 1 mol
= 0.058 mol sugar
342.296 g

1.00 x 1020
molecules 1 mol
342 296 g
342.296 = 0.0568 g
6.022 x 1023 1 mol
molecules
What is the mass
off 2.00
2 00 moles
l off
Iron (III) oxide,
commonly known
as rust?
 Rust = Fe2O3

Molar mass = 159.70

159 70 g

2.00 mol 159.70 g

= 319.40 g Fe2O3
1 mol
A chemistry student
prepares 2.09 grams
of the compound
copper (II) sulfate in
the laboratory.
laboratory
How manyy moles of
the compound does
he make? What is
the % copper in the
compound?
d?
 CuSO4 = 159.62
159 62 grams

2.09 g 1 mol
= 0.0131
0 0131 moll
159.62 grams

% Cu = ( mass Cu / mass of CuSO4) x 100

63.55 g
% Cu = x 100 = 39.81% Cu
159.62 g
Calcium carbonate is the principle
compound found in pearls, marble,
shells, and chalk.
A certain sample of calcium
carbonate contains 4.86 moles.
Wh t is
What i the
th mass off thi
this sample
l and
d
how many formula units of calcium
carbonate are present in the sample?
CaCO3 is an ionic
compound and is not a
molecule, but a crystal
lattice with the simplest
ratio
ti off ions.
i
 Formula = CaCO3

Molar mass = 100.09 grams

4.86 mol CaCO3 100.09 grams

1 moll CaCO
C CO3

= 486.44 grams CaCO3

How many atoms of carbon are in
the 486.44 grams of CaCO3 ?

6.022 x 1023
486.44 g CaCO3 1 mol CaCO3 molecules
100.09 grams 1 mol

= 1.42 x 1027 molecules CaCO3

= 1.42 x 1027 atoms of C
Juglone
g is a natural
herbicide produced from
the husks of black
walnuts. The formula for
juglone is C10H6O3.
Calculate the molar mass
of juglone and how many
moles
l off jjuglone
l would
ld be
b
in a 1.56 x 10-2 gram
sample.
 (10 x 12.01) + (6 x 1.008) + (3 x 16.00)
Molar mass = 174.1 ggrams

1.56 x 10-2 g 1 mol juglone

174.1 g juglone

= 8.96 x 10 –5 mol juglone

j g
 1

3
 4

8
 Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in
Chemical
h i l Reactions
i

Stoichiometry
St i hi t isi the
th calculation
l l ti off the
th quantities
titi off reactants
t t
and products involved In a chemical reaction.
It is based on the chemical equation and on the relationship
between mass , moles and volume.

A chemical equation
q can be interpreted
p as follows:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

1 moll N2 + 3 moll H2 2 moll NH3 (Molar

(M l interpretation)
i t t ti )
28 g N 2 + 6.0 g H2 34 g NH3 (Mass interpretation)
1 vol. N2 + 3 vol. H2 2 vol. NH3 (Volume interpretation)
Thus; calculations based on chemical equations
are divided into following types:
(i) Calculations based on mole mole relationship.
mole-mole
(ii) Calculations based on mole-mass relationship.
((iii)) Calculations based on mass-mass relationship.
p
(iv) Calculations based on mass-volume
relationship.
(v) Calculations based on volume-volume
relationship.
(vi) Calculations based on mole-volume
relationship.
SOME SOLVED
EXAMPLES
Example 2. Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by
treating manganese dioxide (MnO2) with aqueous
hydrochloric acid according to the reaction,
MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
How many grams of HCl will react with 5 g MnO2?

Solution: 1 mole of MnO2 reacts with 4 mole of HCI

or 87 g MnO2 reacts with 146 g HCI
Example 3. How many kilograms of pure H2SO4 could be
obtained from 1 kg of iron pyrites (FeS2) according to the
following reactions?
4FeS2 + 11O2 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

Solution: Final balanced equation,

4FeS2 + 15O2 + 8H2O 2Fe2O3 + 8H2SO4
4 moll 8 moll
4x120g 8x98g
4 x 120g
0g of
o FeS
eS2 yyield
e d H2SO4 = 8 x 98 g
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Question1.
This reaction was carried out:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ)
What would be the volume of CO2 (at STP) produced from
the
h completel reaction
i off 10
10.0
0 grams off C
CaCO
CO3?
Question2.
An automobile airbag inflates when N2 gas results from the
explosive decomposition of sodium azide (NaN3),
2 NaN3 (s) 2 Na (s) + 3 N2 (g)
Calculate
l l the
h mass off NaN3 required
d to produce
d 50.0 L off N2
gas at STP.
Question3.
How many liters of oxygen gas are needed to produce 36.5
liters of SO3 gas at STP?
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)