GEO3Z03 Structure Mapping Tutorial Winter 2002

Mapping is a basic tool of structural geology. Geologic maps show the surface
distribution of rock types at the Earth’s surface, their contacts (or ‘boundaries’) and the
attitude of bedding planes and other structures that they contain. Unlike topographic
maps, which portray only surface relief, geologic maps also provide information about
the subsurface form (‘geometry’) of rock bodies.

Fundamentals of Geologic Mapping – Strike and Dip

A fundamental starting point in the construction of a geologic map is the identification of

rock types, mapping of geologic contacts (e.g. lithologic boundaries) and measurement of
the structural attitudes of beds in the field. The structural attitude of a bed refers to its 3-
dimensional orientation in space and is specified by measuring its strike and dip. The
strike is a line formed by the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with the
dipping rock unit. A good way to conceptualize strike is to imagine an outcrop partially
submerged in a pool of water - the strike line is equivalent to the water level on the
dipping bed surface (figure 1). The dip measures the maximum angle of inclination of the
bed from the horizontal along a line orthogonal (at 90°) to the strike. The strike is
recorded as an azimuth (compass direction in degrees from north) and the dip as an
azimuth and inclination angle. In the example shown in figure 1, the bed is striking at 90°
(due east) and dipping towards 180° at an angle of 20°. Measurement of the inclination of
the bed along a direction other than the dip line will yield an angle less than the
maximum angle of dip, termed an apparent dip.

W N
S E
270
Strik
e

le
ng 90
o ntal p a
hori z Di

Figure 1: Strike and dip of an inclined bed. The strike represents the trace of a horizontal
plane intersecting the bed. The dip is the maximum inclination of the bed in a direction
orthogonal to the strike line. Bed is striking at 90º and dipping 25º towards 180º.

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During field mapping, the strike and dip of bed contacts are measured at numerous
locations and plotted on a base map using symbols (Figure 2). A topographic map or
commonly an air photo is used as a base map and strikes and dips are plotted on a
transparent mylar overlay. The geologic map in Figure 2 shows a simple geologic map
that depicts a broad anticlinal fold with limbs dipping north-westward and south-
eastward. A range of other structural symbols are commonly used to annotate geologic
maps in the field. Some examples are shown in Figure 3.

strike
25
sandstone
18
20
e
lin N
nc
sy
shale 25
34
05/044
dip angle
limestone
22 12/090

Figure 2: Geologic map with strike and dip of beds plotted.

Topographic versus Structure Contour Maps

Strike and dip information gathered in the field can be used to create a specialized type of
geologic map called a ‘structure contour map’ which depicts the 3-dimensional form or
‘geometry’ of a rock unit. First, we need to review some of the basic principles of
topographic maps. Recall that a topographic map is a two-dimensional (flat)
representation of a three-dimensional land surface (figure 4). On a topo map a contour
line is defined as a line that connects points of equal elevation. Contour lines are drawn at
a constant contour interval (for example 5 or 10 m intervals) and provide information on
relative amount of relief (changes in elevation) across the map area. The contour values
are using given as metres of elevation relative to an arbitrary horizontal reference surface
or ‘datum’. Most commonly we use sea level as a datum for topo maps and we express
the elevation as ‘metres or feet above sea level’.

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Figure 3: Examples of structural symbols used to annotate geologic maps (Bush, 1993).

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Figure 4: Construction of a topographic contour map. Topographic contours are lines of
equal elevation measured relative to a datum surface (sea level is datum in this example).

By studying the arrangement and shape of contour lines it is possible to ‘visualize’ the
layout of the terrain. Areas of relatively closely-spaced, parallel contour lines represent
steep or ‘rugged’ terrain whereas widely-spaced contours indicate flat open areas. With
some practice, it is possible to quickly identify a number of different landforms and
geologic features by studying the form of the topographic contours:

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• river valleys – identified by ‘V– shaped’ contours, which ‘V’ in the upstream
direction
• hills, mountains – closed contours which show increase in elevation towards peak
• topographic depressions - closed contours which decline toward central low –
common in karstified areas with dolines and ‘sinkholes’
• escarpments, ridges, coastal cliffs, former shorelines – closely-spaced, parallel
contour lines
• plains – widely spaced contours, indicating areas with little change in relief
• volcanic cones, calderas – cone-like hills with centralized depressions
• faults – commonly displacement of contours defining river valleys or ridges
• dunes – ‘lunate’ or crescent shaped contours
• drumlins, flutes – tear-shaped or elongated ‘hair-pin’ shaped contour lines which are
parallel with the former ice flow direction

A structure contour map is a specialized type of contour map that shows the change in
relief on a geologic surface (figure 5). The surface may represent either the top or the
bottom of stratigraphic horizon, a bedding plane, formation boundary or any other type of
geologic surface (e.g. a faults, folds). Structure contour maps may be used to represent
geologic surfaces that crop out (are exposed at the surface) or buried surfaces present in
the subsurface. The ‘structure contours’ on the structure map show lines of equal
elevation on the geologic surface relative to some specified datum. In the case of
subsurface structure maps, the elevations are commonly negative numbers indicating
elevations below some surface datum.

HORIZONTAL STRUCTURE CONTOURS

PLANE OF MAP SURFACE WITH ELEVATION RELATIVE
N TO SURFACE DATUM

-60 m
70
-40 m

-20 m
FOLD
AXIS
FOLD LIMB
DIPPING 70
70

SIMPLE ANTICLINAL FOLD STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP

Figure 5: Structure contour map showing a simple anticlinal fold with fold limbs dipping
north and south at 70°. Note that structure contour map is a 2-D representation of a 3-
dimensional surface just as in Figure 4.

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Structure contour maps of outcropping geologic surfaces are commonly constructed by
measuring the dip, strike and elevation of the individual geologic contacts in the field.
The elevations are then ‘interpolated’ and contoured to produce a structure contour map
of each boundary. The elevations of contacts may also be determined by plotting of the
outcropping contacts on a topographic map (as explained below). Structure contour maps
for buried or ‘subsurface’ geologic units are constructed from borehole data.

Structure contour maps are used frequently by geologists to visualize the 3-dimensional
form and attitude (strike and dip – see definitions above) of a rock unit. In lab1 we will
learn how to construct and ‘visualize’ geologic structures such as folds and faults using
structure contour maps. As with topographic contours, the form and arrangement of
structure contours depends on the degree of relief and structural complexity of the
geologic surface. The simplest case is that of a planar rock unit which is inclined at a
constant angle of dip (Fig. 6). In this case, the structure contours are parallel and evenly
spaced. The strike of the rock unit is parallel with the structure contour lines. In folded
rock units, the structure contours are much more complex and curvilinear (Fig. 7). The
localized strike direction for curvilinear structure contours is found by taking the tangent
to the structure contour. Taking the tangent at several places along any such contour will
confirm that the strike is changing locally as we traverse the map, which is what we
would expect for a folded surface.

-10

-20

-30

45 -40 45

-50

-60

-70

-80

-90

INCLINED BED WITH CONSTANT STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP

DIP ANGLE

Figure 6: Simple inclined bed and structure contour map. Note structure contours are
parallel and evenly spaced.

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 FOLD AXES

-25

-35

-45

-55

-65

COMPLEXLY FOLDED STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP

BEDDING SURFACE

Figure 7: Complexly folded surface and structure contour map.

Constructing Structure Contour Maps

Most commonly the strike and dip of beds are measured directly in the field with a
compass and inclinometer (pivoting needle that measures dip angle) but they can also be
determined by construction of structure contours from bed contacts plotted on a
topographic map. Structure contours are equivalent to topographic contours except that
they represent the elevation of the top (or bottom) of a geologic unit as opposed to
elevation of the land surface. Structure contours are also lines of strike, because they are
lines of equal elevation (i.e. all points on a single structure contour lie within the same
horizontal plane). Given any structure contour map, it is thus always possible to
determine the strike and dip of the rock units.

The construction of structure contours using bed contact elevations is carried out as
follows:
1) The intersection of topographic contours and bed contacts are located and labelled.
2) Structure contours are drawn through points of equal elevation lying along a single
contact (either top or bottom of a bed).
The structure contours for a planar bed with constant dip will be straight and parallel
lines whereas non-planar surfaces will have curvilinear structure contours with variable
spacings reflecting changes in dip of the beds.

The dip of geologic contacts can be determined directly from the constructed structure
contours:
1) Take any two adjacent structure contours belonging to the same contact and measure
their horizontal separation (in metres) on the map (use the scale provided on the
map). Be sure to measure the distance along an orthogonal to the structure contour.

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2) Find the difference in height between the two structure contours by subtracting their
elevations.
3) Calculate the dip using the trigonometric relation tan  = opp/adj (see Figure 8). For
example if the separation is 200 m and change in elevation is 100 m the dip will be:

tan  = 100m/200m
tan  = 0.5
 = tan-1 (0.5)
 = 27◦

Distance between
structure contours

200 m
Plane of map

Change in height
100 m

Figure 8: Calculation of the dip of a bed from two structure contours. The dip angle is
the ‘true’ dip if the line of measurement is orthogonal to the structure contour.

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Block Diagrams

Another useful way to depict geologic structures is using block diagrams (Figure 9). A
block diagram is a conceptual 3-dimensional representation of the arrangement of beds
and is usually drawn as a ‘perspective view’. Block diagrams are useful ways of
visualizing the relations between subsurface structure and the surface outcrop patterns.

Figure 9: Block diagrams and surface outcrop maps for sequence of (a) inclined beds and
(b) folded strata (syncline).