BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES

Introduction

Because binary logic is used in all of today’s digital computers and devices, the cost of
the circuits that implement it is an important factor addressed by designers—be they computer
engineers, electrical engineers, or computer scientists. Finding simpler and cheaper, but
equivalent, realizations of a circuit can reap huge payoffs in reducing the overall cost of the
design. Mathematical methods that simplify circuits rely primarily on Boolean algebra.

Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra

Duality:

states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra
remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged.

Basic Theorems:

Associative Law of Addition

Statement:

Associative law of addition states that OR ing more than two variables i.e. mathematical
addition operation performed on variables will return the same value irrespective of the
grouping of variables in an equation.
It involves in swapping of variables in groups.

The Associative law using OR operator can be written as

A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
Example

Take three variables 0, 1 and 0, then

According to associative law,

(0 + 1) + 0 = 0 + (1 + 0)

1+0=0+1

1=1

Hence associative law is verified.

Hence the Associative law is proved, (A + B + C) = (A + B) +C = A + (B + C) = B + (C + A)

Associate Law of Multiplication

Statement:

Associative law of multiplication states that ANDing more than two variables i.e.
mathematical multiplication operation performed on variables will return the same value
irrespective of the grouping of variables in an equation.

The Associative law using AND operator can be written as

A * (B * C) = (A * B) * C

Distributive law

This is the most used and most important law in Boolean algebra, which involves in 2 operators:
AND, OR.

Statement1:

The multiplication of two variables and adding the result with a variable will result in
same value as multiplication of addition of the variable with individual variables.

In other words, ANDing two variables and ORing the result with another variable is
equal to AND of ORing of the variable with the two individual variables.
Distributive law can be written as

A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)

This is called OR distributes over AND.

Statement 2:

The addition of two variables and multiplying the result with a variable will result in
same value as addition of multiplication of the variable with individual variables.

In other words, ORing two variables and ANDing the result with another variable is
equal to OR of ANDing of the variable with the two individual variables.

Distributive law can be written as

A (B+C) = (A B) + (A C)

This is called AND distributes over OR.

Example:

Take three variables 0, 1 and 0, then

According to distributive law,

0 (1 + 0) = (0*1) + (0*0)

0 (1) = (0) + (0)

0=0
Commutative law

Statement:

Commutative law states that the inter-changing of the order of operands in a Boolean
equation does not change its result.

 Using OR operator → A + B = B + A
 Using AND operator → A * B = B * A

This law is also has more priority in Boolean algebra.

Example:

Take 2 variables 1 and 0, then

1+0=0+1

1=1

Similarly,

1*0=0*1

0=0
Absorption Law

Absorption law involves in linking of a pair of binary operations.

i. A+AB = A

ii. A(A+B) = A

iii. A+ĀB = A+B

iv. A.(Ā+B) = AB

3rd and 4th laws are also called as Redundancy laws.

Statement 1: A + AB = A

Proof:

A + AB = A.1 + AB → since A.1 = A

=A(1+B) → since 1 + B = 1

= A.1

=A
Statement 2:A (A + B) = A

Proof:

A (A + B) = A.A + A.B

= A+AB → since A . A = A

= A (1 + B)

= A.1

=A

Statement 3:A + ĀB = A + B

Proof:

A + ĀB = (A + Ā) (A + B) → since A+BC = (A+B)(A+C) using distributive law

= 1 * (A + B) → since A + Ā = 1

=A + B

Statement 4: A * (Ā+B) = AB

Proof: A * (Ā + B) = A. Ā + AB

= AB → since A Ā = 0

Duality Principle in Boolean algebra

Statement:

Duality principle states that “The Dual of the expression can be achieved by replacing
the AND operator with OR operator, along with replacing the binary variables, such as replacing
1 with 0 and replacing 0 with 1”.
This law explains that, replacing the variables doesn’t change the value of the Boolean function.

But while interchanging the names of the variables, we must change the binary
operators also. “If the operators and variables of an equation or function that produce no
change in the output of the equation, though they are interchanged is called “Duals”.

The Duality principle is also known as “De Morgan Duality”, which states that
‘Interchanging of Duals pairs in Boolean algebra will result in same output of the equation’.

There is one special type of operation in duality that is ‘Self-dual’.A self-dual operation
processes the input to the output, without making any changes to it. So this is also called “Do
nothing operation”.

Example:

If we have the Boolean equation like A + B = 0, then the equation formed by replacing
the variable 0 with 1 and replacing the OR operator with AND operator is A * B = 1. This means
both the Boolean functions are represents the operation of logic circuit.

As per Duality principle, if A, B are two variables then both the equations A + B = 0 and A
* B = 1 are true in case of same logic circuit.
De Morgan’s Theorem

Boolean algebra involves in binary addition, binary subtraction, binary division and
binary multiplication of binary numbers. Similar to these basic laws, there is another important
theorem in which the Boolean algebraic system mostly depends on. That is De Morgan’s law.

This can be also known as De Morgan’s theorem. This law works depending of the
concept of Duality. Duality means interchanging the operators and variables in a function, such
as replacing 0 with 1 and 1 with 0,AND operator with OR operator and OR operator with AND
operator.

De Morgan’s law is like extension of the Duality principle. De Morgan proposed 2

theorems, which will help us in solving the algebraic problems in digital electronics.

The De Morgan’s statements are,

Statement 1:

“The negation of conjunction is the disjunction of the negations”. Or we can define that
as “The compliment of the product of 2 variables is equal to the sum of the compliments of
individual variables”.

(A.B)’ = A’ + B’

Statement 2:

“The negation of disjunction is the conjunction of the negations”. Or we can define that
as “The compliment of the sum of two variables is equal to the product of the compliment of
each variable”.

(A + B)’ = A’.B’

Consensus Theorem

Consensus theorem is an important theorem in Boolean algebra, to solve and simplify

the Boolean functions.

Statement

The consensus theorem states that the consensus term of a disjunction is defined when
the terms in function are reciprocals to each other (such as A and A ̅). Consensus theorem is
defined in two statements (normal form and its dual). They are
 AB + ĀC+BC = AB+ĀC

(A+B)( Ā+C)(B+C) = (A+B)( Ā+C)

Proof of Consenus theorem

Statement 1: AB + ĀC+BC = AB+ĀC

AB+ĀC+BC = AB + ĀC + BC.1

= AB + ĀC + BC (A + Ā) → since A + Ā = 1

= AB + ĀC + ABC + ĀBC

= AB (1 + C) + ĀC (1 + B)

= AB + ĀC → since 1 + B = 1 + C = 1

Example

By using consensus theorem, prove that A’BD’ + BCD + ABC’ + AB’D = BC’D’ + AD + A’BC

So:

A’BD’ + BCD + ABC’ + AB’D = A’BD’ + BCD + ABC’ + AB’D + A’BC + BC’D’ + ABD

= AD + A’BD’ + BCD + ABC’ + A’BC + BC’D’

= AD + A’BC + BC’D’
BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logic operation. A Boolean Function is
described by an algebraic expression called Boolean expression which consists of binary
variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation symbols. Consider the following
example.

Here the left side of the equation represents the output Y. So we can state equation no. 1

Truth Table Formation

A truth table represents a table having all combinations of inputs and their corresponding
result.
It is possible to convert the switching equation into a truth table. For example, consider the
following switching equation.

The output will be high (1) if A = 1 or BC = 1 or both are 1. The truth table for this
equation is shown by Table (a). The number of rows in the truth table is 2 n where n is the
number of input variables (n=3 for the given equation). Hence there are 2 3 = 8 possible input
combination of inputs.
CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS
Canonical SoP and PoS forms

A truth table consists of a set of inputs and outputss. If there are ‘n’ input variables,
then there will be 2n possible combinations with zeros and ones. So the value of each output
variable depends on the combination of input variables. So, each output variable will have ‘1’
for some combination of input variables and ‘0’ for some other combination of input variables.
Therefore, we can express each output variable in following two ways.

 Canonical SoP form

 Canonical PoS form

Canonical SoP form

Canonical SoP form means Canonical Sum of Products form. In this form, each product
term contains all literals. So, these product terms are nothing but the min terms. Hence,
canonical SoP form is also called as sum of min terms form.
First, identify the min terms for which, the output variable is one and then do the
logical OR of those min terms in order to get the Boolean expression function corresponding to
that output variable. This Boolean function will be in the form of sum of min terms.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one
output variable.
Example

Consider the following truth table.

Inputs Output

p q r f

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

Here, the output f is ‘1’ for four combinations of inputs. The corresponding min terms
are p’qr, pq’r, pqr’, pqr. By doing logical OR of these four min terms, we will get the Boolean
function of output ff.
 Therefore, the Boolean function of output is, f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr. This is
the canonical SoP form of output, f. We can also represent this function in following two
notations.
f=m3+m5+m6+m7f=m3+m5+m6+m7

f=∑m(3,5,6,7)f=∑m(3,5,6,7)

In one equation, we represented the function as sum of respective min terms. In other
equation, we used the symbol for summation of those min terms.

Canonical PoS form

Canonical PoS form means Canonical Product of Sums form. In this form, each sum term
contains all literals. So, these sum terms are nothing but the Max terms. Hence, canonical PoS
form is also called as product of Max terms form.
First, identify the Max terms for which, the output variable is zero and then do the
logical AND of those Max terms in order to get the Boolean expression function corresponding
to that output variable. This Boolean function will be in the form of product of Max terms.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one
output variable.
Example
Consider the same truth table of previous example. Here, the output f is ‘0’ for four
combinations of inputs. The corresponding Max terms are p + q + r, p + q + r’, p + q’ + r, p’ + q +
r. By doing logical AND of these four Max terms, we will get the Boolean function of output f.
Therefore, the Boolean function of output is, f = p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+r′p+q+r′.p+q′+rp+q′+r.p′
+q+rp′+q+r. This is the canonical PoS form of output, f. We can also represent this function in
following two notations.

f=M0.M1.M2.M4f=M0.M1.M2.M4

f=∏M(0,1,2,4)f=∏M(0,1,2,4)

In one equation, we represented the function as product of respective Max terms. In

other equation, we used the symbol for multiplication of those Max terms.
The Boolean function, f = p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+r′p+q+r′.p+q′+rp+q′+r.p′+q+rp′+q+r is the
dual of the Boolean function, f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr.
Therefore, both canonical SoP and canonical PoS forms are Dual to each other.
Functionally, these two forms are same. Based on the requirement, we can use one of these
two forms.
Standard SoP and PoS forms

We discussed two canonical forms of representing the Boolean outputss. Similarly,

there are two standard forms of representing the Boolean outputss. These are the simplified
version of canonical forms.

 Standard SoP form

 Standard PoS form
We will discuss about Logic gates in later chapters. The main advantage of standard
forms is that the number of inputs applied to logic gates can be minimized. Sometimes, there
will be reduction in the total number of logic gates required.

Standard SoP form

Standard SoP form means Standard Sum of Products form. In this form, each product
term need not contain all literals. So, the product terms may or may not be the min terms.
Therefore, the Standard SoP form is the simplified form of canonical SoP form.
We will get Standard SoP form of output variable in two steps.

 Get the canonical SoP form of output variable

 Simplify the above Boolean function, which is in canonical SoP form.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output
variable. Sometimes, it may not possible to simplify the canonical SoP form. In that case, both
canonical and standard SoP forms are same.
Example
Convert the following Boolean function into Standard SoP form.
f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr
The given Boolean function is in canonical SoP form. Now, we have to simplify this Boolean
function in order to get standard SoP form.
Step 1 − Use the Boolean postulate, x + x = x. That means, the Logical OR operation with any
Boolean variable ‘n’ times will be equal to the same variable. So, we can write the last term
pqr two more times.
⇒ f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr + pqr + pqr
Step 2 − Use Distributive law for 1st and 4th terms, 2nd and 5th terms, 3rd and 6th terms.
⇒ f = qrp′+pp′+p + prq′+qq′+q + pqr′+rr′+r
Step 3 − Use Boolean postulate, x + x’ = 1 for simplifying the terms present in each
parenthesis.
 ⇒ f = qr11 + pr11 + pq11
Step 4 − Use Boolean postulate, x.1 = x for simplifying above three terms.
⇒ f = qr + pr + pq
⇒ f = pq + qr + pr
This is the simplified Boolean function. Therefore, the standard SoP form corresponding to
given canonical SoP form is f = pq + qr + pr

Standard PoS form

Standard PoS form means Standard Product of Sums form. In this form, each sum term
need not contain all literals. So, the sum terms may or may not be the Max terms. Therefore,
the Standard PoS form is the simplified form of canonical PoS form.
We will get Standard PoS form of output variable in two steps.

 Get the canonical PoS form of output variable

 Simplify the above Boolean function, which is in canonical PoS form.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one
output variable. Sometimes, it may not possible to simplify the canonical PoS form. In that
case, both canonical and standard PoS forms are same.
Example
Convert the following Boolean function into Standard PoS form.
f = p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+r′p+q+r′.p+q′+rp+q′+r.p′+q+rp′+q+r
The given Boolean function is in canonical PoS form. Now, we have to simplify this Boolean
function in order to get standard PoS form.
Step 1 − Use the Boolean postulate, x.x = x. That means, the Logical AND operation with any
Boolean variable ‘n’ times will be equal to the same variable. So, we can write the first term
p+q+r two more times.
⇒ f = p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+r′p+q+r′.p+q′+rp+q′+r.p′+q+rp′+q+r
Step 2 − Use Distributive law, x + y.zy.z = x+yx+y.x+zx+z for 1st and 4th parenthesis, 2nd and
5th parenthesis, 3rd and 6th parenthesis.
⇒ f = p+q+rr′p+q+rr′.p+r+qq′p+r+qq′.q+r+pp′q+r+pp′
Step 3 − Use Boolean postulate, x.x’=0 for simplifying the terms present in each parenthesis.
⇒ f = p+q+0p+q+0.p+r+0p+r+0.q+r+0q+r+0
Step 4 − Use Boolean postulate, x + 0 = x for simplifying the terms present in each parenthesis
⇒ f = p+qp+q.p+rp+r.q+rq+r
⇒ f = p+qp+q.q+rq+r.p+rp+r
 This is the simplified Boolean function. Therefore, the standard PoS form corresponding
to given canonical PoS form is f = p+qp+q.q+rq+r.p+rp+r. This is the dual of the Boolean
function, f = pq + qr + pr.
Therefore, both Standard SoP and Standard PoS forms are Dual to each other.

DIGITAL LOGIC GATES

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit
having one or more than one input and only one output. The relationship between the input
and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on this, logic gates are named as AND gate, OR
gate, NOT gate etc.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 An integrated circuit (IC) is fabricated on a die of a silicon semiconductor crystal, called a

chip, containing the electronic components for constructing digital gates
 The various gates are interconnected inside the chip to form the required circuit
 The chip is mounted in a ceramic or plastic container, and connections are welded to
external pins to form the integrated circuit
 The number of pins may range from 14 on a small IC package to several thousand on a
larger package

Levels of Integration

Digital ICs are often categorized according to the complexity of their circuits, as
measured by the number of logic gates in a single package. The differentiation between
those chips which have a few internal gates and those having hundreds of thousands of
gates is made by customary reference to a package as being either a small‐, medium‐,
large‐, or very large‐scale integration device.

 Small‐scale integration (SSI) devices contain several independent gates in a single

package. The inputs and outputs of the gates are connected directly to the pins in
the package. The number of gates is usually fewer than 10 and is limited by the
number of pins available in the IC.

 Medium‐scale integration (MSI) devices have a complexity of approximately 10 to

1,000 gates in a single package. They usually perform specific elementary digital
operations.

 Large‐scale integration (LSI) devices contain thousands of gates in a single package.

They include digital systems such as processors, memory chips, and programmable
logic devices.

 Very large‐scale integration (VLSI) devices now contain millions of gates within a
single package. Examples are large memory arrays and complex microcomputer
chips. Because of their small size and low cost, VLSI devices have revolutionized the
computer system design technology, giving the designer the capability to create
structures that were previously uneconomical to build.
 Digital Logic Families

Digital integrated circuits are classified not only by their complexity or logical operation,
but also by the specific circuit technology to which they belong. The circuit technology is
referred to as a digital logic family. Each logic family has its own basic electronic circuit upon
which more complex digital circuits and components are developed. The basic circuit in
each technology is a NAND, NOR, or inverter gate. Many different logic families of digital
integrated circuits have been introduced commercially. The following are the most popular:

TTL = transistor–transistor logic;

ECL = emitter‐coupled logic;

MOS = metal‐oxide semiconductor;

CMOS = complementary metal‐oxide semiconductor.

TTL – been in use for 50 years and is considered to be standard

ECL – has an advantage in systems requiring high-speed operation

MOS - suitable for circuits that need high component density

CMOS - is preferable in systems requiring low power consumption, such as digital cameras,
personal media players, and other handheld portable devices

Low power consumption is essential for VLSI design; therefore, CMOS has become the
dominant logic family, while TTL and ECL continue to decline in use.

These are the most important parameters distinguishing logic families:

 Fan‐out specifies the number of standard loads that the output of a typical gate can
drive without impairing its normal operation. A standard load is usually defined as the
amount of current needed by an input of another similar gate in the same family.
 Fan‐in is the number of inputs available in a gate.
 Power dissipation is the power consumed by the gate that must be available from the
power supply.
 Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for a signal to propagate from
input to output. For example, if the input of an inverter switches from 0 to 1, the output
will switch from 1 to 0, but after a time determined by the propagation delay of the
device. The operating speed is inversely proportional to the propagation delay.
 Noise margin is the maximum external noise voltage added to an input signal that does
not cause an undesirable change in the circuit output.