Radio Transmitters and Receivers 141

~ Identify and understand the tenns automatic frequency control (AFC) and automatic gain control
(AGC)
~ Explaing principles of AM, SSB, pil.ot carrier, TSB and FM receivers

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO COMMUNICATION

To appreciate the material described in this chapter, please refer to the basic block diagram of a communication
system given in Fig. I. i of Chapter I . The three important blocks from the electrical communication point
of view include transmitter, receiver and channel. The transmitter block collects the incoming message
and modifies it in a suiable fashion so that it can be transmitted via the chosen channel to the receiver. The
receiver block will essentially do the reverse operation of a transmitter to recover the message from the received
weak signal. The channel is tbe physical medium that connects the transmitter and receiver blocks. In case of
radio communication, the message transmission and reception take splace in the radio frequency (RF) range
(typically, MF, HF, VHF and UHF). The block diagram of a radio communication system drawn by referring
to Fig. 1.1 is given in Fig. 7. I. It consists of transmitters and receivers operating in the RF range and hence
their names are derived from those. Unless specified, free·space will be the communication channel in case
of radio communication.
The radio transmitter ls an electronic system that accepts the incoming message and converts it into a modu-
lated signal in the RF range by the modulation process, as described in the analog modulation techniques case.
The required power levels are also added to the modulated signal so that it can travel for a longer distance.
After adding enough power, the modulated signal is transmitted through the communication channel towards
the receiver. In case of free space as channel, the antenna (to be described later) is used as the transducer to
convert the modulating signal from guided to free space fonn. Thus, the important blocks of a radio transmitter
include an oscillator to generate a high-frequency carrier signal for modulation, modulator, power amplifier
and antenna.
The radio receiver is an electronic system designed in such a way to recover the message from the incom-
ing weak signal. The important operations of the radio receiver inlcude converting a received signal from
free space to guided form using a receiving antenna, selecting out only the wanted signal using the available
numerous ones in the free space, demodulating the message and delivering it to the destination in the original
fonn. The two important aspects which the receiver system has to deal with, include, the weak signal .avail-
able al its input terminal due to its travel over long distance and sev~ral signals available from many other
transmitters at its input The radio receiver should first admit only the wanted signal. Later, it should recover
the message without distortion from the admitted weak signal.

Radio
Transmitter
8 Radio
Receiver

Fig. 7.1 Block diagram of radio co1111111111icaticm system.

More commonly, the radio transmitters and receivers are named after the modulation technique employed.
Mostly, the radio transmitters and receivers employ either AM or FM and hence AM/FM transmitters/receivers
are common and are discussed in detail in the rest of the chapter.
142 Kennedy's Elec/ro11ic Co111m1micatio11 Systems

7.2 RADIO TRANSMITTERS

The incoming message signal may be in non-electrical form, for instance, a speech signal which is nothing but
acoustic pressure variation. The message signal is converted into electrical fonn using a suitable transducer. The
electrical version is the one on which the radio transmitter operates further. The first objective is to eliminate
the fundamental limitation of the message signal, that is, its inabi.lity to travel for a long distance because ofits
low frequency nature. This is achieved with the help of suitable analog modulation technique. For performing
modulation, a high-frequency carrier is needed. Thus, ao oscilator to generate a high-frequency carrier and
a modulator circuit to perfom1 modulation are the two blocks in the radio transmitter. At the next level, the
required power levels are added using power amplifiers, which is the third block. There may be multiple stages
of power amplifiers. The fourth block is the antenna that radiates the signal into the atmosphere.

7.2.1 AM Transmitters
There are two types of devices in which it may be necessary to generate amplitude modulation. The first of
these, the AM transmitter, generates such high powers that its prime requirement is efficiency, so quite com-
plex means of AM generation may be used. The other device is the laboratory AM generator. Here, AM is
produced at such a low power level that simplicity is a more important requirement than efficiency. Although
the methods of generating AM described here relate to both applications, emphasis wilt be put on methods
of generating high powers.
In an AM transmitter, amplitude modulation can be generated at any point after the radio frequency source.
As a matter of fact, even a crystal oscillator could be amplitude modulated, except that this would be an un-
necessary interference with its frequency stability. lf the output stage in a transmitter is collector modulated in
a low power transmitter, the system is called high level modulation. lfmodulation is applied at any other point,
including some other elctrode ofthe output amplifier, then so called low level modulation is produced. Naturally,
the end product of both systems is the same, but the transmitter circuit arrangements are different.
w Antenna ~;
(High-level (Low-level
+I
I
modulation) modulation) I
I
I
RF
crystal
osclllator• - Class A
RF buffer
amplifier
I---+
Class C
RF power
amplifiers --
Class C
RF
outputt
amplifier
--
Class B
RF linaar
power
amplifier
--'
I
I

•or frequen cy
synthesizer

AF AF Modulator
AF AF tor just power
0-
processing
i--- pre- ,..._... class B ,__. (AF class B amplifier, In
and power output
In amplifier low-level system
filtarlng ampllflers amplifier)

Fig. 7.2 Block dingram of a11 AM transmitter

Figure 7.2 shows a typical block diagram of an AM transmitter, which may be either low level or high
level modulated. There are a lot of common features. Both have a stable RF source and buffer amplifiers fol-
 Radio Transmittl!rS ,md Recefoers 143

lowed by RF power amplifiers. In both types of transmitters, the audio voltage is processed, or filtered, so as
to occupy the correct bandwidth (generally IO kHz), and compressed somewhat to reduce the ratio of maxi-
mum to minimum amplitude. In both modulation systems, audio and power audio frequency (AF) amplifiers
are present, culminating in the modulator amplifier, which is the highest power audio amplifier. In fact, the
only difference is the point at which the modulation talces place. To exaggerate the difference, an amplifier
is shown here following the modulated RF amplifier, i.e., class B. Remember that this would also have been
called low-level modulation if the modulated amplifier had been the final one, modulated at any electrode
other than the collector.
It follows that the higher the level of modulation, the larger the audio power required to produce modulation.
The higher-level system is definitely at a disadvantage in this regard. On the other hand, if any stage except
the output stage is modulated, each following stage must handle a sideband power as well as the carrier. All
these subsequent amplifiers must have sufficient bandwidth for the sideband frequencies. As seen in Fig. 7,2;
all these stages must be capable of handling amplitude variations caused by the modulation. Such stages must
be class A and consequently are less efficient than class C amplifiers.
Each of the systems is seen to have one great advantage; low modulating power requirements in one case,
and much more efficient RF amplification with simpler circuit desi.g n in the other. lt has been found in practice
that a collector~modulated class C amplifier tends to have better efficiency, lower distortion and much better
power-handling capabilities than a base-modulated amplifier. Because of these considerations, broadcast AM
transmitters today almost invariably use high-level modulation. Other methods may be used in low power
and miscellaneous applications, AM generators and test instruments. Broadcasting is the major application
of AM, with typical output powers ranging over several kilowatts.

7.2.2 SSB Transmitters

A conventional SSB transmitter shown in Fig. 7.3 will be very similar to that of an AM transmitter, except
for the replacement of an amplitude modulation block with SSB modulation block. The difficulty associated
with the SSB is due to the supression of a carrier component.
,, Antenna

RF Class A
crystal i--- RF buffer
oscillator amplifier - Class C
RF power
amplifiers - SSB
modulator -
AF AF Modulator
AF AF class B (AF class B
processing pre· I---+
0- and f--+ i---,,.
power output
ln amplifier amplifiers amplifier)
mterlng

Fig. 7,3 Block dir,gn1m of nn SSB transmitter

The approach followed for demodulation at the receiver is to re-insert the carrier. As can be appreciated, this
requires excellent frequency stability on the part of both transmitter and receiver, because, any frequency shift,
144 Kennedy's Electro11ic Communication Systems

anywhere along the chain of events through which the infonnation must pass, will cause an equal frequency
shift to the received signal. Imagine a 40~Hz frequency shift in a system through which three signals are being
transmitted at 200,400 and 800 Hz. Not only will they all be shifted in frequency to 160, 360 and 760 Hz,
respectively, but their relation to one another will also stop being bannonic. The result is tbat it is not possible
to tranmit good qualtiy speech or music. There are two variants of SSB that help in mitigating this carrier
stability problem, namely, pilot carrier and idependent sideband (ISB) systems.
Pilot Carrier Transmitter The technique that is widely used to solve the frequency-stability problem is
to transmit a pilot carrier with the wanted sideban~. The block diagram of such a transmitter is very similar
to the conventional SSB transmitter, with the one difference that an attenuated carrier signal is added to the
transmission after the unwanted sideband has been removed. The pilot carrier SSB system is shown in Fig.
7.4.
26dB ~ 17 Antenna
carrier
attenuator

RF
crystal .. RF buffer
.,_
Class A
~
Class C
RF power
-- SSB
modulator
,--
oscillator amplifier ampllners

AF AF AF AF Modulator
processing class B (AF class B
0- and
f---;o pre- I--->-
power
1--..
amplifier output
In tillering amplifiers amplifier)

Fig. 7.4 Block diagram of an SSB pilot carrier lra11smilter,

The carrier is normally re-inserted at a level of I 5 or 26 dB below the value it would have had if it had not
been suppressed in the first place, and it provides a reference signal to help demodulation in the receiver. The
receiver can then use an automatic frequency control (AFC) circuit to control the frequency of a carrier signal
generator inside the receiver with the help of a pilot carrier.
ISB Transmitter Multiplexing techniques are used for high~density point-to-point communications. For
low~or medium-density traffic, ISB transmission is often employed. The growth of modem communications
on many routes has been from a single HF channel, through a four-channel ISB system.
As shown in Fig. 7.5, ISB essentially consists of two SSB channels added to form two sidebands around
the reduced carrier. Each sideband is quite independent of the other. It can simultaneously convey a totally
different transmission, to the extent that the upper sideband could be used for telephony while the lower
sideband carries telei;,rraphy.
 Radio Transmiltcrs n11d Receivers 145

-- ~}------------------------ -------------
Channel A
ISB drive unit
AF
amplifier

l
Balanced
3-MHz
i-.. USB filter crystal
modulator
oscillator

l
100-kHz 26-dB
-,.. Balanced
crystal ~ carrier ---+ Adder
mixer
oscillator attenuator

!
3.1 MHz
Balanced I---+ LSB filter amplifier
modulator
and filter

i
Channel B
AF
amplifier

In !
'- - --- ------------ ----- ---- ---- -- --- ---- - -- - -
----t--- ------------ -- ----
r
r-
Linear
Balanced I
amplifiers
mixer
and P.A.
fc
l
Buffer
I
I
I
I
I

~~
and Main transmitter
multiplier
LSB USB
I
I
I
I
i I
I
I
Transmitted signal
I 7.1-26.9 MHz I
I synthesizer I
I I
L-- ---- ---- ----- --- -- ------~
Fig. 7.5 Block diagram of an 158 transmitter

Each 6-kHz channel is fed to its own balanced modulator, each balanced modulator also receiving the output
of the I 00-kHz crystal oscillator. The carrier is suppressed (by 45 dB or more) in the balanced modulator and
the following filter, the main function of the filter still being the suppression of the unwanted sideband, as in
all other SSB systems. The difference here is that while one filter suppresses the lower sideband, the other
suprcsscs the upper sideband. Both outputs are then combined in the adder witb the -26 dB carrier, so th.a t a
low-frequency ISB signal exists at this point, with a pilot carrier also present. Through mixing with the output
146 Kennedy's Electronic Communication Systems

of another crystal oscillator, the frequency is then raised to the standard value of 3.1 MHz. Note the use of
balanced mixers, to permit easier removal ofumvanted frequencies by the output filter.
The signal now leaves the drive unit and enters the main transmitter. Its frequency is raised yet again,
through mix.ing with the output of another crystal oscillator, or frequency synthesizer. This is done because
the frequency range for such transmission line in the HF band is, from 3 to 30 MHz. The resulting RF ISB
signai is then amplified by linear amplifiers, as mighc be expected, until it reaches the ultimate level. at which
point it is fed to a fairly directional antenna for trnnsmission. The typical power level at this point is generally
between IO and 60 kW peak.

7.2.3 FM Trnnsmitters
FM transmitters also work along the same lines as that ofAM transmitters described earlier. Frequency modula-
tion can be generated at any point including the radio frequency source. Accordingly, we can use either direct
or indirect method for the generation of FM. Further, FM transmitters can also classified as low-level and
high-level transmitters, depending on where the FM modulation is performed. An Armstrong FM transmitter
given in Fig. 7.6 is the most frequently used one.
NBFM WBFM ~17 Antenna

Crystal
oscillator - Phase
modulator
l 1 Freq"'"cy
multiplier
Power
amplifier -
I
Audio
source

Fig. 7.6 Block diagram of nn FM transmitter

The crystal oscilh1tor generates the stable carrier signal. The modulating signal and the carrier signal are
applied to the phase modulator operating in the low power level to generate a narrowband FM wave. The
narrowband FM wave is then passed through several stages of frequency multipliers to increase the frequency
deviation and also carrier signal frequency to the required level. The several stages of frequency multiplication
helps in choosing a suitable combination for achieving the required level of multiplication factors needed for
deviation and carrier signal frequency.
The output of the frequency multipliers stage will be a wideband FM, but at the low power level. The WBFM
is then passed through one or more stages of power amplifiers to add required power levels. The WBFM with
high power is then finally transmitted via the antenna towards the receiver.

7.3 RECEIVER TYPES

Of the various forms of receivers proposed at one time or another, only two have any rea I practical or com-
mercial significance-the tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver and the superheterodyne receiver. Only the
second of these is used to a large extent today, but it is convenient to explain the operation of the TRF receiver
first since it is the simpler oftbe two. The best way of justifying the existence and overwhelming popularity
of the superheterodync receiver is by showing the shortcomings of the TRF type.