816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

SECTION A: PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

1.
a) Sample G-1 is located in the catagenesis area of the Van Krevelen diagram. It is
situated where Type III kerogen has a low initial Hydrogen-Carbon ratio and high
initial Oxygen-Carbon atomic ratios. It is resulting from the terrestrial higher plant
debris and aquatic organic matter deposited in an oxidizing environment that creates
mostly gas (Jr. 2017).
b)

ii. The possible trap type for Fault Block A and B is a fault trap.
iii. As seen in figure 2, an oil well was drilled in Segments B at a depth of
approximately 2875. A wet well was drilled in Segment B at a depth of 2775
which was the same depth as well 1 which was successful. Oil water contacts
were determined for each Segment. By using the well 1 log, it was found that
the oil water contact was at 2900. From Segment B since a wet well was
drilled this would mean that the oil water contact would lie between the area
between the wet well and the oil well. An oil water contact was placed in
Segment C and I would assume that Segment A and C would be quite similar.
Therefore, there is a low risk that for reservoir presence in Segment C but it is
a moderate risk for a reservoir presence in Segment B.
iv. I will place a well in Segment C as seen in the figure above. I chose that
specific spot because I believe that both Segment A and Segment C share
similar features and would most have hydrocarbon in the same depth.

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Estimation for chance of success:

- Trap: high risk (0.9)
- Seal: high risk (0.9)
- Reservoir: moderate risk (0.6)
- Migration: moderate risk (0.6)
- Source: moderate risk (0.6)

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a)

Depth Facies Grain size, Sedimentary Interpretation Depositional N:G

sorting, structures environment
bed size
3525- Silts and Greyish Minor Low energy Shelf edge 20%
3524 clays with green in Bioturbation environment
minor color, very present with BI causing
sands fine of 1 deposition of
grained these muds
silts and and silts.
dark
colored
clays.
Appears to
be well
sorted
3524- Sandstones Grey in Minor Possible Continental 60%
3523.7 color, very bioturbation regressive shelf
fine present with BI event
sandstones of 1
with a
minority of
mud spots
3523.7- Silty muds Greyish No Transgressive Continental 10%
3522.2 green silts sedimentary event, low edge
in black feature energy
muds environment,
rapid
deposition
3522.2- Sands Grey Massive High energy, Continental 80%
3522 sandstones sandstones regressive shelf
with minor conditions
fractures
3522- Muds and Black Interbedded Rapid changes Continental 40%
3520.5 sands with muds with sands and in the energy shelf
silts grey sands muds, appears of the
and a bit chaotic environment,
greenish these muds
grey silts can act as
barriers to
flow
3520.5- Muds Massive Massive muds Barrier to Shelf edge 0%
3520.2 muds black flow, sealing
in color characteristics,
with a low energy
minor sand
packet

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

below it
3520.2- Sands Massive Massive sands High energy Continental 90%
3520 sand bed environment shelf
grey in
color
3520- Sand Massive Massive sands High energy Continental 90%
3519.2 sands grey environment shelf
in color
3519.2- Silts, Grey sands Interlaminated High energy Continental 75%
3517.9 sands and very fine in silts, sands and environment shelf
muds size, with muds
greyish
green silts
and minor
muds
laminations
3517.9- Muds Black Interbedded Low energy Continental -
3517 muds with muds and silts environment, shelf
interbedded with a massive barriers to
silts package of flow
muds, appears
to have
bioturbation
3517- Sands and Grey Mudstreak in High energy Continental 70%
3516.1 muds sands, very sand bed, environment, shelf
fine grain bioturbated possible
size, black with BI of 1 regression
mudstreak event
3516.1- Sands Grey Massive sands, High energy Continental 90%
3515 sands, very minor environment, shelf
fine grain bioturbation possible
size, 1ft with BI of 1 moving
thick bed shoreward
3515- Sands Grey Massive sands High energy Continental 80%
3512 sands, very with minor environment, shelf
fine in clays and silts regressive
grain size, in between conditions
black
mudstreak,
small
traces of
silts
3512- Silts and Greyish Gently dipping Muds can act Continental 50%
3511.3 sands with green silts silts and sands as baffles to shelf
mudstreak very fine with flow, the
grain size mudstreak gentle dipping
with very laminations
fine muds, can give
black in direction of
color flow

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

3511.3- Sands and Grey sands Bioturbated Bioturbation Continental 60%

3510 silt very fine beds with BI indicates that shelf
packages grain size of 2 this
with environment
greyish is suitable for
green silts organisms
3510- Sands and Grey sands Bioturated High energy Continental 60%
3509. silts with beds with BI environment shelf
greenish of 2
grey silts
very fine
grain size
3509.- Sand and Grey sands Muds display a High energy Continental 50%
3508.2 shales with and pinchout environment, shelf
mudstreak greenish feature, dips may
grey silts laminated silts indicate
with black and sands direction of
mudstreak display gentle flow
very fine dips, distinct
grain size boundary
3508.2- Sands, Grey sands Laminated High energy Continental 60%
3506 silts and very fine sands, silts and environment, shelf
muds grain size, muds, displays dips may
greenish gentle dipping indicate
grey silts, direction of
very fine flow
grain size
and minor
amounts of
muds, very
fine grain
size
3506- Sands Grey sands Massive sands High energy Continental 90%
3505.8 very fine bounded by environment shelf
grain size, thin clays
bounded by
distinct
mud
streaks
3505.8- Sands and Grey sands Interlaminated High energy Continental 80%
3505 silts with very fine sands, silts and environment, shelf
minor grain size, muds moving closer
muds greenish to the
grey silts, shoreface
very fine
grain size
3505- Sands and Grey sands Interlaminated- Gentle Continental 60%
3504 silts with and interbedded dipping can shelf
minor greenish sands and silts indicate
muds grey silts with gentle direction of

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

very fine dipping flow, high

grain size energy
environment
3504- Sands, Grey sands Interbedded Change in Continental 60%
3503 silts and and reddish sands and silts direction of shelf
minor grey silts with clays, dips may infer
muds and clays change in that the
very fine direction of environment
grain size dips is bi-
directional
3503- Sands and Grey sands Interbedded Change in Continental 60%
3501 silts with and reddish sands and silts direction of shelf
minor grey silts with clays, dips may infer
muds and clays change in that the
very fine direction of environment
grain size dips is bi-
directional
3501- Sands, Grey Interlaminated- High energy Continental 50%
3500 silts and sands, interbedded environment shelf
muds greenish sands, silts and
grey silts muds bounded
and black by distinct
muds, very unconformity
fine grain
size

2. a) The core samples display a general coarsening upward succession with major
part being planar beds as we move shoreward. As we take deeper depths we are
moving basinward, the core data began to display thicker mudstone beds. The
possible depositional environment can be a beach or shallow water marine. The
section is dominated by sands as we move shoreward. Gentle dips of beds were
seen as well as change in dip direction which may indicate that the environment is
bi-directional. The thin beds of muds may act of barriers or baffles to flow.
b) The area can be found by using the figure given. The height can be determined by
taking the depth interval of the largest sand package found in the core samples. The
porosity of sandstones ranges from about 10-40%. The water saturation can be
determined by taking the ratio of the water volume to pore volume.
c) Block 5 is valuable because it would be exposed to environments that were more
basinward where there would most likely be proper seals and traps. The reservoir
quality is expected to be better and larger sand packages are most likely to be found.

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SECTION B: PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

a) LOCATION

Area of interest

Figure 1. Trinidad and Tobago Competitive Bid Rounds Map (Industries 2018)

The block of interest is located offshore in the South-West Peninsula. It has an area of
500sq.km. The seismic survey is to be carried out entirely offshore in water depths greater
than 10m. In this block, pipelines and debris are on the sea bottom. This area is also
populated with marine organisms.

Project objective
The aim of the survey is to develop a comprehensive seismic acquisition operational plan
which details the pre-planning and execution of all the tasks needed to conduct and
successfully complete a four component-three dimensional ocean bottom cable seismic
survey will be undertaken by a seismic survey vessel located offshore in the South-West
Peninsula.

Consultation
The company would apply for special permits and clearances in advance. Meetings will be
held with the Environmental Management Authority (EMA), the Government and other
respective departments involved in obtaining environmental approval and relevant permits.
The company will present reports conducted by proper personnel dealing with the health of
marine organisms as well as the impact on the environment and workers on the rig. These
meetings will hold discussion for all impacts of nature, arrangement for a clear definition of
unplanned or accidental events, delivering a robust baseline description for the area of study
and to ensure impacts and mitigation are considered for the nearby block occupied by another
oil and gas operator.

If granted permission, a number of control methods will be applied, including informing

maritime authorities and other sea workers of the survey in advance. Given the location,
fishing activity is expected in the area. Meetings with the fellow fishermen will be conducted

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

where they will be presented with a document to sign where they must remove their boats and
exit the perimeter where the survey with be conducted for a period of time given
compensation. Survey equipment will be moved to the survey area after the completion of the
pre-mobilization checks and Health Safety and Environment reviews.

Equipment
- Air guns

Figure 2. Air gun used in offshore seismic acquisition (BP, SWAP 3D Seismic Survey 2015)

- Ocean bottom cables(OBC)

Figure 3. 4-C receiver ocean bottom cables used in seismic surveys (Suarez 2000)

- Remote operated vehicles(ROV)

-
Figure 4. H300V, Remotely operated Vehicle (ECA Group 2020)

- Source vessels
- Recording vessels
- Support vessel

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Method
Appropriate personnel will examine the area to ensure that no marine life if close by to be
affected by the airguns. If there are marine organisms close by the gun technician will let off
a never soft blast that would alert the marine life and they would evacuate. The cable will be
laid onto the seabed positioned by the RVO, and pulled straight at the positions with tension
applied on the ends. It will be positioned such that it follows the layout of Figure 6. Air guns
will be used as energy source which will be created by one vessel. The source will release a
controlled amount of energy which will travel through the water across the survey grid and
penetrate the subsurface geological layers and reflect back to the sea surface. The reflected
energy will be recorded by the receivers and can be either stored or sent to the second
recording vessel to process the data. During this survey, supporting vessels will undertake
activities which include transportation of supplies and staff to the survey vessel, relocating
waste to shore and upholding a safe barring area around the survey vessel and towed
equipment. Several source vessels will work across different water depths within the area of
interest allowing the degree and extent of data acquisition to be improved. The survey and
support vessels will function on a 24-hr basis.

Figure 5. Ocean bottom cable acquisition (SEG wiki 2018)

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

Grid

Figure 6. Layout of the ocean bottom cables

Bin size: 25m x 50m

Workforce
Roughly 150 personnel active to commence activities with 3D seismic survey will be active
at any given time, and an additional 100 employed on standby, given a total of 250 workers.

The survey crew will consist of a core team of international specialists.

Accommodation
Accommodation for employees will be provide in at local hotels but it is anticipated that local
workers will be employed to undertake survey activities and will commute from their homes
on a daily basis.

Health, Safety and Environment

- Proper disposal of waste and emissions to the Atmosphere. Main source of
atmospheric emissions during the 3D seismic survey offshore activities will be from
burning of fuel to power the engines etc.
- All personnel must wear proper PPE, it should be worn at all times.
- Employees under the influence of drugs or alcohol can pose a serious health and
safety risks to both themselves and their fellow co-workers. Therefore, alcohol and
drugs are prohibited on the premises and those found with these substances will be
suspended immediately.
- Appropriate personnel are on lookout for any marine life that may be in danger and
operations cannot continue if a marine organism is at risk. (BP, Block D-230 Seismic
Survey 2018)

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

b) Figure 7. Simplified processing flow

Demultiplexing

Gain Recovery

Static Corrections

Deconvolution

CMP Gathers Stacking

Migration

Display

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

Firstly, Demultiplexing is a type of data reorganization that produces a set of distinct field
traces for each shotpoint. Energy loss is considered as the acoustic pulse travels down into the
earth and is reflected, through attenuation, mode conversion and spherical divergence.

- Loss of energy through time/depth/distance travelled

- Energy decays by the inverse square of the distance travelled. (Schroeder 2017)
- Energy varies as 1/(radius)^2 or 1/(time)^2

Since it is known how signal strength is lost by geometric spreading from the surface source
location, we are able to apply a correction factor.

In the original data, a sample running average is done, if the average is low they increase the
gain and if the average is high they don’t increase the gain that much. The gain function that
was applied to boost the gain because there is a region with relatively low amplitude
(Schroeder 2017). The preferred is the Programmed Gain control, where the input trace gains
the section as a function of depth but we’re going to do it linearly so the deeper have been
increased in amplitude relative to shallow.

The original seismic trace consists of the convolution of the earth’s impulse response with a
wavelet, processes called deconvolution is done in an effort to remove and shorten the
propagating wavelet and wavelet shaping to replace it with a cleaner wavelet known
character. Deterministic deconvolution relies on measurements of the propagating wavelet,
however these are not always available. Predictive deconvolution uses statistical methods and
some basic assumptions about the source wavelet and series of reflection coefficients to
estimate the wavelet.

Afterwards, the next process is to stack the data. Generating CMP gathers, or groupings of
traces that share a common CMP. It is then accounted for the different source receiver
offsets. See example on Figure 8. For horizontal beds, a hyperbolic curve known as the
normal moveout or NMO can be fit to individual reflections in CMP gathers. The shape of
this curve is function of the surface velocity structure. All the reflections from a given
interface need to line up horizontally in a CMP gather to accurately stack the traces together.
After stacking, the traces corresponding to CMPs can be assembled sequentially and the
seismic data start to become recognizable as images of subsurface geology.

Figure 8. For greater offsets, the two way time increases for a given reflection in each field trace as well (Hart 2000)

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Migration is a process which has a primary goal the repositioning of reflected energy to its
true subsurface location. A secondary benefit is that migration helps to collapse diffractions.
Thirdly, migration helps to shrink the Fresnel zone. An example of migration is shown on
Figure 9

Migration is generally carried out on the data after they have been stacked. Areas where
velocity fields are complex, such as below thrust sheets or salt bodies, migration may be
carried out prior to stacking (pre stacking migration).

Figure 9. Unmigrated (a) and migrated (b) versions of a seismic transect (Hart 2000)

Once the data have been processed, they are generally considered ready for interpretation.
Seismic data (2-D and 3-D) are stored digitally and analysed on workstations or powerful
personal computers. This allows interpreters to automate certain tasks, testing multiple
hypotheses more rapidly, to directly interface with other computer applications such as
mapping packages and to perform numerical analyses that are not possible with paper
records.

Digital data and computer graphics capabilities allow interpreters to generate and interpret
variable density displays see Figure 10in this type of display different ranges of amplitudes are
assigned different colors. Generally, positive values or peaks are colored blue with stronger
positive values being darker blue. Zero values are white and negative values or troughs are
red (more negative values are darker red). With variable density displays the peaks and
troughs have approximately equal weight visually.

Figure 10. The traditional way of viewing seismic data at the top is the variable area wiggle display. At the bottom
displays a simple black-white gradational scale, with the peaks in black and troughs in white (Hart 2000)

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Figure 11. Preferred color scale of many interpreters (Hart 2000)

Post-stack processing allows the interpreter to undertake various types of processing on the
stacked and migrated data, typically with the intent of enhancing the interpretability of the
data. Various manipulations can be applied to the seismic data for instance bandpass filtering,
deconvolution, dip filtering, trace averaging. The interpreter needs to realize that generally
these operations are double-edge sword and need to be used with caution and appropriate
judgment. While they may enhance data interpretability, these methods can also remove
important information or, worse, introduce artifacts that can be mistaken for data (Hart 2000).

Figure 12. Post Stack data processing (Hart 2000)

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

c) Seismic to well tie

One of the first steps in interpreting a seismic dataset is to establish the relationship between
seismic reflections and stratigraphy. Seismic to well tie is important because it helps to
understand which reflections is connected to hydrocarbon traps.

Stratigraphic interval identification

This is done using special research of core data.

Paleontological analysis- study of organic remains to determine the age of a rock. Also
utilizing the radio-isotope techniques.

The next step is to connect the stratigraphic age of the sample with the actual geophysical
characteristics of the rock. This is done by tying the core samples with the well log. Once we
obtain how our stratigraphy and graphical boundaries are going to look on the well log we
can connect these well logs with the seismic data. To do seismic to well tie we need a certain
amount of the data. We must have density and sonic logs, selecting wavelets, checkshots or
VSP data to obtain the velocity model of the well and finally the seismic line or seismic cube
which is located nearby the well in which we got VSP, sonic and density logs. (Boris 2020)

The process can be divided into certain steps:

• The calculation of the velocity model of the well

• Calculation of reflection coefficients
• Selecting a wavelet
• Convolution of wavelets and reflection coefficients
• Comparison of the synthetic seismograms and the original seismic record.

By finding density and sonic logs, we can multiply them to obtain the log of acoustic
impedance.

Acoustic impedance is the product of the density and seismic velocity multiplication.

AI= σ*V

Once we get acoustic impedance for each layer, we can calculate reflection coefficients
which is occurring in every boundary inside the well.

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Figure 13. Acoustic Impedance in different layers , modified (Boris 2020)

Selecting a wavelet, the approximation of the pulse shape by simple formula. The most
widely used type of wavelet is Ricker because it is simple and represents the actual behaviour
of the seismic waves in the subsurface.

Figure 14. A Ricker wavelet (MathWorks 2020)

Afterwards, we take the reflection coefficients with the wavelet and obtaining the new object
which is called synthetic seismogram. It is synthetic because it was calculated and not
observed in the field. The final step is the comparison of the synthetic seismograms and the
original seismic record.

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816012749 PGSC2014 FUNDAMENTAL PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM GEOPHYSICS

SECTION C: GEOMECHANICS

Y-intercept= So=40

Φ=340

Using points (0,40) and (-60,0)

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜇𝑖 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
40−0
𝜇𝑖 = = 2/3
0−(−60)

Using equation to determine the unconfined compressive strength, Co= 2So[(μi2 + 1)1/2 + μi]
1
2 2 2 2
𝐶𝑜 = 2 ∗ 40[{(3) + 1} + 3] =149.48

𝜋 ∅ 180 34
𝛽=4+ 2
= 4
+ 2 =620

Given:

Ρf=24MPa

σh=26.8MPa

To=6.5MPa

[2(𝜎ℎ−𝜌𝑓)−𝐶𝑜] [2(2.8)−149.48]
𝜌𝑤, 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌𝑓 + 1+tan2 𝛽)
= 24 + 1+tan2 62
= −7.71 MPa

Ρfracw,max= 2𝜎ℎ − 𝜌𝑓 + 𝑇0 = 2(26.8) − 24 + 6.5 = 36.1MPa

From the calculations above, the safe mud window is between -7.71MPa to 36.1MPa.

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Bibliography
Seismic to well tie. Performed by Platov Boris. 2020.

BP. “Block D-230 Seismic Survey.” Environmental & Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 2018.

—. SWAP 3D Seismic Survey. November 2015. https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/country-

sites/en_az/azerbaijan/home/pdfs/esias/swap/project-des.pdf (accessed 05 28, 20).

ECA Group. 2020. https://www.ecagroup.com/en/solutions/h300v-rov-remotely-operated-vehicle.

Hart, Bruce S. 3-D Seismic Interpretation: A Primer for Geologists. 71st Street Tulsa, U.S.A.: SEPM
(Society for Sedimentary Geology), 2000.

Industries, Ministry of Energy and Energy. “Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.”
2018. http://www.energy.gov.tt/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Trinidad-and-Tobago-
Competitive-Bid-Rounds-2018-Map.pdf (accessed 05 28, 2020).

Jr., Harry Dembicki. PRACTICAL PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY FOR EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION.
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 2017.

MathWorks. 2020. https://www.mathworks.com/help/wavelet/ref/mexihat.html.

Lesson 17- Seismic Processing. Performed by Dr. Fred Schroeder. 2017.

SEG wiki. 18 March 2018. https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/File:OBSgraphic1.gif.

Suarez, Carlos Rodriguez. Advanced Marine Seismic Methods:Ocean-Bottom and Vertical Cable
Analyses. February 2000.
https://www.crewes.org/ResearchLinks/GraduateTheses/2000/Rodriguez-PhD-2000.pdf
(accessed 5 28, 2020).

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