LECTURE 04

SOIL EXPLORATION (GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION)

The different type of geophysical exploration are:

-Seismic refraction survey

-Seismic reflection survey

-Cross-hole seismic survey

-Resistivity survey

SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY

• Seismic refraction survey is used to determine wave

propagation velocities through various soil layers. In the field
and to obtain the thickness of each soil layer.

• Seismic refraction surveys are conducted by impacting the soil

surface either by hammer or by a small explosive charge.

• The impact on the ground creates two types of stress wave: P-

waves (plane wave) and S wave (shear wave).

• P-waves travels faster than S-waves. Thus, the first arrival

waves is related to the velocities of the P-waves in various
layers.
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 Typical Seismic Refraction Response of Soil Layer

Fig. 1: Seismic refraction response of a soil

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Generation of Refraction Equations

Fig.2: Typical seismic refraction response of a three layer soil

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𝑉𝑃3 > 𝑉𝑃2 > 𝑉𝑃1 This condition means that the velocity of the P-wave
increases as we go deep down the soil medium.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼3
= 1
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2

If 𝛼2 = 900 then 𝛼1 is called critical angle. If 𝛼3 is substituted with 900 then

the equation 1 becomes:
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼1 𝑆𝑖𝑛900 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼1 1
= = =
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
∴ The critical angle becomes
𝑉𝑃1 = 𝑉𝑃2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼1
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼1 = ∴ 𝛼1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃2
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After a certain distance, the refraction rays that will arrival in the receiver.

This distance is called refractive distance.

Critical distance (𝑋𝐶 )

If 𝑋 < 𝑋𝐶 → direct ray will be received first

If 𝑋 > 𝑋𝐶 → refractive ray will be received before direct ray.

If 𝑋 > 𝑋𝐶 → both the rays will received at the same time.

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 Fig.3: Typical seismic refraction response of a two layer soil
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Time require for direct ray from A to C Length >10m

𝑋𝑚
𝑡𝑑 = 2
𝑉𝑃1

Time required for direct ray from A to C via B+D

𝐻
𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐
𝐻
𝐶𝐷 =
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑋𝑚 − (𝐶𝐸 + 𝐴𝐹 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑋𝑚 − (𝐻1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐 + 𝐻1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐 )
𝑋𝑚 − 2𝐻1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐷 𝐷𝐶
𝑡𝑅 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑇𝑂 𝐶 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝐵 + 𝐷 ) = + +
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1
𝐻1 𝑋𝑚 − 2𝐻1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐 𝐻1
𝑡𝑅 = + + (3)
𝑉𝑃1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐
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 𝑉𝑃1
Now, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐 = = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼1
𝑉𝑃2

Recall from Trigonometry ratio: 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1, 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = √1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Now: 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃, √1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼𝑐

∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐 = √1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼𝑐
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1 2
Recall that: 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐 = , ∴ 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼𝑐 = ( )
𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃2

2
𝑉𝑃1 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑐 =
𝑉𝑃2 2

𝑉𝑃1 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐 = √1 −
𝑉𝑃2 2
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𝑉𝑃2 2 𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2

=√ − =√
𝑉𝑃2 2 𝑉𝑃2 2 𝑉𝑃2 2

√𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐 =
𝑉𝑃2

𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃2
×𝑉𝑃2
Now: 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐 = = =
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐 √𝑉𝑃2 2 −𝑉𝑃1 2 √𝑉𝑃2 2 −𝑉𝑃1 2
𝑉𝑃2

𝑉𝑃1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐 =
√𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2
Substitute for all the values in equation 3
𝐻1 𝑋𝑚 2𝐻1 𝑉𝑃1 𝐻1
𝑡𝑅 = + − +
√𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑉𝑃2 √𝑉 2 − 𝑉 2
√𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2
𝑃2 𝑃1
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1
𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃2
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 𝑉𝑃2 𝐻1 𝑋𝑚 2𝐻1 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝐻1
∴ 𝑡𝑅 = + − +
𝑉𝑃1 √𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑉𝑃2 √𝑉 2 − 𝑉 2
𝑉𝑃1 √𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2
𝑃2 𝑃1

Multiplying 2 with throughout the equation on both the numerator and

denominator for the common terms
𝑉𝑃2 𝐻1 × 2 𝑋𝑚 2𝐻1 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝐻1 × 2
+ − +
2 × 𝑉𝑃1 √𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑉𝑃2 √𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2 2 × 𝑉𝑃1 √𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2

Collect the like terms together and leave the rest inside the bracket

𝑋𝑚 2𝐻1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2

= + [ − + ]
𝑉𝑃2 √𝑉 2 − 𝑉 2 2𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 2𝑉𝑃1
𝑃2 𝑃1
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𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃2
Add +
2𝑉𝑃1 2𝑉𝑃1

𝑉𝑃2 +𝑉𝑃2 2𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃2

= =
2𝑉𝑃1 2𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1

𝑋𝑚 2𝐻1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1

= + [ − ]
𝑉𝑃2 √𝑉 2 − 𝑉 2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
𝑃2 𝑃1

𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2

𝑋𝑚 2𝐻1 𝑉𝑃2 2 − 𝑉𝑃1 2

𝑡𝑅 = + [ ] (4)
𝑉𝑃2 √𝑉 2 − 𝑉 2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
𝑃2 𝑃1

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At critical distance td=tR

𝑋𝑐 𝑋𝑐 1 1
= + 2𝐻1 √ 2 −
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 2

1 1 1 1
2𝐻1 √ 2− = 𝑋𝑐 ( − )
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2

To simplify this equation further, by making H1 the subject of the formula

1 1
𝑋𝑐 ( − )
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
𝐻1 =
1 1
2√ 2 −
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 2
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Recall that: 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)

2
1 1 √( 1 − 1 )
𝑋𝑐 ( − ) 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
= =
2 2 2 1 1 1 1
√( + ) × √( − )
√( 1 ) − ( 1 ) 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2

1 1 1 1
𝑋𝑐 √( − ) √( − )
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
=
2 1 1 1 1
√( + ) × √( − )
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2

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 √𝑎 𝑎
Recall that: =√
√𝑏 𝑏

1 1 1 1
√(
𝑋𝑐 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 ) 𝑋𝑐 (𝑉𝑃1 − 𝑉𝑃2 )
−
= √
2 1 1 2 1 1
√( + ) ( )
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2

1 1 𝑉𝑃2 − 𝑉𝑃1
( − )=
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 × 𝑉𝑃2

1 1 𝑉𝑃2 + 𝑉𝑃1
( + )=
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃1 × 𝑉𝑃2

𝑉𝑃2 − 𝑉𝑃1
𝑋𝑐 𝑉𝑃1 × 𝑉𝑃2
= √
2 𝑉𝑃2 + 𝑉𝑃1
𝑉𝑃1 × 𝑉𝑃2

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𝑋𝑐 𝑉𝑃2 − 𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1 − 𝑉𝑃2

∴ √ ×
2 𝑉𝑃1 × 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉𝑃2 + 𝑉𝑃1

𝑋𝑐 𝑉𝑃2 − 𝑉𝑃1
𝐻1 = √
2 𝑉𝑃1 + 𝑉𝑃2

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 Graphically velocity of each soil layer can be determined using slope
method

Fig.4 Graphically presentation of refractive velocity

1 1
If 𝑋𝑐 = 0, 𝑜𝑟 𝑋 = 0 then 𝑡𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑡1 = 2𝐻1 √ 2 − 2
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1

Thickness of the first and second layer 16

1 1
If 𝑋𝑐 = 0, 𝑜𝑟 𝑋 = 0 then 𝑡𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑡1 = 2𝐻1 √ 2 − 2
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1

Thickness of the first and second layer

Seismic reflection survey

Fig.5 Typical presentation of reflection survey

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 𝑋𝑚
Time required td from A to C = (5)
𝑉𝑃1

(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶)
𝑡𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐶 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑏
𝑉𝑃1

𝑋𝑚
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
2×𝐻
2
𝑋𝑚
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = √𝐻 2 + ( )
2

2 𝑋𝑚 2
𝑡= √𝐻 + ( )
2
𝑉𝑃1 2
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Simplify by making H the subject of the formula:

2
4 𝑋𝑚 2 2
𝑡 = [𝐻 + ( ) ]
𝑉𝑃1 2 2
Opene up the bracket, by using multiplication ratio:
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐

2
4𝐻 2 4 𝑋𝑚
𝑡 = 2+ 2×
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃1 4

2
4𝐻 2 𝑋𝑚 2
𝑡 = +
𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑉𝑃1 2

𝑡 2 4𝐻 2 + 𝑋𝑚 2
=
1 𝑉𝑃1 2

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 𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑡 2 = 4𝐻 2 + 𝑋𝑚 2

𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑡 2 = 4𝐻 2 + 𝑋𝑚 2

𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑡 2 − 𝑋𝑚 2 = 4𝐻 2

𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑡 2 − 𝑋𝑚 2
𝐻=√
4

𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑡 2 − 𝑋𝑚 2 1
𝐻=√ = √𝑉𝑃1 2 𝑡 2 − 𝑋𝑚 2
2 2

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Graphical

Fig.6 Graphically presentation of reflective velocity

2𝐻
at 𝑋 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝑡0 = → 𝐻 = 1⁄2 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑃1
𝑉𝑃1
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 CROSS-HOLE SEISMIC SURVEY
• The velocity of shear waves created as the result of an impact to a given
soil layer can be effectively determine by cross-hole seismic survey

• A vertical impulse is created at the bottom of the bore hole by means of

an impulse rod.
• The shear waves are generated and can be recorded by a vertical
sensitive transducer.

• Cross-hole seismic survey is usually use if the velocity of the higher depth
soil layer is lower compared to the velocity of the lower depth soil layer.

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 Electrical Resistivity Survey

Resistivity survey procedures

• Four electrodes are driven into the ground and spaced equally along a
straight line (Wenner method).
• Two outside electrodes are used to send an electrical current, I into the
ground (typical range of 50 – 100 million amperes).

• The voltage, V is measured between the two inside electrodes

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If the soil is not homogeneous, the electrode spacing d, can be changed.

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 Soil Exploration Report

After the insitu and laboratory investigation of the soil the geotechnical
engineer, prepares the investigation report. Thus, the investigation report
should contain the following :

• The scope of the investigation

• A description of the proposed structure
• A description of the location of the site
• Geological setting of the site
• Details of the field exploration: Number of boring, depth of boring, type of
boring.
• Water table location
• Foundation recommendation: type of foundations allowable bearing
capacity etc.
• Conclusions and limitations.
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Graphical Presentations

Site location map

• A plan view of the location of the boring with respect to the proposed
structure and those existing nearby.
• Laboratory/field test results
• Boring log
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The soil exploration report will be submitted in design office for foundation design purposes.
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