BIO3119- Marine & Coastal Ecology

Lecture 7: Coastal Habitats & Organisms

Lecturer: Mark Ram
 Introduction
• Coastal habitats—areas both along and close to
marine shorelines.
• They help mitigate the impacts of climate change
by storing carbon and buffering the effects of
floods and storms and provide a range of other
services to different organisms.
• Conserving these habitats is vital for protecting
shorelines, feeding and sheltering marine life,
and lessening the effects of climate change, an
effort that must also include reducing global
carbon emissions.
• There are four types of coastal habitat:
mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass meadows,
and coral reefs.
 Seagrasses
• Seagrasses are submerged flowering plants
found in shallow marine waters, such as bays
and lagoons and along the continental shelf
• Seagrasses are so-named because most species
have long green, grass-like leaves.
• They are often confused with seaweeds, but are
more closely related to the flowering plants that
you see on land.
Seagrasses
 Seagrasses
Distribution
• Seagrasses grow in salty and brackish (semi-salty) waters around the
world, typically along gently sloping, protected coastlines.
• Because they depend on light for photosynthesis, they are most
commonly found in shallow depths where light levels are high.
• Many seagrass species live in depths of 3 to 9 feet, but the deepest
growing seagrass (Halophila decipiens) has been found at depths of 190
feet (58 meters).
• While most coastal regions are dominated by one or a few seagrass
species, regions in the tropical waters of the Indian and western Pacific
oceans have the highest seagrass diversity with as many as 14 species.
• Antarctica is the only continent without seagrasses.
Sea Grasses
 Seagrasses
Biodiversity
• There are 72 species of seagrasses.
• Their common names, like eelgrass, turtle grass,
tape grass, shoal grass, and spoon grass, reflect
their many shapes and sizes and roles.
• The tallest seagrass species—Zostera
caulescens—was found growing to 35 feet (7
meters) in Japan.
• Some seagrass species are quick growing while
others grow much more slowly.
• These distinct structures and growth forms affect
how seagrasses influence their environment and
what species live in the habitats they create.
Seagrasses
 Sea Grasses
Seagrass fauna
• Infauna: bury in sediment.
– Polychaete worms, amphipods, clams, benefit from root
and rhizome mat which protects from predators
– deeper-living animals survive better than shallow-living
(Mercenaria > Chione)
• Epifauna: Live on the surface of blades and sediment
– Meiofauna (harpacticoid copepods), macrofauna
(amphipods. isopods), tube-dwelling sessile polychaetes,
gastropods, decapods
– Shoot and leaf complexity provides refuge
• Mobile fauna: Live in water over the canopy
– fishes swim above the canopy, dive into it when a
predator attacks.
 Salt Marshes
• A salt marsh is a wetland area located between the land and the ocean.
• Salt marshes are characterized by plants that can handle regular tidal
flooding by saltwater; different types of plants are located in zones
called upper marsh, high marsh, and low marsh.
• Salt marshes are highly productive systems that produce more basic
food energy per acre than any other known ecosystem, including
tropical rain forests and freshwater wetlands.
• Unfortunately, in the past 300 years: more than half of salt marshes
have been destroyed and most of the remaining marshes have been
damaged by human activity.
 Salt Marshes
Establishment
• There is a requirement for some admixture of silt. Thus the early stages
of marsh development occur in high beach-level mud and silty sand.
• These areas tend to be flat and slow-draining-features which favour the
formation of a surface film or mat consisting of protists, prokaryotes and
filamentous algae.
• The two genera which are most prominent as pioneer saltmarsh plants
are Salicornia, often known as glasswort, samphire or pickle-weed, and
Spartina or cord-grass.
 Salt Marshes
• Spartina is a 'prosperous' grass genus, with fifteen
or more species, specializing in saltmarsh life.
• Several of the species are primary colonizers in
marsh formation.
• These plants can withstand long periods of
submergence but this inhibits flowering.
• Cold winters can check growth severely.
• Once established, Spartina can spread rapidly by
its underground tiller system; the plants also have
deep anchor roots.
 Salt Marsh Zonation
• Salt marshes can be extremely difficult places to live because of wide
daily fluctuations in salinity, water, temperature, and oxygen.
• Few plants have evolved adaptations to cope with the extreme conditions
of salt marshes.
• Plant zonation in a salt marsh results from species-specific adaptations
to physical and chemical conditions.
• Bands of tall grasses inhabit the saturated banks of creeks and bays,
and this zone is bordered by a flat "meadow" of grasses and sedges that
may extend landward for a great distance before transitioning into upland
habitats where there is a greater diversity of shrubs, flowering plants, and
grasses.
 Salt Marsh Zonation
The Low Marsh
• The low marsh is located along the seaward
edge of the salt marsh. It is usually flooded at
every tide and exposed during low tide.
• It tends to occur as a narrow band along creeks
and ditches, whereas the high marsh is more
expansive and is flooded less frequently.
• The predominant plant species found in the low
marsh is the tall form of smooth cordgrass
(Spartina alterniflora).
• This species can reach a height of six feet and
is very tolerant of daily flooding and exposure.
 Salt Marsh Zonation
The High Marsh
• The high marsh lies between the low marsh and
the marsh’s upland border.
• It can be very expansive in some areas,
sometimes extending hundreds of yards inland
from the low marsh area.
• Soils in the high marsh are mostly saturated,
and the high marsh is generally flooded only
during higher than average high tides.
• Plant diversity is low (usually less than 25
species), with the dominant species being the
grasses and rushes.
Salt Marsh Zonation
Guyana’s Salt Marshes
 Salt Marsh Flora & Fauna
• Fiddler crabs
• Invertebrates
• Birds
 Salt Marshes
• Human activity has altered salt marshes through tidal flow restrictions,
stormwater outfalls, inadequate buffers and historic fill.
• When tidal waters are not allowed to drain properly from the marsh,
marsh plants drown and die.
• Their demise leads to a loss of marsh elevation and the creation of open
water, which doesn’t support marine life the way marshes do.
• Additionally, pools of stagnant water on the marsh surface provide
excellent breeding ground for mosquitoes. Historic fill increases the
elevation of the marsh, allowing invasive plants to outcompete native
plants.
 Mangroves
• Mangroves are an ecological group of flowering
halophytic shrubs and trees belonging to
several unrelated families, and the complete
community or association of plants which fringe
sheltered tropical shores.
• A recognizable feature of some mangrove trees
are their roots—tangled, clumped together, and
growing above the shorelines.
• Mangrove forests can store three to five times
more carbon in their soil than tropical
rainforests.
• All 80 or so species of mangrove trees are
found in tropical and subtropical equatorial
regions.
 Mangroves
• Their emergent, evergreen canopies are
inhabited by a variety of terrestrial animals
including insects, birds and arboreal
mammals.
• These roots buffer coastlines from storm
surges, tides, waves, and currents; make ideal
nursery grounds for groupers, snapper, and
some species of sharks; and provide
protection for smaller fish from their predators.
 Mangroves Zonation
• One of the most distinctive features of mangrove vegetation is the
occurrence of species or groups of species in discrete bands or zones
running across the marine-terrestrial environmental gradient.
• Each zone is typically dominated by a single species.
• No universal zonation scheme exists.
• Species composition varies and even whole zones may be transposed
between one area and another. In areas where mangroves are restricted
in an area no zonation patterns may be discernible.
• Numerous physical and biological factors have been regarded as
important determinants of mangrove zonation such as tidal regime,
salinity, climate, anthropogenic activities, etc.
Mangrove Zonation
 Mangrove Zonation

Zonation patterns of mangrove in the Guianas (Augustinus, 1978)

 Mangrove Adaptations
• Mangroves exhibit numerous physiological and structural adaptations to
their unusual physical environment.
• Consequently, they provide one of the most remarkable examples within
the plant kingdom of convergent evolution between several
taxonomically unrelated groups living within the same habitat.
• Mangroves become established on sedimentary shores where wave
action is minimal.
• The lack of vigorous water movement results in the gradual
accumulation of fine-grained muds, a process which is subsequently
enhanced by the mangroves themselves.
• Mangroves must, therefore, be adapted not only to salinity stress but
also the growth in waterlogged, anoxic sediments.
 Mangrove Adaptations
• All mangroves have evolved a system of shallow, laterally-spreading
cable roots.
• This underground system is richly supplied with finer anchor and
absorptive roots.
• Above-ground roots are of two main types-pneumatophores (e.g.
Avicennia) and prop roots (e.g. Rhizophora mangle).
Mangrove Adaptations
 Mangrove Adaptations
• Mangroves have several ways of controlling salt concentration and it is
perhaps not surprising that different species will vary in their salinity
tolerances, with consequential implications for local distribution patterns.
• Many mangroves (e.g. Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops) are viviparous,
having unusual 'seeds' that germinate whilst still attached to the tree.
 Guyana’s Mangroves
• Three dominant species with several associates.
 Guyana’s Mangrove Associates

Acrostichum aureum Acrostichum danaeifolium Hibiscus tiliaceus Conocarpus erecta

 Coral Reefs
• The most recognizable corals are those that form hard calcium carbonate
skeletons using the chemicals found in seawater. However, there are soft
coral species such as sea whips and sea fans.
• The biggest coral reefs are thousands of years old and usually thrive in
warm, shallow water where they receive plenty of sunlight.
• Much like seagrass meadows, mangrove forests, and salt marshes, coral
reefs are home to numerous species.
• In addition to providing critical nursery and rich feeding grounds for a
wealth of marine species, they also help to buffer coastlines from severe
storms and flooding.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Sand Dunes
• Coastal dunes, like saltmarshes, result from the
stabilization of transported sediment by
vegetation.
• They are formed from wind-blown sand rather
than from water-moved silt.
• The formation of dunes is a dynamic (constantly
changing) process.
• There are different stages in the process that
forms dunes – a quiet stage, an erosion stage
and an accretion stage.
• The process is sometimes called the cut and fill
cycle.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Sand Dune Formation
• The deposition of sand must take place quicker than the obstruction
material is eroded to enable build-up of sand.
• There must be an abundant supply of sand transported to the beach from
longshore drift.
• There must be a huge range between high and low tides so that when the
tide subsides, a large area of land is exposed and can dry out to enable
the wind to pick up the sediments.
• Energy for movement, which is strong winds to transport sand particles.
However, dunes can also form underwater in rivers.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Sand Dune Formation
• An obstructer or obstacle, for example, a piece of wood or rock to allow
accumulation of sand. Areas with sparse vegetation tend to form many
dunes.
• Dry climate: Moisture usually causes grains of sand to bond together.
• Large grains present challenges during wind transportation.
• Additionally, moisture helps plant growth.
• Plant growth stabilizes loose sediment and stops its movement.
Other Coastal Habitats
Other Coastal Habitats
 Other Coastal Habitats
• The strong wind transports sand in any of the 3 ways:
Saltation
• Here, the sand moves in a turbulent flow or bouncing fashion slightly
above the ground. Approximately 95% of sand grains flown by the wind
move this way.
Suspension
• This is where sand grains are blown high up in the air and later settle.
Approximately 1% of sand blown by the wind moves this way.
Creep
• This is a process whereby sand grains collide with other grains (gravel
or clay) prompting them to move. About 45% of sand movement utilizes
this kind of movement.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Sand dune fauna
• Dune vegetation provides a resource for terrestrial
animals.
• Some dune meadows are grazed by domestic cattle
but the dominant herbivore is often the rabbit.
• A large range of invertebrates occurs in dune systems.
• Foredunes are the least suitable habitat because of
their aridity and considerable temperature fluctuations.
• Some thick-shelled snails benefit from the high calcium
availability and can escape the worst temperature
stress by attaching to marram above the sand surface.
• The insect community, particularly of beetles, wasps,
flies and, consequently, the spider fauna is extensive.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Shingle beaches
• Shingle is a convenient word for sediment
particles intermediate in size between sand and
boulders.
• It forms similar coastal structures to those
constructed of sand, for example, long beaches,
offshore bars and islands.
• Shingle spits tend to occur at corners where the
coastline changes direction abruptly.
• They often have a recurved end due to wave
refraction.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Shingle beaches
• Their intertidal zone is rather barren because of
particle instability, but vegetation often occurs at or
above the high-tide mark.
• Low nutrient and water availability add to the
problem of instability, and those three factors,
together with sediment composition, are important
in determining the flora.
• Where conditions are minimal for plant survival an
extensive lichen cover may develop; with additional
resources various annual species-often those which
are found on beach drift lines-are able to flourish.
• Perennial species occur where there is sufficient
admixture of finer sediment and greater stability.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Grassland and heath
• Maritime grasslands do not necessarily show much
difference from those inland.
• They usually contain some salt-tolerant plants and
these may be important as a stock from which
marshes, dunes and shingle areas can be colonized.
• Where marked differences occur they are mainly due
to the climatic influence of the sea and/or to high
ground inland which generally means milder and
wetter coastal weather.
• Shell debris is often present, particularly in emerging
and accreting coastlines, hence the flora may include
many lime-loving plants, for example, cowslip,
harebell and common centaury in the British Isles.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Grassland and heath
• Similarly the grassland may be rich in snail
species; for example, the heath or dune snail
Helicella italla is found on inland chalk -down in
southern England but further north is restricted to
coastal areas.
• Various other invertebrate groups are common in
maritime grassland; they include bushcrickets,
grasshoppers, ants and lepidopterans.
• The machair of the Scottish Western Isles is a
herb-rich coastal grassland initially accreted by
marram succeeded by nitrogen-fixing trefoils
(Trifolium and Lotus spp.).
 Other Coastal Habitats
Grassland and heath
• Coastal heaths develop in areas with acidic or
neutral soils and are often a late seral or zonal
stage in dune development. They also occur on in
stable shingles on cliff tops.
• Such heaths are dominated by ericaceous
species, some of these being of limited coastal
distribution (as is some of the other heath flora).
 Other Coastal Habitats
Cliffs
• Cliffs are near vertical or extremely vertical rock
exposed from the surface.
• The main processes through which cliffs are
formed are erosion, weathering, and tectonic
activity.
• Cliffs are a common feature on the coastal
lines, mountainous regions, escarpments, and
along the river banks.
• Cliffs are found on embayed and plains coasts.
In the latter case, the cliffs are likely to be low
and to consist of relatively uncompacted
material.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Cliffs
• They are liable to slipping and to rapid storm
erosion.
• The fauna and flora, therefore, reflect the frequency
of cliff-face destruction and will be derived mainly
from the clifftop habitat.
• More stable cliffs may develop a bog or marsh-like
vegetation.
• Rocky cliffs, especially when high and ledged,
provide an extensive wildlife refuge and often have
seabird colonies.
 Other Coastal Habitats
Cliffs
• Towards the upper cliff edge, the species
composition merges into the local clifftop
vegetation.
• Only a few ferns and mosses are sufficiently salt-
tolerant for sea-cliff life, but a few such as
Asplenium marinum are characteristic of this
habitat.
• Some of the plant species which flourish in the
rich soil built up by weathering, plant decay and
bird droppings include forms that are rare
elsewhere because of grazing and predation
pressure.
 References & Attributions
• Castro P. and Huber, M. (2016) Marine Biology. McGraw-Hill Education, 2
Penn Plaza, New York, USA.
• https://blog.nature.org/science/2017/02/17
• https://www.conservation.org/act/share-the-facts-about-mangroves
• https://www.earthrangers.com/wildwire/omg-facts/carbon-capturing-mangroves-2/
• https://www.pinterest.com/pin/685180530777856659/
• https://www.flickr.com/photos/jbfriday/27581328769
• https://extremeplants.org/species/acrostichum-spp/
• https://narei.org.gy/departments/mangroves/
• https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Selected-coastal-habitats_fig2_305324604
• https://plantlife.love-
wildflowers.org.uk/wildflower_garden/grow_in_the_garden/harebell
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• http://anpsa.org.au/APOL13/mar99-5c.html
• https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/habitats/coastal