Week 1

June 3, 2020

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1 The Python Programming Language: Functions

add_numbers is a function that takes two numbers and adds them together.
add_numbers updated to take an optional 3rd parameter. Using print allows printing of mul-
tiple expressions within a single cell.

In [ ]: def add_numbers(x, y):

return x + y

add_numbers(1, 3)

In [ ]: def add_numbers(x,y,z=None):
if (z==None):
return x+y
else:
return x+y+z

print(add_numbers(1, 2))
print(add_numbers(1, 2, 3))

add_numbers updated to take an optional flag parameter.

In [ ]: def add_numbers(x, y, z=None, flag=False):

if (flag):
print('Flag is true!')
if (z==None):
return x + y
else:
return x + y + z

print(add_numbers(1, 2, flag=True))

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 Assign function add_numbers to variable a.

In [ ]: def add_numbers(x,y):
return x+y

a = add_numbers
a(1,2)

# The Python Programming Language: Types and Sequences

Use type to return the object’s type.

In [ ]: type('This is a string')

In [ ]: type(None)

In [ ]: type(1)

In [ ]: type(1.0)

In [ ]: type(add_numbers)

Tuples are an immutable data structure (cannot be altered).

In [ ]: x = (1, 'a', 2, 'b')

type(x)

Lists are a mutable data structure.

In [ ]: x = [1, 'a', 2, 'b']

type(x)

Use append to append an object to a list.

In [ ]: x.append(3.3)
print(x)

This is an example of how to loop through each item in the list.

In [ ]: for item in x:
print(item)

Or using the indexing operator:

In [ ]: i=0
while( i != len(x) ):
print(x[i])
i = i + 1

Use + to concatenate lists.

In [ ]: [1,2] + [3,4]

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 Use * to repeat lists.

In [ ]: [1]*3

Use the in operator to check if something is inside a list.

In [ ]: 1 in [1, 2, 3]

Now let’s look at strings. Use bracket notation to slice a string.

In [ ]: x = 'This is a string'
print(x[0]) #first character
print(x[0:1]) #first character, but we have explicitly set the end character
print(x[0:2]) #first two characters

This will return the last element of the string.

In [ ]: x[-1]

This will return the slice starting from the 4th element from the end and stopping before the
2nd element from the end.

In [ ]: x[-4:-2]

This is a slice from the beginning of the string and stopping before the 3rd element.

In [ ]: x[:3]

And this is a slice starting from the 4th element of the string and going all the way to the end.

In [ ]: x[3:]

In [ ]: firstname = 'Christopher'
lastname = 'Brooks'

print(firstname + ' ' + lastname)

print(firstname*3)
print('Chris' in firstname)

split returns a list of all the words in a string, or a list split on a specific character.

In [ ]: firstname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[0] # [0] selects the first ele
lastname = 'Christopher Arthur Hansen Brooks'.split(' ')[-1] # [-1] selects the last ele
print(firstname)
print(lastname)

Make sure you convert objects to strings before concatenating.

In [ ]: 'Chris' + 2

In [ ]: 'Chris' + str(2)

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 Dictionaries associate keys with values.

In [ ]: x = {'Christopher Brooks': '[email protected]', 'Bill Gates': '[email protected]'}

x['Christopher Brooks'] # Retrieve a value by using the indexing operator

In [ ]: x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson'] = None

x['Kevyn Collins-Thompson']

Iterate over all of the keys:

In [ ]: for name in x:
print(x[name])

Iterate over all of the values:

In [ ]: for email in x.values():

print(email)

Iterate over all of the items in the list:

In [ ]: for name, email in x.items():

print(name)
print(email)

You can unpack a sequence into different variables:

In [ ]: x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', '[email protected]')

fname, lname, email = x

In [ ]: fname

In [ ]: lname

Make sure the number of values you are unpacking matches the number of variables being
assigned.

In [ ]: x = ('Christopher', 'Brooks', '[email protected]', 'Ann Arbor')

fname, lname, email = x

# The Python Programming Language: More on Strings

In [ ]: print('Chris' + 2)

In [ ]: print('Chris' + str(2))

Python has a built in method for convenient string formatting.

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In [ ]: sales_record = {
'price': 3.24,
'num_items': 4,
'person': 'Chris'}

sales_statement = '{} bought {} item(s) at a price of {} each for a total of {}'

print(sales_statement.format(sales_record['person'],
sales_record['num_items'],
sales_record['price'],
sales_record['num_items']*sales_record['price']))

# Reading and Writing CSV files

Let’s import our datafile mpg.csv, which contains fuel economy data for 234 cars.

• mpg : miles per gallon

• class : car classification
• cty : city mpg
• cyl : # of cylinders
• displ : engine displacement in liters
• drv : f = front-wheel drive, r = rear wheel drive, 4 = 4wd
• fl : fuel (e = ethanol E85, d = diesel, r = regular, p = premium, c = CNG)
• hwy : highway mpg
• manufacturer : automobile manufacturer
• model : model of car
• trans : type of transmission
• year : model year

In [ ]: import csv

%precision 2

with open('mpg.csv') as csvfile:

mpg = list(csv.DictReader(csvfile))

mpg[:3] # The first three dictionaries in our list.

csv.Dictreader has read in each row of our csv file as a dictionary. len shows that our list is
comprised of 234 dictionaries.

In [ ]: len(mpg)

keys gives us the column names of our csv.

In [ ]: mpg[0].keys()

This is how to find the average cty fuel economy across all cars. All values in the dictionaries
are strings, so we need to convert to float.

In [ ]: sum(float(d['cty']) for d in mpg) / len(mpg)

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 Similarly this is how to find the average hwy fuel economy across all cars.

In [ ]: sum(float(d['hwy']) for d in mpg) / len(mpg)

Use set to return the unique values for the number of cylinders the cars in our dataset have.

In [ ]: cylinders = set(d['cyl'] for d in mpg)

cylinders

Here’s a more complex example where we are grouping the cars by number of cylinder, and
finding the average cty mpg for each group.

In [ ]: CtyMpgByCyl = []

for c in cylinders: # iterate over all the cylinder levels

summpg = 0
cyltypecount = 0
for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries
if d['cyl'] == c: # if the cylinder level type matches,
summpg += float(d['cty']) # add the cty mpg
cyltypecount += 1 # increment the count
CtyMpgByCyl.append((c, summpg / cyltypecount)) # append the tuple ('cylinder', 'avg

CtyMpgByCyl.sort(key=lambda x: x[0])
CtyMpgByCyl

Use set to return the unique values for the class types in our dataset.

In [ ]: vehicleclass = set(d['class'] for d in mpg) # what are the class types

vehicleclass

And here’s an example of how to find the average hwy mpg for each class of vehicle in our
dataset.

In [ ]: HwyMpgByClass = []

for t in vehicleclass: # iterate over all the vehicle classes

summpg = 0
vclasscount = 0
for d in mpg: # iterate over all dictionaries
if d['class'] == t: # if the cylinder amount type matches,
summpg += float(d['hwy']) # add the hwy mpg
vclasscount += 1 # increment the count
HwyMpgByClass.append((t, summpg / vclasscount)) # append the tuple ('class', 'avg mp

HwyMpgByClass.sort(key=lambda x: x[1])
HwyMpgByClass

# The Python Programming Language: Dates and Times

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In [ ]: import datetime as dt
import time as tm

time returns the current time in seconds since the Epoch. (January 1st, 1970)

In [ ]: tm.time()

Convert the timestamp to datetime.

In [ ]: dtnow = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(tm.time())
dtnow

Handy datetime attributes:

In [ ]: dtnow.year, dtnow.month, dtnow.day, dtnow.hour, dtnow.minute, dtnow.second # get year, m

timedelta is a duration expressing the difference between two dates.

In [ ]: delta = dt.timedelta(days = 100) # create a timedelta of 100 days

delta

date.today returns the current local date.

In [ ]: today = dt.date.today()

In [ ]: today - delta # the date 100 days ago

In [ ]: today > today-delta # compare dates

# The Python Programming Language: Objects and map()

An example of a class in python:

In [ ]: class Person:
department = 'School of Information' #a class variable

def set_name(self, new_name): #a method

self.name = new_name
def set_location(self, new_location):
self.location = new_location

In [ ]: person = Person()
person.set_name('Christopher Brooks')
person.set_location('Ann Arbor, MI, USA')
print('{} live in {} and works in the department {}'.format(person.name, person.location

Here’s an example of mapping the min function between two lists.

In [ ]: store1 = [10.00, 11.00, 12.34, 2.34]

store2 = [9.00, 11.10, 12.34, 2.01]
cheapest = map(min, store1, store2)
cheapest

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 Now let’s iterate through the map object to see the values.

In [ ]: for item in cheapest:

print(item)

# The Python Programming Language: Lambda and List Comprehensions

Here’s an example of lambda that takes in three parameters and adds the first two.

In [ ]: my_function = lambda a, b, c : a + b

In [ ]: my_function(1, 2, 3)

Let’s iterate from 0 to 999 and return the even numbers.

In [ ]: my_list = []
for number in range(0, 1000):
if number % 2 == 0:
my_list.append(number)
my_list

Now the same thing but with list comprehension.

In [ ]: my_list = [number for number in range(0,1000) if number % 2 == 0]

my_list

# The Python Programming Language: Numerical Python (NumPy)

In [ ]: import numpy as np

## Creating Arrays
Create a list and convert it to a numpy array

In [ ]: mylist = [1, 2, 3]
x = np.array(mylist)
x

Or just pass in a list directly

In [ ]: y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
y

Pass in a list of lists to create a multidimensional array.

In [ ]: m = np.array([[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]])

m

Use the shape method to find the dimensions of the array. (rows, columns)

In [ ]: m.shape

arange returns evenly spaced values within a given interval.

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In [ ]: n = np.arange(0, 30, 2) # start at 0 count up by 2, stop before 30
n

reshape returns an array with the same data with a new shape.

In [ ]: n = n.reshape(3, 5) # reshape array to be 3x5

n

linspace returns evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval.

In [ ]: o = np.linspace(0, 4, 9) # return 9 evenly spaced values from 0 to 4

o

resize changes the shape and size of array in-place.

In [ ]: o.resize(3, 3)
o

ones returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with ones.

In [ ]: np.ones((3, 2))

zeros returns a new array of given shape and type, filled with zeros.

In [ ]: np.zeros((2, 3))

eye returns a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.

In [ ]: np.eye(3)

diag extracts a diagonal or constructs a diagonal array.

In [ ]: np.diag(y)

Create an array using repeating list (or see np.tile)

In [ ]: np.array([1, 2, 3] * 3)

Repeat elements of an array using repeat.

In [ ]: np.repeat([1, 2, 3], 3)

#### Combining Arrays

In [ ]: p = np.ones([2, 3], int)

p

Use vstack to stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).

In [ ]: np.vstack([p, 2*p])

Use hstack to stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).