1.

REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
 Reproduction is a process in which an organism gives rise to young ones
(offspring) similar to itself.
 The period from birth to the natural death of an organism represents its life span.
 No individual is immortal, except unicellular organisms.
 There is no natural death in unicellular organisms.
 Life spans of organisms are not correlated with their sizes.
 Life spans of a few organisms
Organism Lifespan Organism Lifespan
Elephant 70-90yrs Parrot 140 yrs
Rose 10 yrs Crocodile 60 yrs

Dog 20-30 yrs Horse 40-50 yrs

Butterfly 1-2 weeks Fruit fly 1-2 months

Crow 15 yrs Tortoise 100-150 yrs

Banana plant 10-12 months Rice plant 4-5 months

Cow 20-26 years Banyan tree 200-500 yrs
 Why reproduction is essential for an organism?
1. For the continuity of species
2. For the inheritance of genetic characters
3. For introducing variations
4. To compensate for the loss of life due to death.
 Modes of reproduction
Important factors which are collectively responsible for reproduction are following
o Organism’s habitat
o Internal physiology of organisms
 Based on the number of participants, reproduction is 2 types: Asexual reproduction &
Sexual reproduction
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
o It is the production of offspring by a single parent without gamete fusion
(uniparental).
o The offspring are identical to one another and to their parent. Such
morphologically and genetically similar individuals are known as clone.
o Meiosis does not take place in asexual reproduction.
o Asexual reproduction is found in unicellular organisms, and in simple plants and
animals.
 Types of asexual reproduction
 Fission: In this, the parent cell divides (cell division) into two or more individuals.
E.g. Protists and Monerans.
o Fission is 2 types:

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  Binary fission: It is the division of parent cell into two individuals. E.g.,
Amoeba, Paramecium.
Binary fission is of 3 types
1. Simple binary fission- division occurs through any plane. Eg.
Amoeba
2. Transverse binary fission- divides transversely Eg. Paramoecium
3. Longitudinal binary fission- Divides lengthwise (longitudinally) Eg.
Euglena
 Multiple fission: It is the division of parent cell into many individuals.
E.g. Plasmodium, Amoeba.
 Budding: In this, a small bud appears and grows in the parent body. After
maturation, it is detached from the parent body to form new individual. E.g. Hydra,
Sponge, Yeast etc.
Budding may be exogenous or endogenous
1. Exogenous budding- the bud is formed on the outer surface of the parent body
Eg. Hydra, Obelia and Scypha
The budding in unicellular organisms is called torulation. Eg. Yeast
2. Endogenous budding- the bud formed inside the parent body. Eg. Spongilla
(fresh water sponge)
In Spongilla, the endogenous buds are commonly called Gemmules (Internal
buds). They are resistant to adverse conditions.
o Other asexual reproductive structures: E.g. zoospores (microscopic motile
structures in some algae and protists) and non motile exogenously produced
conidia (Penicillium, Aspergillus etc.).
o Vegetative propagation: In plants, vegetative propagules (the units of
vegetative propagation such as runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset and
bulb) are capable of giving rise to new offspring.
o Examples for vegetative propagation:
 Emergence of small plants from the buds (‘eyes’) of the potato tuber, from
the rhizomes of banana and ginger. They arise from the nodes of modified
stems. When the nodes come in contact with damp soil or water, they
produce roots and new plants.
 Adventitious buds arise from the notches present at margins of leaves of
Bryophyllum, Kalan choe, Begonia etc.
 Vegetative propagation through bulbils- bulbils are fleshy specialized
buds. Eg. Agave, Diascorea, Pine apple etc.
o Asexual reproduction is the common method in simple organisms like algae and
fungi. During adverse conditions, they can shift to sexual method.
o Higher plants exhibit both asexual (vegetative) and sexual modes of reproduction.
But most of the animals show only sexual reproduction.
o Scourge of water bodies or “Terror of Bengal”- Water hyacinth (Eichhornia)
is one of the most invasive (fast growing) weeds found in standing water. They
reproduce through Offset. The plant consumes more oxygen from water. As a
result the level of Dissolved oxygen decreases. It leads to the death of fishes and
other mammals. So they are called so.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
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 o Sexual reproduction involves formation of the male and female gametes, either by
the same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex (Uniparental
or Biparental)
o It is an elaborate, complex and slow process as compared to asexual reproduction.
o It results in offspring that are not identical to the parents or amongst themselves.
o The period of growth to reach in maturity for sexual reproduction is called the
juvenile phase. It is known as vegetative phase in plants.
o In higher plants, the flowering indicates the end of vegetative phase (beginning of
the reproductive phase).
o Annual & biennial type plants show clear cut vegetative, reproductive and
senescent phases, but in perennial species it is very difficult to identify these
phases.
o Some plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomenon. E.g. Bamboo species flower
only once in their lifetime (after 50-100 years), produce large number of fruits and
die. Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neela Kurinji) flowers once in 12 years. The last
time it flowered was September-October 2006.
o In animals, juvenile phase is followed by morphological and physiological
changes prior to active reproductive behaviour.
o Birds living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However, birds in captivity (e.g.
poultry) can be made to lay eggs throughout the year.
o The females of placental mammals exhibit cyclical changes in the activities of
ovaries, accessory ducts and hormones during the reproductive phase. It is called
Oestrus cycle in non-primates (cows, sheep, rat, deer, dog, tiger etc.) and
Menstrual cycle in primates (monkeys, apes and humans).
 Seasonal breeders: The mammals (living in natural conditions) exhibiting
reproductive cycles only during favourable seasons.
 Continuous breeders: The mammals those are reproductively active
throughout their reproductive phase.
o Senescence (old age): It is the last phase of life span and end of reproductive
phase.
o During this, concomitant changes in the body (slowing of metabolism etc.) occur.
It ultimately leads to death.
o In plants & animals, hormones are responsible for transition between juvenile,
reproductive & senescence phases. Interaction between hormones and
environmental factors regulate the reproductive processes and the associated
behavioural expressions of organisms.
 Events in sexual reproduction: 3 stages: Pre-fertilization, fertilization & post
fertilization events.
1. Pre-fertilization Events
o These are all the events prior to the fusion of gametes. They include
gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
a. Gametogenesis
 It is the process of formation of male and female gametes (haploid
cells).

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  In some algae, all gametes are similar and cannot categorize into male and
female gametes. They are called homogametes (isogametes).
 In others, the male and female gametes are distinct types (heterogametes).
Male gamete is called the antherozoid (sperm) and female gamete is
called the egg (ovum).
 Sexuality in organisms:
 Plants may be bisexual (i.e. monoecious- male & female reproductive
structures in the same plant) or unisexual (i.e. dioecious- male and female
reproductive structures on different plants).
 In dioecious (unisexual) flowering plants, the male flower is Staminate
(bearing stamens) while the female is Pistillate (bearing pistils). E.g.
papaya and date palm.
 In monoecious flowering plants, male & female flowers are present on
same individual. E.g. Cucurbits & coconuts.
 Fungi may be homothallic (bisexual) or heterothallic (unisexual).
 Bisexual animals (hermaphrodites): Earthworms, leech, sponge,
tapeworm, etc.
 Unisexual animals: Cockroach, higher animals etc.
 Cell division during gamete formation:
 Haploid parental body (many Monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes)
produces haploid gametes by mitosis.
 Diploid parental body (Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms &
Animals) produces haploid gametes by meiosis of Meiocytes (gamete
mother cell).
Name of Chromosome number
organism
In Meiocytes (2n) In Gametes (n)
Human being 46 23
Housefly 12 6
Rat 42 21
Dog 78 39
Cat 38 19
Fruit fly 8 4
Ophioglossum 1260 630
Apple 34 17
Rice 24 12
Maize 20 10
Potato 48 24
Butterfly 380 190
Onion 16 8
b. Gamete Transfer
o Male gametes need a medium to move towards female gametes for
fertilization.
o In a majority of organisms, male gamete is motile and the female gamete is
stationary. In a few fungi and algae both types of gametes are motile.

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 o In simple plants (Algae, Bryophytes & Pteridophytes), gamete transfer takes
place through water medium. To compensate the loss of male gametes during
transport, large number of male gametes is produced.
o In seed plants, pollen grains (in anthers) carry male gametes and ovule has
the egg. Pollen grains are transferred to the stigma.
o In bisexual, self-fertilizing plants, (e.g. peas) transfer of pollen grains to the
stigma is easy as anthers and stigma are located close to each other.
o In cross pollinating plants (including dioecious plants), Pollination helps in
transfer of pollen grains to the stigma. Pollen grains germinate on the stigma
and the pollen tubes carrying the male gametes reach the ovule and discharge
male gametes near the egg.
o In dioecious animals, the fertilization helps for successful transfer and coming
together of gametes.
2. Fertilization (Syngamy)- It is the fusion of gametes to form a diploid Zygote.
Organisms like rotifers, honeybees, some lizards and birds (turkey), the female
gamete develops to new organisms without fertilization. This is called
Parthenogenesis.
Types of fertilization:
a. External fertilization: Syngamy occurs in the external medium (water), i.e.
outside the body of the organism. E.g. most aquatic organisms (many algae,
bony fishes etc) and amphibians. Such organisms show synchrony between
the sexes and release a large number of gametes into the surrounding medium
in order to enhance the chances of syngamy.
Disadvantage: The offspring are extremely vulnerable to predators
threatening their survival up to adulthood.
b. Internal fertilization: Syngamy occurs inside the body. E.g. terrestrial
organisms, belonging to Fungi, Animals (reptiles, birds, mammals) & Plants
(Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms & Angiosperms). In this, non-
motile egg is formed inside the female body to where motile male gamete
reaches and fuses.
In seed plants, the non-motile male gametes are carried to female gamete by
pollen tubes. There is large number of sperms produced but the number of
eggs is very low.
3. Post-fertilization Events
These are the events after the formation of zygote.
 The Zygote
o In organisms with external fertilization, zygote is formed in the external
medium. In organisms with internal fertilization, zygote is formed inside
body.
o Further development of the zygote depends on the type of life cycle of the
organism and the nature of environment.
o In fungi and algae, zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to
desiccation and damage. It undergoes a period of rest before germination.
o In organisms with haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis into
haploid spores that grow into haploid individuals.

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 o Every sexually reproducing organism begins life as a zygote. It is the vital
link between organisms of one generation and the next.
 Embryogenesis
o It is the development of Embryo from the zygote.
o During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes Cell division (mitosis) and Cell
differentiation.
o Cell divisions increase the number of cells in the embryo.
o Cell differentiation causes the modifications of groups of cells into various
tissues and organs to form an organism.
o Based on place of zygote development animals are 2 types:
a. Oviparous: Here, animals lay fertilized/unfertilized eggs. E.g. In
reptiles & birds, the fertilized eggs covered by hard calcareous shell
are laid in a safe place. After incubation young ones hatch out.
b. Viviparous: Here, the zygote develops into a young one inside the
female body. Later, the young ones are delivered out of the body.
E.g. most of mammals. Because of proper care and protection, the
chances of survival of young ones are greater in viviparous animals.
c. Ovovivipary
It is a phenomenon by which the females retain the eggs after
fertilization and allow the development of embryo inside the body
without providing any extra nourishment as placenta. The female
give birth to the young ones. Eg. Shark, Rattle snake etc.

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 2. REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
In flowering plants, the organs of sexual reproduction are Flowers. Male gametes are
produced in the pollen grains. Pollen grains develop in the anther of the flower. Female
gametes are produced in the ovule. The ovule develops in the ovary of the flower.
STRUCTURE OF FLOWER (For figures see TB page: 20, 21)
o Morphologically, the flower is considered as a modified shoot.
o The stalk of the flower is known as Pedicel.
o The swollen tip of the pedicel is called Thalamus (receptacle or torus).
o The floral parts are arranged on the thalamus.
o A typical flower has 4 whorls of floral parts- Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and
Gynoecium.
PRE-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS
o In angiosperms, the reproductive phase is marked by the initiation of flowers. During
this phase, a number of hormonal and structural changes takes place in the plant. Shoot
apical meristem is transformed into reproductive meristem (floral meristem).
o Most important units of sexual reproduction in a flower are Androecium and
Gynoecium.
Androecium (whorl of Stamens)
o Androecium consists of a whorl of stamens. Their number and length are variable in
flowers of different species.
A stamen has 2 parts:
a. Filament: The long and slender stalk. Its proximal end is attached to the thalamus or the
petal of the flower.
b. Anther: The terminal and typically bilobed structure. Each lobe has 2 thecae, i.e. they are
dithecous. Often a longitudinal groove runs lengthwise separating the theca.
Transverse section of an anther:
o The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of four microsporangia located at the
corners, two in each lobe.
o The microsporangia develop further and become pollen sacs. They extend longitudinally
all through the length of an anther and are packed with pollen grains.
Structure of microsporangium:
o A typical microsporangium appears near circular in outline.
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 o It is generally surrounded by four wall layers– the epidermis, endothecium, middle
layers & tapetum.
o The outer three layers perform the function of protection and help indehiscence of anther
to release the pollen.
o The tapetum (innermost layer) nourishes the developing pollen grains. Cells of the
tapetum possess dense cytoplasm and generally have more than one nucleus.
o When the anther is young, a group of compactly arranged homogenous cells
(sporogenous tissue) occupies the centre of each microsporangium.
Microsporogenesis: (For figures see TB page: 22,23)
o As the anther develops, each cells of sporogenous tissue undergo meiotic divisions to
form microspore tetrads. Each one is a potential pollen (microspore mother cell).
o The formation of microspores from a pollen mother cell (PMC) through meiosis is called
microsporogenesis.
o The microspores are arranged in a cluster of four cells (microspore tetrad).
o As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from each other and
develop into pollen grains.
o Inside each microsporangium thousands of pollen grains are formed that are released with
the dehiscence of anther.
Pollen grain (male gametophyte):
o Generally spherical. 25-50 m in diameter. Cytoplasm is surrounded by a plasma
membrane.
o A pollen grain has a two-layered wall- exine and intine.
 Exine: The hard outer layer. Made up of sporopollenin (highly resistant organic
material). It can withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali. Enzymes
cannot degrade sporopollenin.
 Exine has apertures called germ pores where sporopollenin is absent.
 Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils due to the presence of sporopollenin. Exine
exhibits a fascinating array of patterns and designs.
 Intine: The inner wall. It is a thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose and
pectin.
o A matured pollen grain contains 2 cells
 Vegetative cell: is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped
nucleus.
 Generative cell: is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell. It is
spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and a nucleus.
o In over 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at the 2-celled stage. In others, the
generative cell divides mitotically to give rise to the two male gametes before pollen
grains are shed (3-celled stage).
o When once they are shed, pollen grains have to land on the stigma before they lose
viability. The period for which pollen grains remain viable is variable and depends on the
prevailing temperature and humidity.
o Viability of pollen grains of some cereals (rice, wheat etc) is 30 minutes. Some members
of Leguminoseae, Rosaceae & Solanaceae have viability for months.
o Pollen grains of some plants (e.g. Parthenium or carrot grass) are allergic for some
people. It leads to chronic respiratory disorders – asthma, bronchitis, etc.

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 o Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets are used as food supplements. Pollen
consumption (as tablets & syrups) increases performance of athletes and race horses (Eg.
Bee pollen)
o It is possible to store pollen grains of a large number of species for years in liquid
nitrogen (-1960C). Such stored pollen can be used as pollen banks, similar to seed
banks, in crop breeding programmes.
Gynoecium (Pistil) (For figures see TB page: 25)
o It represents the female reproductive part of the flower.
o It may consist of a single pistil (monocarpellary, Eg Pea) or more than one pistil
(multicarpellary, Eg. Hibiscus, Papaver).
o When there are more than one, the pistils may be fused together (syncarpous, Hibiscus,
tomato, mustard etc.) or may be free (apocarpous, Eg. Rose, Lotus, Michelia etc.).
o Each pistil has three parts:
 Stigma: It is a landing platform for pollen grains.
 Style: It is an elongated slender part beneath the stigma.
 Ovary: It is the basal bulged part of the pistil. Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity
(locule) in which the placenta is located. Arising from the placenta are the ovules
(megasporangia). The number of ovules in an ovary may be one (wheat, paddy,
mango etc) to many (papaya, water melon, orchids etc).
Megasporangium (Ovule): (For figures see TB page: 26)
o It is a small structure attached to the placenta by means of a stalk (funicle or funiculus).
The junction where the body of ovule and funicle fuse is called hilum.
o Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called integuments (outer and inner).
Integuments encircle the ovule except at the tip where a small opening (micropyle) is
organized.
o Opposite the micropylar end is the chalaza (basal part of the ovule).
o Enclosed within the integuments, there is a mass of parenchymatous cells called
nucellus. Its cells contain reserve food materials.
o Embryo sac (female gametophyte) is located inside the nucellus is the. An ovule
generally has a single embryo sac formed from a megaspore through meiosis.
o At the micropylar end of the embryosac, there is a 3 celled Egg apparatus which
consists of a central egg cell and two synergids, one at each side of the Egg.
o In the Chalazal end, there are 3 antipodals.
o The Egg, Synergids and Antipodals are haploid (n).
o 2 Polar nuclei (2n) are seen at the centre of the embryo sac.
Megasporogenesis:
o The formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell (MMC) is called
megasporogenesis.
o Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore mother cell in the micropylar region of
the nucellus. It is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
o The MMC undergoes meiotic division. It results in the production of 4 megaspores
(linear tetrad).
Female gametophyte (embryo sac):
o In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megaspores is functional while the other
three at the micropylar end degenerate.

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 o The functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte. This method of
embryo sac formation from a single megaspore is termed monosporic embryo sac
development (Polygonam type)
Formation of the embryo sac:
o The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei which
move to the opposite poles, forming the 2-nucleate embryo sac.
o Two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in the formation of the 4-nucleate
and later the 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac.
o These divisions are strictly free nuclear, i.e. nuclear divisions are not followed
immediately by cell wall formation.
o After the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are formed leading to the organization of the typical
female gametophyte or embryo sac.
o 6 of the 8 nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells. Remaining 2
nuclei (polar nuclei) are situated below the egg apparatus in the large central cell.
Distribution of the cells within the embryo sac:
o 3 cells are grouped together at the micropylar end and constitute the egg apparatus. The
egg apparatus consists of 2 synergids and one egg cell.
o The synergids have special cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip called filiform
apparatus. It helps to guide the pollen tubes into the synergid.
o Three cells are at the chalazal end and are called the antipodals. The large central cell
has two polar nuclei. Thus, a typical mature angiosperm embryo sac is 8- nucleate and 7-
celled.
Pollination
o It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil.
o Some external agents help the plants for pollination.
o Depending on the source of pollen, pollination is 3 types.
a. Autogamy: In this, pollen grains transfer from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower. Complete autogamy is rare in flowers with exposed anthers and stigma.
Autogamy in such flowers requires synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity.
Also, the anthers and stigma should lie close to each other to enable self-pollination.
Plants like Viola (common pansy), Oxalis & Commelina produce 2 types of flowers:
 Chasmogamous flowers: They are similar to flowers of other species with
exposed anthers and stigma.
 Cleistogamous flowers: They do not open at all. Anthers & stigma lie close to
each other. They are autogamous as there is no chance of cross-pollination. When
anthers dehisce in the flower buds, pollen grains come in contact with the stigma
for pollination. This type of autogamy is called Cleistogamy.
In Arachis hypogea (ground nut) and Commelina, Cleistogamy is accompanied
by Geocarpy. In such plants, fruits are formed inside the soil.
Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the absence of
pollinators.
b. Geitonogamy: In this, pollen grains transfer from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
another flower of the same plant. It is functionally similar to cross-pollination involving a
pollinating agent. But it is genetically similar to autogamy since the pollen grains come
from the same plant.

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 c. Xenogamy: In this, pollen grains transfer from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the
flower of another plant of same species. It is also called allogamy or cross pollination.
This brings genetically different types of pollen grains to the stigma.

Pollination
Autogamy Geitonogamy Xenogamy
(same flower) (different flowers (flowers of
of the same plant)different plants)
Abiotic agents Biotic agents
Insects
Wind
(Anemophily) (Entomophily)
Birds
Water Bats
(Ornithophily)
(Hydrophily) (Chiropterophily)

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Agents of Pollination
1. Abiotic agents (wind & water) of pollination
Pollination by wind (anemophily):
o More common abiotic agent. Eg. Coconut palm, date palm, maize, many grasses,
cannabis
Characters of anemophilous flowers
 Flowers are unisexual.
 They are neither colored nor showy
 They do not secrete nectar.
 They lack scent.
 The flowers produce enormous amount of pollen. A single flower of Cannabis produce
over 5,00,000 pollen grains
 The pollen grains are small, light, smooth and non-sticky (dry) so that they can be
transported in wind currents.
 They often possess well-exposed anther and stigma (for easy dispersion of pollens into
wind currents).
 Large, feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains.
 Wind pollinated flowers often have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers
packed into an inflorescence. E.g. Corn cob
o Wind borne pollen grains of certain plants cause Hay fever and Bronchial allergy in
human beings.

Pollination by water (hydrophily):

o It is quite rare. It is limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocotyledons. E.g. Vallisneria
& Hydrilla (fresh water), Zostera (marine sea-grasses), Ceratophyllum, Lemna etc.
o As against this, water is a regular mode of transport for the male gametes among the
lower plants. It is believed, particularly for some bryophytes & pteridophytes, that their
distribution is limited because of the need for water for the transport of male gametes and
fertilisation.
o Hydrophily is of 2 types- Hypohydrophily and Epihydrophily.
 Hypohydrophily- It is true hydrophily which occurs below the surface of water.
Eg. Zostera, Ceratophyllum, etc.
 In Zostera, (Marine sea grass), female flowers remain submerged in water.
Pollen grains are long and ribbon like. They are carried inside the water
and reach the stigma; they coil around it and germinate.
 Epihydrophily- It takes place over the surface of water. Eg. Vallisnaria, Lemna
etc.
 In Vallisneria, the female flower reaches the surface of water by the long
stalk and the male flowers or pollen grains are released on to the surface of
water. They are carried by water currents and reach the female flowers.
Characters of hydrophilous flower
 Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
 Sepals, petals or perianth segments are unwettable due to a waxy coating.
 The pollen grains of most of the water-pollinated species have a mucilaginous covering
to protect from wetting.
 They are never colored and showy.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 12
  They do not produce nectar.
 They lack scent.
 Stigma is sticky but unwettable.
o Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. In most of aquatic plants (water hyacinth, water lily
etc), the flowers emerge above the level of water for entomophily or anemophily.
2. Biotic agents (animals) of pollination (Zoophily)
o Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating agents. E.g. Bees,
butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds (sunbirds and humming birds)
bats, some primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents, reptiles (gecko
lizard & garden lizard) etc.
o Based on the type of animals, Zoophily is of different types. Important among
them are Entomophily, Ornithophily and Chiropterophily.
a. Entomophily
o Insects pollinate a majority of flowers. Pollination by the agency of insects is said to be
entomophily or insect pollination.
o When the animal comes in contact with the anthers and the stigma, its body gets a coating
of pollen grains. When it comes in contact with the stigma, it results in pollination.
o Some plants provide safe places as floral reward to lay eggs. E.g. Amorphophallus (it has
the tallest flower of about 6 feet).
o A species of moth and the plant Yucca cannot complete their life cycles without each
other. The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower gets pollinated
by the moth. The larvae of the moth come out of the eggs as the seeds start developing.
o Many insects consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination. They are
called pollen/nectar robbers.
Characters of entomophilous flowers
 Flowers are large and brightly colored for attracting the insects.
 They commonly produce fragrance. It may be pleasant (Eg. Jasmine, Rose) or foul
(Eg. Rafflesia).
 They produce nectar.
 They supply food to the insects in the form of honey or pollen grain.
 The pollen grains are usually sticky and spiny.
 Stigma is sticky.
 When the flowers are small, they form inflorescence to make them visible.
b. Ornithophily
Pollination by the agency of birds is called ornithophily. Eg. Bombax, coral tree, bottle
brush etc.
Characters of ornithophilous flowers
 Flowers are large in size.
 They are colored beautifully.
 They are scentless.
 They produce nectar.
 The pollen grains are sticky and adhere to the body of the bird.
c. Chiropterophily
Pollination by the agency of bats is called chiropterophily. Eg. Musa (Banana)

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 13

Characters of chiropterophilous flowers
 Flowers are large sized
 They are dull colored with fruity odour
 They produce numerous prominent stamens
 They produce large quantities of pollen grains
 They produce abundant nectar.

Outbreeding Devices:
o Majority of flowering plants produces bisexual flowers can undergo self-pollination.
Continued selfpollination results in inbreeding depression.
o To avoid self pollination and encourage cross-pollination, there are some devices in
plants:
a. Avoiding synchronization: In some species, pollen release and stigma receptivity
are not synchronized. Either the pollen is released before the stigma becomes
receptive or stigma becomes receptive before the release of pollen. It prevents
autogamy.
b. Arrangement of anther & stigma at different positions: This prevents autogamy.
c. Self-incompatibility: It is a genetic mechanism to prevent self-pollen (from the same
flower or other flowers of the same plant) from fertilization by inhibiting pollen
germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil.
d. Production of unisexual flowers: If male & female flowers are present on the same
plant (i.e., monoecious, e.g. castor & maize), it prevents autogamy but not
geitonogamy. In dioecious plants (e.g. papaya), male and female flowers are present
on different plants (dioecy). This prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy.
Pollen-pistil Interaction: (For figures see TB page: 32)
o It is a dynamic process involving pollen recognition followed by promotion or inhibition
of the pollen.
o This interaction takes place through the chemical components produced by them.
o If the pollen is compatible (right type), the pistil accepts it and promotes post-pollination
events. The pollen grain germinates on the stigma to produce a pollen tube through one of
the germ pores. The contents of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube. Pollen tube
grows through the tissues of the stigma and style and reaches the ovary.
o If the pollen is incompatible (wrong type), the pistil rejects the pollen by preventing
pollen germination on the stigma or the pollen tube growth in the style.
o In some plants, pollen grains are shed at 2-celled condition (a vegetative cell & a
generative cell). In such plants, the generative cell divides and forms the two male
gametes during the growth of pollen tube in the stigma.
o In plants which shed pollen in the 3-celled condition, pollen tubes carry 2 male gametes
from the beginning. Pollen tube, after reaching the ovary, enters the ovule through the
micropyle (Porogamy) or Chalaza (Chalazogamy) or integuments (Mesogamy) and
then enters one of the synergids through the filiform apparatus. The filiform apparatus
present at the micropylar part of the synergids guides the entry of pollen tube.
o A plant breeder can manipulate pollen-pistil interaction, even in incompatible
pollinations, to get desired hybrids.
Artificial hybridisation:

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 14

 o It is one of the major approaches of crop improvementprogramme.
o In this, desired pollen grains are used for pollination.
o This is achieved by emasculation & bagging techniques.
 Emasculation is the removal of anthers (using forceps) from the bisexual flower
bud of female parent before the anther dehisces.
 Emasculated flowers are covered with a suitable bag (made up of butter paper) to
prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen. This is called bagging.
o When the stigma attains receptivity, mature pollen grains collected from anthers of the
male parent are dusted on the stigma. Then the flowers are rebagged and allowed to
develop the fruits.
o If the female parent produces unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation. The
female flower buds are bagged before the flowers open. When the stigma becomes
receptive, pollination is carried out using the desired pollen and the flower rebagged.
DOUBLE FERTILISATION (For figures see TB page: 34)
o After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases the two male gametes into
the cytoplasm of the synergid. One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and
fuses with its nucleus (syngamy). This forms the zygote (a diploid cell).
o The other male gamete moves towards the two polar nuclei located in the central cell and
fuses with them to produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). As this
involves the fusion of three haploid nuclei it is called triple fusion.
o Since 2 types of fusions (syngamy & triple fusion) take place in an embryo sac it is called
double fertilisation. It is an event unique to flowering plants.
o The central cell after triple fusion becomes the primary endosperm cell (PEC) and
develops into the endosperm while the zygote develops into an embryo.
POST-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS
 Post-fertilisation events: Endosperm & embryo development, maturation of ovule(s)
into seed(s) & ovary into fruit.
Endosperm development:
o The primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly and forms a triploid endosperm
tissue.
o Endosperm cells are filled with reserve food materials. They are used for the
nutrition of the developing embryo.
o In common endosperm development, the PEN undergoes successive nuclear
divisions to give rise to free nuclei. This stage is called free-nuclear endosperm.
The number of free nuclei varies greatly.
o Then the endosperm becomes cellular due to the cell wall formation. The tender
coconut water is a free-nuclear endosperm (made up of thousands of nuclei) and
the
surrounding white kernel is the cellular endosperm.
Embryo development: (For figures see TB page: 35)
o Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is
situated.
o Most zygotes divide only after the formation of certain amount of endosperm.
This is an adaptation to provide nutrition to the developing embryo.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 15

 o Though the seeds differ greatly, the embryogeny (early embryonic developments)
is similar in monocotyledons & dicotyledons. (For figures see TB page: 34).
o The zygote gives rise to the proembryo and subsequently to the globular, heart-
shaped and mature embryo.
Dicotyledonous embryo
o It has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons. The portion of embryonal axis above
the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which terminates with the plumule (stem
tip). The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons is hypocotyl that
terminates with the radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered with a root cap.
Monocotyledonous embryo
o They possess only one cotyledon.
o In the grass family the cotyledon is called scutellum. It is situated lateral to the
embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and root cap
enclosed in coleorrhiza (an undifferentiated sheath).
o Portion of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the
epicotyl. It has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordia enclosed in coleoptile (a
hollow foliar structure).
Seed (For figures see TB page: 37)
o Seed is the final product of sexual reproduction. It is the fertilized ovule formed
inside fruits.
o It consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) & an embryo axis.
o The cotyledons are simple, generally thick and swollen due to storage food (as in
legumes).
o Mature seeds may be non-albuminous or albuminous.
 Non-albuminous seeds: have no residual endosperm as it is completely
consumed during embryo development (e.g., pea, groundnut, beans).
 Albuminous seeds: retain a part of endosperm as it is not completely used up
during embryo development (e.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut,
sunflower).
o Occasionally, in some seeds (black pepper, beet etc) remnants of nucellus are also
persistent. It is called perisperm.
o Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats. It has a small pore
(micropyle) through which O2 & water enter into the seed during germination.
o As the seed matures, its water content is reduced and seeds become dry (10-15 %
moisture by mass). The general metabolic activity of the embryo slows down. The
embryo may enter a state of inactivity (dormancy).
o If favourable conditions are available (adequate moisture, oxygen and suitable
temperature), they germinate.
Fruit:
o The ovary develops into a fruit. Transformation of ovules into seeds and ovary
into fruit proceeds simultaneously.
o The wall of ovary develops into pericarp (wall of fruit)
o The fruits may be fleshy (e.g. guava, orange, mango, etc.) or may be dry (e.g.
groundnut, mustard, etc).
o Many fruits have mechanisms for dispersal of seeds.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 16

 o Fruits are 2 types:
 True fruits: In most plants, the fruit develops only from the ovary and other
floral parts degenerate and fall off. They called true fruits.
 False fruits: In this, the thalamus also contributes to fruit formation. E.g.
apple, strawberry, cashew etc.
o In some species fruits develop without fertilisation. Such fruits are called
parthenocarpic fruits. E.g. Banana, Grapes
o Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application of growth hormones and
such fruits are seedless.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 17

Advantages of seeds:
 Since pollination and fertilisation are independent of water, seed formation is more
dependable.
 Seeds have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats and help the species to
colonize in other areas.
 They have food reserves. So young seedlings are nourished until they are capable of
photosynthesis.
 The hard seed coat protects the young embryo.
 Being products of sexual reproduction, they generate new genetic combinations leading
to variations.
 Dehydration and dormancy of mature seeds are crucial for storage of seeds. It can be used
as food throughout the year and also to raise crop in the next season.
Viability of seeds after dispersal:
 In a few species the seeds lose viability within a few months. Seeds of many species live
for several years.
 Some seeds can remain alive for hundreds of years. The oldest is that of a lupine
(Lupinus arcticus) excavated from Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered
after an estimated record of 10,000 years of dormancy. - 2000 years old viable seed is of
the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) discovered during the archeological excavation at
King Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea.
APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY
o Apomixis is the production of seeds without fertilisation. E.g. Some species of
Asteraceae and grasses.
o Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
o Development of apomictic seeds: In some species, the diploid egg cell is formed
without reduction division and develops into the embryo without fertilisation. In many
species (e.g. many Citrus & Mango varieties) some of the nucellar cells surrounding the
embryo sac divide, protrude into the embryo sac and develop into the embryos. In such
species each ovule contains many embryos. Occurrence of more than one embryo in a
seed is called polyembryony.
Importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry
o Hybrid seeds have to be produced every year. If the seeds collected from hybrids are
sown, the plants in the progeny will segregate and lose hybrid characters.
o Production of hybrid seeds is costly. Hence the cost of hybrid seeds is also expensive for
the farmers.
o If the hybrids are made into apomicts, there is no segregation of characters in the hybrid
progeny. Then the farmers can keep on using the hybrid seeds to raise new crop year after
year.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 18

 3. STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD
PRODUCTION
Human population is increasing rapidly. Proportionally the
requirement of food obtained from both plants and animals has to be increased. Animal
husbandry and plant breeding have a major role in increasing food production.

I. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
 It is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock by applying scientific
principles.
 It deals with
- The care & breeding of livestock (buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camels,
goats, bees, silkworms etc).
- Poultry farming and fisheries.
- More than 70% of the world livestock population is in India & China. However, the
contribution to the world farm produce is only 25%, i.e., the productivity per unit is very
low. Hence new technologies have to be applied to achieve improvement in quality and
productivity.
Management of Farms and Farm Animals
1. Dairy Farm Management (Dairying)
- It is the management of animals for increasing yield and quality of milk and its products.
- Milk yield depends on the quality of breeds in the farm.
- Selection of good breeds having high yielding potential and resistance to diseases is
important.
- For the yield potential:
- The cattle have to be well looked after – they have to be housed well, should have
adequate water and be maintained disease free.
- The feeding of cattle should be carried out in a scientific manner – with special emphasis
on the quality and quantity of fodder.
- Stringent cleanliness and hygiene (of cattle & handlers) while milking, storage and
transport of the milk.
 Nowadays, these processes have mechanized. It reduces chance of direct contact of the
produce with the handler.
 To ensure these stringent measures there should be
- Regular inspections, with proper record keeping. It also helps to identify and rectify the
problems.
- Regular visits by a veterinary doctor.

2. Poultry Farm Management

 Poultry is the domesticated birds used for food or eggs. E.g. chicken, ducks, turkey and
geese.
 Components of poultry farm management:
- Selection of disease free and suitable breeds.
- Proper and safe farm conditions.
- Proper feed and water.
- Hygiene and health care.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 19
Animal Breeding

 A breed is a group of animals related by descent and similar general appearance,

features, size etc.
 Breeding is the modification of genotype of an organism to make that organism more
useful to humans.
 Animal breeding aims at increasing the yield of animals and improving the desirable
qualities of the produce.
 Breeding is 2 types: Inbreeding and out-breeding.
a. Inbreeding
It is the mating of more closely related individuals within the same breed for 4-6 generations.
This strategy is as follows:
 Superior males and superior females of the same breed are identified and mated in pairs.
 The progeny obtained are evaluated and superior males and females among them are
identified for further mating. In cattle, a superior female produces more milk per
lactation. A superior male (bull) gives rise to superior progeny.
Advantages of Inbreeding:
 It increases homozygosity to evolve a pure line animal.
 It exposes harmful recessive genes that are eliminated by selection.
 It helps in accumulation of superior genes and elimination of less desirable genes. This
approach increases the productivity of inbred population.
Continued inbreeding, especially close inbreeding, may reduce fertility and productivity. This is
called inbreeding depression. To solve this problem, selected animals should be mated with
unrelated superior animals of the same breed.
b. Out-breeding
 It is the breeding of the unrelated animals. It includes outcrossing, cross-breeding and
inter-specific hybridization.
i) Out-crossing:
 This is mating of animals within the same breed, but having no common ancestors on
either side of their pedigree up to 4-6 generations.
 The offspring of such a mating is known as out-cross.
 It is the best method for animals having low productivity in milk production, growth rate
in beef cattle, etc.
 It helps to overcome inbreeding depression.
ii) Cross-breeding:
 In this method, superior males of one breed are mated with superior females of another
breed.
 The desirable qualities of 2 different breeds are combined.
 The progeny hybrid animals may be used for commercial production or may be subjected
to inbreeding and selection to develop new stable superior breeds.
E.g. Hisardale (sheep) developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino
rams.
Cross-breeds of cows: Sunandini, Karan-Swiss, Karan- Fries
iii) Interspecific hybridization:
 It is the mating of male and female of two different species.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 20

  In some cases, the progeny may combine desirable features of both the parents, and may
be of considerable economic value. E.g. Mule (male ass X female horse). It is harder and stronger
than their parents. So, it is well suitable for hardwork in mountainous regions.
Controlled breeding experiments
 These are carried out using artificial insemination.
 The semen collected from male parent is injected into the reproductive tract of selected
female by the breeder.
 The semen may be used immediately or can be frozen and used later. It can also be
transported in a frozen form to where the female is housed.
 Success rate of crossing mature male & female animals is low even though artificial
insemination is carried out.
Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET)
 It is a programme for herd improvement.
 In this, a cow is administered hormones, with FSH-like activity, to induce follicular
maturation and super ovulation (production of 6-8 eggs per cycle instead of one egg).
 The animal is either mated with an elite bull or artificially inseminated. Fertilised eggs at
8–32 cells stages are recovered and transferred to surrogate mothers.
 This technology has been demonstrated for cattle, sheep, rabbits, buffaloes, mares, etc.
 High milk yielding breeds of females and high quality (lean meat with less lipid) meat-
yielding bulls have been bred successfully to increase herd size in a short time.
Bee-keeping (apiculture)
 It is the maintenance of hives of honeybees for the production of honey and beeswax.
 Honey is a food of high nutritive and medicinal value.
 Beeswax is used for preparation of cosmetics, polishes etc.
 Bee-keeping can be practiced in any area where there are sufficient bee pastures of some
wild shrubs, fruit orchards and cultivated crops.
 Most common species that can be reared is Apis indica.
Important points for successful bee-keeping:
(i) Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees.
(ii) Selection of suitable location for keeping beehives.
(iii) Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees).
(iv) Management of beehives during different seasons
(v) Handling and collection of honey and of beewax.
 Bees are the pollinators of many of our crop species such as sunflower, Brassica, apple
and pear.
 Keeping beehives in crop fields during flowering period increases pollination. It
improves crop and honey yield.
Fisheries
 Fishery is an industry of catching, processing or selling of fish, shellfish or other aquatic
animals (prawn, crab, lobster, edible oyster etc).
 Freshwater fishes: Catla, Rohu, common carp etc.
Marine fishes: Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel, Pomfrets etc.
 Fisheries provide income and employment to millions of fishermen and farmers.
 Aquaculture and pisciculture are the techniques to increase the production of aquatic
plants and animals.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 21

  Blue Revolution: The development and flourishing of the fishery industry.
II. PLANT BREEDING
 It is the purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to create desired plant types
that are better suited for cultivation, give better yields and are disease resistant.
 Green Revolution: The development and flourishing of the agriculture. It was dependent
on plant breeding.
 Classical plant breeding involves hybridization of pure lines and artificial selection to
produce desirable traits.
 Now plant breeding is carried out by using molecular genetic tools.
 Desirable traits that breeders have tried to incorporate:
 Increased crop yield.
 Improved quality.
 Increased tolerance to environmental stresses (salinity, extreme temperatures &
drought), resistance to pathogens.
 Increased tolerance to insect pests.
Main steps in plant breeding
(i) Collection of genetic variability
 In many crops pre-existing genetic variability is available from wild relatives of
the crop.
 Collection and preservation of all the different wild varieties, species and relatives
of the cultivated species is a pre-requisite for effective exploitation of natural
genes.
 The entire collection of plants/seeds having all the alleles for all genes in a given
crop is called germplasm collection.
(ii) Evaluation and selection of parents
 The germplasm is evaluated so as to identify plants with desirable combination of
characters.
 Selected plants are multiplied and used for hybridisation.
 Pure lines are created wherever desirable and possible.
(iii) Cross hybridisation among the selected parents
 The desired characters have to be combined from two different plants (parents).
E.g. high protein quality of one parent is combined with disease resistance from
another parent. This is possible by cross hybridizing the two parents to produce
hybrids that genetically combine the desired characters in one plant.
Limitations:
 This is a very time-consuming and tedious process.
 The hybrids may not combine the desirable characters.
 Usually only one in few hundred to a thousand crosses shows the desirable
combination.
(iv) Selection and testing of superior recombinants
 It is crucial to the success of the breeding objective and requires careful scientific
evaluation of the progeny.
 It yields plants that are superior to both of the parents.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 22

  These are self-pollinated for several generations till they reach a state of
uniformity (homozygosity), so that the characters will not segregate in the
progeny.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 23

 (v) Testing, release & commercialization
 The newly selected lines are evaluated for their yield and other agronomic traits
of quality, disease resistance, etc.
 This is done by growing them in the research fields and recording their
performance under ideal fertilizer application irrigation and other crop
management practices.
 The evaluation is followed by testing the materials in farmers’ fields, for at least 3
growing seasons at several locations in the country, representing all the agro
climatic zones. The material is evaluated in comparison to the best available local
crop cultivar (a check or reference cultivar).
Wheat and Rice:
 The development of high yielding varieties of wheat and rice in the mid-1960s,
through plant breeding techniques has increased food production in our country.
This phase is known as the Green Revolution.
 During the period 1960-2000, wheat production increased from 11 million tons to
75 million tons. The rice production went up from 35 million tons to 89.5 million
tons.
 Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug (International Centre for Wheat & Maize
Improvement, Mexico) developed semi-dwarf wheat. In 1963, high yielding and
disease resistant varieties such as Sonalika & Kalyan Sona were introduced all
over the wheat-growing belt of India.
 Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8, (developed at International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines) and Taichung Native-1 (from
Taiwan). Later better-yielding semi dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna were
developed in India.
Sugar cane: Saccharum barberi (grown in north India, but poor sugar content & yield) was
crossed with Saccharum officinarum (tropical canes in south India, thicker stems and higher
sugar content but do not grow well in north India) and got a hybrid sugar cane having desirable
qualities like high yield, thick stems, high sugar and ability to grow in north India.
Millets: Hybrid maize, jowar & bajra developed in India. It includes high yielding varieties
resistant to water stress.
Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance
 It enhances food production and helps to reduce the use of fungicides and
bactericides.
 Resistance of the host plant is the genetic ability to prevent the pathogens from
disease.
Some plant diseases:
 Fungal: Rusts (E.g. brown rust of wheat, red rot of sugarcane and late blight of
potato).
 Bacterial: Black rot of crucifers.
 Viral: Tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic, etc.
Methods of breeding for disease resistance: Include conventional breeding techniques &
mutation breeding.
1. Conventional method: The steps are:
 Screening germplasm for resistance sources.
 Hybridisation of selected parents.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 24
  Selection and evaluation of the hybrids.
 Testing and release of new varieties.
Some crop varieties bred by this methods:

Crop Variety Resistance to diseases

Wheat Himgiri Leaf & stripe rust, hillbunt
Brassica Pusa swarnim (Karan rai) White rust
Cauliflower Pusa Shubhra, Pusa Snowball Black rot and curl Blight
K-1 black rot
Cowpea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight
Chilli Pusa Sadabahar Chilly mosaic virus, Tobacco
mosaic virus, and leaf curl.

 Conventional breeding is constrained by the availability of limited number of

disease resistance genes.
2. Mutation breeding:
 Mutation (creation of genetic variations) can create new desirable characters not
found in the parental type. Plants having these desirable characters can be
multiplied directly or can be used in breeding.
 Mutation breeding is the breeding by mutation through use of chemicals or
radiations (like gamma radiations), and selecting and using the plants that have
desirable character as a source in breeding.
E.g. In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew were
induced by mutations.
 Resistant genes from wild species are introduced into the high-yielding cultivated
varieties. E.g. Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus
esculentus) was transferred from a wild species and resulted in a new variety
called Parbhani kranti.
 Transfer of resistance genes is achieved by sexual hybridisation between the
target and the source plant.
Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests
 Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological, biochemical or
physiological characteristics.
 Hairy leaves: e.g., resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in
wheat.
 Solid stems in wheat: lead to non-preference by the stem sawfly.
 Smooth leaved and Nectar-less cotton varieties do not attract
bollworms.
 High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to
resistance to maize stem borers.
 Sources of resistance genes for breeding are cultivated varieties, germplasm
collections of crop or wild relatives.
Some crop varieties bred for insect pest resistance:
Crop Variety Insect pests
Brassica (rapeseed mustard) Pusa Gaurav Aphids
Flat bean Pusa Sem 2, Pusa Sem 3 Jassids, aphids & fruit borer.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 25
Okra (Bhindi) Pusa Sawani, Pusa A-4 Shoot and Fruit

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 26

Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality
 More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food. 3 billion
people suffer from ‘hidden hunger’(food deficient in micronutrient, protein and
vitamin).
 Biofortification (breeding crops with higher levels of nutrients) helps to improve
public health.
Objectives of breeding for improved nutritional quality:
 To improve Protein content and quality.
 To improve Oil content and quality.
 To improve Vitamin content.
 To improve Micronutrient and mineral content.
Examples for hybrids with improved nutritional quality:
 Maize hybrids having twice the amount of amino acids, lysine & tryptophan compared to
existing maize hybrids.
 Wheat variety, Atlas 66, having high protein content.
 Iron-fortified rice variety containing over five times as much iron as in common varieties.
 Vegetable crops rich in vitamins & minerals: released by Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi. E.g. vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin; vitamin C
enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato; iron & calcium enriched spinach &
bathua; and protein enriched beans (broad, lablab, French & garden peas).
III. SINGLE CELL PROTEIN (SCP)
 It is an alternate source of proteins for animal and human nutrition. E.g. microbes like
Spirulina.
 Spirulina is rich in protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrate & vitamins. It is grown on
materials like waste water from potato processing plants, straw, molasses, animal manure
& sewage. This also reduces environmental pollution.
 A 250 Kg cow produces 200 g of protein/day. In the same period, 250g of a micro-
organism like Methylophilus methylotrophus produce 25 tonnes of protein.
IV. TISSUE CULTURE
 A technique of growing plant cells/tissues/organs in sterile culture medium under
controlled aseptic conditions.
 The ability to generate a whole plant from any cell/explants is called totipotency. An
explant is any part of a plant that is grown in a test tube under sterile nutrient media.
 The nutrient medium must provide a carbon source (such as sucrose), inorganic salts,
vitamins, amino acids and growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins etc.
 The method of producing thousands of plants in very short time through tissue culture is
called micropropagation.
 These plants will be genetically identical to original plant, from which they were grown,
i.e., they are somaclones.
 Tomato, banana, apple etc. are produced using this method.
 Tissue culture is also used for recovering healthy plants from diseased plants. The
meristem (it will be free of virus) from infected plant is removed and grown it in vitro to
obtain virus-free plants. Scientists have cultured meristems of banana, sugarcane, potato,
etc.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 27

  Somatic hybridization: Protoplasts from two different varieties of plants (with desirable
characters) are fused to get hybrid protoplasts. It can be grown to form a new plant called
somatic hybrids. This process is called somatic hybridization. Protoplasts can be
isolated after digesting the cell walls of single cells of plants. A protoplast of tomato has
been fused with that of potato, to form new hybrid plants with the characteristics of
tomato and potato. But it has no all desired characteristics for its commercial utilization.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 28

 4. BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES &
PROCESSES
Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or their enzymes for
products and processes useful to humans. The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB)
defines Biotechnology as ‘the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts
thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services’.
Based on the development in biotechnology, it may be of 2types- old biotechnology and
modern biotechnology.
1. Old biotechnology: It deals with the techniques in biotechnology based on the
natural capabilities of microorganisms. E.g. Preparation of wine, beer and other
alcoholic beverages, vinegar, cheese, curd etc.
2. Modern biotechnology: It deals with the techniques in biotechnology which use
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) to achieve the products on larger scale.
Biotechnology deals with:
 Microbe-mediated processes (making curd, bread, wine etc).
 In vitro fertilisation (‘test-tube’ baby programme)
 Synthesis and using of a gene
 Preparation of a DNA vaccine
 Correcting a defective gene
PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
The two core techniques of modern biotechnology are:
a. Genetic engineering: The technique in which the genetic material (DNA & RNA) is
chemically altered and introduced into host organisms to change the phenotype.
b. Maintenance of sterile ambience: It is necessary in chemical engineering processes for
growing only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of
antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.
 Traditional hybridization techniques lead to inclusion and multiplication of undesirable
genes along with desired genes. Genetic engineering helps to isolate and introduce only
desirable genes into the target organism.
 A piece of DNA is not able to multiply itself in the progeny cells of the organism. But,
when it gets integrated into the recipient genome, it multiplies and inherits along with the
host DNA.
 First recombinant DNA was emerged from the possibility of linking a gene of antibiotic
resistance with a native plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium. When this recombinant
DNA (rDNA) is transferred to Escherichia coli, a bacterium closely related to
Salmonella, it could replicate along with host DNA and make multiple copies. Stanley
Cohen & Herbert Boyer (1972) isolated the antibiotic resistance gene by cutting out a
piece of DNA from a plasmid.
3 basic steps in genetically modifying an organism:

o Identification of DNA with desirable genes

o Introduction of the identified DNA into the host
o Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its progeny.

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Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 30
TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
1. Restriction Enzymes (‘molecular scissors’)
 In 1963, two enzymes responsible for restricting the growth of bacteriophage in E. coli
were isolated. One of these (Methylase) added methyl groups to DNA. The other
(restriction endonuclease) cut DNA.
 The first restriction endonuclease is Hind II. It always cuts DNA molecules at a
particular point by recognizing a specific sequence of six base pairs (bp). This is known
as the recognition sequence for Hind II.
 Today more than 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated from over 230 strains of
bacteria.
 Naming of the restriction enzymes: First letter indicates genus and the second two
letters indicate species of the prokaryotic cell from which they were isolated.
E.g. EcoRI comes from E. coli RY 13 (R = the strain. Roman numbers = the order in
which the enzymes were isolated from that strain of bacteria).
 Restriction enzymes belong to a class of enzymes called nucleases. They include
exonucleases & endonucleases.
Exonucleases
 They remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA.
Endonucleases
 They cut at specific positions within the DNA. (For figures see TB page: 196).
 Each restriction endonuclease can bind to specific recognition sequence of the DNA and
cut each of the two strands at specific points in their sugar-phosphate backbones. Each
restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific palindromic nucleotide sequences in the
DNA.
 The palindrome in DNA is a sequence of base pairs that read the same on the two strands
in 5' → 3' direction and in 3' → 5' direction. E.g.
5' —— GAATTC —— 3'
3' —— CTTAAG —— 5'
 Restriction enzymes cut the strand a little away from the centre of the palindrome sites,
but between the same two bases on the opposite strands. This leaves single stranded
overhanging stretches at the ends. They are called sticky ends(cohesive ends or
staggered ends). They form H-bonds with their complementary cut counterparts. This
stickiness facilitates action of the enzyme DNA ligase. (For figure see TB page: 197).
 When cut by the same restriction enzyme, the resultant DNA fragments have the same
kind of sticky-ends and these are joined together by DNA ligases.
2. Polymerase enzymes
Enzymes which help in the synthesis of molecules are called polymerase enzyme.
E.g. DNA polymerase- helps in the synthesis of DNA strand.
3. Ligases
Enzymes which are used to join the molecules are called ligases. E.g. DNA Ligase
(Molecular glue)- used to join DNA fragments

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 31

Separation and isolation of DNA fragments:
AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS (AGE)
 DNA fragments formed by restriction endonucleases can be separated by a technique
called gel electrophoresis.
 DNA fragments are negatively charged. So they can be separated by moving them
towards the anode under an electric field through a medium/matrix such as agarose (a
natural polymer extracted from sea weeds).
 The DNA fragments separate (resolve) according to their size through sieving effect
provided by the agarose gel. The smaller sized fragment move farther.
 The separated DNA fragments can be visualized after staining the DNA with ethidium
bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation. Bright orange coloured DNA bands can
be seen.

 The separated DNA bands are cut out from agarose gel and extracted from gel piece. This
step is called elution. These purified DNA fragments are used in constructing
recombinant DNA by joining them with cloning vectors.
4. Cloning Vectors
 They are the DNA molecules that can carry a foreign DNA segment and replicate inside
the host cells.
E.g. Plasmids (circular extra-chromosomal DNA of bacteria) and bacteriophages.
 Bacteriophages (high number per cell) have very high copy numbers of their genome
within the bacterial cells. Some plasmids have only 1-2 copies per cell. Others may have
15-100 copies per cell.
 When the cloning vectors are multiplied in the host the linked piece of DNA is also
multiplied to the numbers equal to the copy number of the vectors.
Features of cloning vector:
i) Origin of replication (ori): This is a sequence from where replication starts. A piece of
DNA linked to ori can replicate within the host cells. This also controls the copy number of
the linked DNA. So, for getting many copies of the target DNA it should be cloned in a
vector whose origin support high copy number.
ii) Selectable marker (marker gene): It helps to select the transformants and eliminate the
non-transformants. Transformation is a procedure in which a piece of DNA is introduced in
a host bacterium. Selectable markers of E. coli include the genes encoding resistance to
antibiotics like ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin etc. The normal E.
coli cells do not carry resistance against any of these antibiotics.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 32

iii) Cloning sites: In order to link the alien DNA, the vector needs very few recognition sites
for restriction enzymes. Presence of more than one recognition sites generates several
fragments, which complicates the gene cloning. The ligation of alien DNA is carried out at a
restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic resistance genes.
E.g. ligation of a foreign DNA at the Bam H I site of tetracycline resistance gene in the
vector pBR322.

 The recombinant plasmids lose tetracycline resistance due to insertion of foreign DNA.
But they can be selected out from non-recombinant ones by plating the transformants on
ampicillin containing medium.
 Then these transformants are transferred on tetracycline medium. The recombinants
grow in ampicillin medium but not on tetracycline medium. But, non-recombinants will
grow on the medium containing both the antibiotics.
 In this case, one antibiotic resistance gene helps to select the transformants, whereas the
other antibiotic resistance gene gets inactivated due to insertion of alien DNA, and helps
in selection of recombinants.
 Selection of recombinants due to inactivation of antibiotics requires simultaneous plating
on 2 plates having different antibiotics. Therefore, alternative selectable markers have
developed to differentiate recombinants from non-recombinants on the basis of their
ability to produce colour in the presence of a chromogenic substrate.
 A recombinant DNA is inserted within the coding sequence of an enzyme, β-
galactosidase. So the enzyme is inactivated. It is called insertional inactivation. Such
colonies do not produce any colour. These are identified as recombinant colonies.
 If the plasmid in bacteria have no an insert it gives blue coloured colonies in presence of
chromogenic substrate.
iv) Vectors for cloning genes in plants and animals:
 Genetic tools of some pathogens can be transformed into useful vectors for delivering
genes to plants & animals. E.g.
o Agrobacterioum tumifaciens (a pathogen of many dicot plants) can deliver a
piece of DNA (T-DNA) to transform normal plant cells into a tumor. These
tumor cells produce the chemicals required by the pathogen. The tumor
inducing (Ti) plasmid of A. tumifaciens is modified into a cloning vector which
is not pathogenic to the plants but is able to use the mechanisms to deliver genes
of interest into plants.
 Retroviruses in animals can transform normal cells into cancerous cells. So they are used
to deliver desirable genes into animal cells.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 33
 5. Competent Host (For Transformation with Recombinant DNA)
 DNA is a hydrophilic molecule. So it cannot pass through cell membranes.
 To avoid this problem, bacterial cells are treated with a specific concentration of a
divalent cation (e.g. calcium). So DNA enters the bacterium through pores in cell wall.
 Such cells are incubated with recombinant DNA on ice. Then they are placed briefly at
42ºC (heat shock) and put them back on ice. This enables the bacteria to take up the
recombinant DNA.
Other methods to introduce alien DNA into host cells:
 Micro-injection: In this, recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an
animal cell.
 Biolistics (gene gun): In this, cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of
gold or tungsten (1-2 µm in size) coated with DNA. This method is suitable for plants.
 ‘Disarmed pathogen’ (transformed pathogen incapable of causing disease)vectors:
which when infect the cell, transfer the recombinant DNA into the host.
PROCESSES OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
I. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)
 To get pure DNA (free from other macro-molecules), the bacterial cells/plant or animal
tissue are treated with enzymes such as lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase (plant cells),
chitinase (fungus) etc. The cell is broken to release DNA along with other
macromolecules (RNA, proteins, polysaccharides and lipids).
 Genes (DNA) are interwined with proteins such as histones. RNA is removed by treating
with ribonuclease. Proteins are removed by treatment with protease. Other molecules
are removed by appropriate treatments.
 When chilled ethanol is added purified DNA precipitates out as a collection of fine
threads in the suspension.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 34

 II. Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations
 Restriction enzyme digestions are performed by incubating purified DNA with the
restriction enzyme, at the optimal conditions.
 Agarose gel electrophoresis is employed to check the progression of a restriction
enzyme digestion. As DNA is negatively charged, it moves towards the anode. The
process is repeated with the vector DNA also.
 After cutting the source DNA and the vector DNA, the cut out gene (DNA segment) of
interest from the source DNA and the cut vector are mixed and ligase is added. This
creates recombinant DNA.
III. Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR
 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is the synthesis of multiple copies of the gene of
interest in vitro using 2 sets of primers & the enzyme DNA polymerase. Primers are
small chemically synthesized oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of
DNA.
 The enzyme extends the primers using the nucleotides and the genomic DNA (template).
Through continuous DNA replication, the DNA segment is amplified up to 1 billion
copies.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 35

  For amplification, a thermostable DNA polymerase (Taq DNA polymerase) isolated from
a bacterium, Thermus aquaticus) is used. It remains active in high temperature during the
denaturation of double stranded DNA.
 The amplified fragment can be used to ligate with a vector for further cloning.
IV. Insertion of Recombinant DNA into the Host Cell/Organism
 There are several methods of introducing the ligated DNA into recipient cells. Recipient
cells take up DNA present in its surrounding.
 If a recombinant DNA bearing ampicillin resistant gene (a selectable marker gene) is
transferred into E. coli cells, the host cells become ampicillin-resistant cells.
 If the transformed cells are spread on agar plates containing ampicillin, only
transformants will grow, untransformed recipient cells will die.
V. Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product
 The ultimate aim of recombinant DNA technology is to produce a desirable protein. The
foreign gene gets expressed under appropriate conditions.
 If a protein encoding gene is expressed in a host, it is called a recombinant protein.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 36

 
The cells with foreign genes may be grown on a small scale in the laboratory. The
cultures may be used to extract the desired protein and purify it by using different
separation techniques.
 The cells can also be multiplied in a continuous culture system. Here, the used medium
is drained out from one side while fresh medium is added from the other. It maintains the
cells more physiologically active and so produces a larger biomass leading to higher
yields of desired protein.
Bioreactors
 To produce large quantities of products, the bioreactors are used where large volumes
(100-1000 litres) of culture can be processed.
 Bioreactors are the vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific
products, enzymes etc., using microbial plant, animal or human cells.
 A bioreactor provides the optimal growth conditions (temperature, pH, substrate, salts,
vitamins, oxygen) for achieving the desired product.
 The most commonly used bioreacters are of stirring type (stirred-tank reactor).
 It is usually cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate the mixing of the reactor
contents. The stirrer facilitates even mixing and oxygen availability. Alternatively air can
be bubbled through the reactor. The bioreactor has
o An agitator system
o An oxygen delivery system
o A foam control system
o A temperature control system
o pH control system
o Sampling ports (for periodic withdrawal of the culture).

VI. Downstream Processing

 It is a series of processes such as separation and purification of products after the
biosynthetic stage.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 37

  The product is formulated with suitable preservatives. Such formulation undergoes
thorough clinical trials as in case of drugs. Strict quality control testing for each product
is also required.
 The downstream processing and quality control testing vary from product to product.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 38

 5. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Biotechnology gives several useful products to humans. This is possible by the use of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs). GMOs have novel capabilities. Biotechnology has a
wide range application such as biopharmaceuticals, therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically
modified crops for agriculture, processed food,
bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production.
 Biotechnology has 3 critical research areas:
a. Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism usually a microbe or pure
enzyme.
b. Creating optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act.
c. Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.
APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
Three options for increasing food production
 Agro-chemical based agriculture
 Organic agriculture
 Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) or transgenic organisms are the plants, bacteria,
fungi & animals whose genes are altered by manipulation.
Advantages of GM crops:
 It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat etc).
 Pest-resistant crops reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
 It helps to reduce post harvest losses. Eg. Polygalacturonase enzyme in Flavr Savr variety
of Tomato.
 It increases efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of
fertility of soil).
 It enhances nutritional value of food. E.g. Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice, protein rich potato.
 GM is used to create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in
the form of starches, fuels and pharmaceuticals.
Disadvantages of GM crops
 cry gene (Bt toxin gene) being introduced in crop plants can pass into wild vegetation.
Insects feeding on pollen and other parts will be killed resulting in the destruction of
pollinators like honey bees
 the products of transgenes are foreign to human body and animals feeding on transgenics.
This may cause allergy and toxicity
 antibiotic resistant gene present in transgenic food can be picked up by bacteria present in
human gut and transfer the same to pathogens.
 GM crops may cause damage to the natural biotic environment.
Pest Resistant Plants

 Pest Resistant Plants act as bio-pesticide.

 It reduces the need for insecticides.
 E.g. Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato, soyabean etc.
Production of transgenic plants

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 39

Bt Cotton:
 Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis have proteins that kill insects like coleopterans
(beetles) lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm) & dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).
 B. thuringiensis forms a toxic insecticidal protein (Bt toxin) crystal during a particular
phase of their growth. It does not kill the Bacillus as it exists as inactive protoxins.
 When an insect ingest the inactive toxin, it is converted into active toxin due to the
alkaline pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals. The toxin binds to the surface of
midgut epithelial cells and creates pores. It causes cell swelling and lysis and death of the
insect.
 Bt toxin genes were isolated from B. thuringiensis and incorporated into crop plants such
as cotton.
 Most Bt toxins are insect-group specific. The toxin is coded by a gene named cry. E.g.
the proteins encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton bollworms that
of cryIAb controls corn borer.
Nematode resistance in tobacco plants:

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 40

  A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants and causes a great
reduction in yield.
 RNA interference (RNAi) strategy is used to prevent this infestation.
 RNAi is a method of cellular defense in all eukaryotic organisms. It prevents translation
of a specific mRNA (silencing) due to a complementary dsRNA molecule.
 The source of this complementary RNA is from an infection by RNA viruses or mobile
genetic elements (transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate.
 Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes (DNA) were introduced into the
host plant. It produced both sense & anti-sense RNA in host cells. These two RNA’s
being complementary to each other formed a double stranded (dsRNA) that initiated
RNAi and thus, silenced the specific mRNA of nematode. Thus the parasite cannot
survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.
APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE
 The recombinant DNA technology helps for the mass production of safe and more
effective therapeutic drugs.
 The recombinant therapeutics does not induce unwanted immunological responses as is
common in case of similar products isolated from non-human sources.
 At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human-use. In
India, 12 of these are presently being marketed.
Genetically Engineered Insulin:
 Management of adult-onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at regular time intervals.
 Now, it is possible to produce human insulin using bacteria.
 Insulin from the pancreas of animals (cattle & pigs) causes allergy or other types of
reactions to the foreign protein.
 Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains (chain A & chain B) that are linked
together by disulphide bridges.
 In mammals, insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone. The pro-hormone needs processing
before it becomes a fully mature and functional hormone.
 The pro-hormone contains an extra stretch called the C peptide. This is removed during
maturation into insulin.

 In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to
A & B chains of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce
insulin chains. Chains A & B were produced separately, extracted and combined by
creating disulfide bonds to form human insulin.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 41

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 42
Production of genetically engineered insulin

Gene Therapy:
 It is a method to correct a gene defect diagnosed in a child/embryo. Here, genes are
inserted into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a hereditary disease. It compensates for
the non-functional gene.
 First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year old girl with adenosine
deaminase (ADA) deficiency. The disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene for
adenosine deaminase (the enzyme crucial for the immune system to function).
 This can be cured by bone marrow transplantation or by enzyme replacement therapy
(injection of functional ADA). But these approaches are not completely curative.
 In gene therapy, lymphocytes from the patient’s blood are grown in a culture. Then, a
functional ADA cDNA (using a retroviral vector) is introduced into these lymphocytes.
Then, they are returned to the patient. This should be periodically repeated as these cells
are not immortal. However, if the ADA gene (from marrow cells) is introduced into cells
at early embryonic stages, it could be a permanent cure.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 43

Molecular Diagnosis
 Recombinant DNA technology, PCR and Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay
(ELISA) are some techniques for early diagnosis.
 Presence of a pathogen is normally suspected only when the pathogen has produced a
symptom. By this time the concentration of pathogen is already very high in the body.
However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus can be detected by amplification
of their nucleic acid by PCR.
 PCR is used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients. It is also used to detect mutations
in genes in suspected cancer patients. It is a powerful technique to identify many other
genetic disorders.
 A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to
hybridise to its complementary DNA in a clone of cells followed by detection using
autoradiography. The clone having the mutated gene will hence not appear on the
photographic film, because the probe will not have complimentarity with the mutated
gene.
 ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction. Infection by pathogen
can be detected by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting
the antibodies synthesized against the pathogen.
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
 These are the animals whose genome has been altered by introduction of an extra
(foreign) gene by manipulation.
 E.g. Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish.
 Over 95% of all existing transgenic animals are mice.
Benefits of transgenic animals
 To study normal physiology & development:
 Transgenic animals are used to study how genes are regulated, and how they affect the
normal body functions and its development.
E.g. study of complex factors such as insulin-like growth factor. Genes (from other
species) that alter the formation of this factor are introduced and the biological effects are
studied. This gives information about the biological role of the factor in the body.
 To Study the contribution of genes in the development of a disease: Transgenic
models help for investigation of new treatments for human diseases. E.g. transgenic
models
for many human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and
Alzheimer’s.
 Biological products: Some medicines contain biological products, but they are often
expensive. Transgenic animals are used to produce useful biological products by
introducing genes which codes for a particular product. E.g. human protein (α-1-
antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema, products for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU)
and cystic fibrosis etc.
In 1997, Rosie (first transgenic cow) produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 gm per
litre). It contains the human α -lactalbumin and is nutritionally more balanced product for
human babies than natural cow-milk.
 Vaccine safety testing: Transgenic mice are used to test the safety of the polio vaccine.
If it is found to be reliable, they can replace the use of monkeys to test the safety of
batches of the vaccine.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 44
  Chemical safety testing (toxicity testing): Transgenic animals are made that carry genes
which make them more sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals. They
are exposed to the toxic substances and the effects studied. It gives immediate results.
ETHICAL ISSUES
 Problem of unpredictable results: Genetic modification may cause unpredictable
results when such organisms are introduced into the ecosystem. Therefore, Indian
Government has set up organizations like GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval
Committee), which make decisions about the validity of GM research and the safety of
GM-organisms for public services.
 Problems of patent: Certain companies have got patents for products and technologies
that make use of the genetic materials, plants etc that have been identified, developed and
used by farmers and indigenous people of a specific country. E.g. Basmati rice, herbal
medicines like turmeric, neem etc. Basmati rice has unique aroma & flavour. India has
27 varieties of Basmati. In 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice
through the US Patent and Trademark Office. This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’
variety of Basmati. This had actually been derived from Indian farmer’s varieties. Indian
Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as a novelty. Other people
selling Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent.
 Biopiracy: It is the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other
organizations without proper authorization from the countries and people concerned.
Most of the industrialized nations are poor in biodiversity and traditional knowledge. The
developing and the underdeveloped world have rich biodiversity and traditional
knowledge related to bio-resources. It has to develop laws to prevent unauthorized
exploitation of bio-resources and traditional knowledge. Indian Parliament has cleared
the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill that takes such issues into
consideration, including patent terms emergency provisions and research and
development initiative.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 45

 6. ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms and between the organism and its
physical (abiotic) environment. Ecology is concerned with 4 levels of biological organization:
organisms, populations, communities & biomes.
ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
 Ecology at the organismic level (physiological ecology) explains how different organisms
are adapted to their environments in terms of survival and reproduction.
 The rotation of earth and the tilt of its axis cause annual variations in temperature &
seasons. Major biomes (desert, rain forest, tundra etc) are formed due to these variations
& precipitation (rain & snow).

 Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation of different
habitats.
 On Earth, life exists even in extreme and harsh habitats. E.g. Rajasthan desert, rain-
soaked Meghalaya forests, deep ocean trenches, torrential streams, Polar Regions, high
mountain tops, thermal springs, and compost pits. Our intestine is a habitat for many
microbes.
 The physico-chemical (abiotic) components (water, light, temperature, soil etc) &
biotic components (pathogens, parasites, predators, competitors etc) lead to variation of
different habitats.
 Abiotic Factors
a. Temperature
 The most ecologically relevant environmental factor.
 The average temperature on land varies seasonally. It gradually decreases from the
equator towards the poles and from plains to the mountain tops. It ranges from subzero
levels (in polar areas & high altitudes) to >50ºC (in tropical deserts).
 In habitats like thermal springs & deep-sea hydrothermal vents average temperatures
exceed 100ºC.
 Mango trees cannot grow in temperate countries (Canada, Germany etc). There is no
Snow leopard in Kerala forests. Tuna fishes are rare beyond tropical latitudes in the
ocean.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 46
  Temperature affects kinetics of enzymes, basal metabolism and other physiological
functions of the organism.
 Based on range of thermal tolerance organisms are 2 types:
o Eurythermal: They can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures.
o Stenothermal: They can tolerate only a narrow range of temperatures.
b. Water
 Next to temperature, water is the most important factor influencing the life of organisms.
 Life on earth originated in water.
 Water is very limited in deserts. So special adaptations are essential for desert organisms.
 Productivity & distribution of plants is dependent on water.
 For aquatic organisms the quality (chemical composition, pH) of water is important. The
salt concentration (salinity in parts per thousand), is less than 5% in inland waters, 30-
35% the sea and > 100% in some hypersaline lagoons.
 Based on the range of tolerance to salinity organisms are 2 types:
o Euryhaline: Tolerate a wide range of salinities.
o Stenohaline: Tolerate only a narrow range of salinity. Many freshwater animals
cannot live for long in sea water and vice versa because of the osmotic problems.
c. Light
 Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis.
 Small forest plants (herbs & shrubs) are adapted to photosynthesize optimally under very
low light because they are overshadowed by tall, canopied trees.
 Many plants depend on sunlight for photoperiodism (e.g. flowering).
 Many animals use the diurnal and seasonal variations in light intensity and photoperiod
for timing their foraging, reproductive & migratory activities.
 Sun is the ultimate source for light and temperature on land. Deep (>500m) in the oceans,
the environment is dark and there is no energy available from sun.
 The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important for life. The UV component of the
spectrum is harmful to many organisms. Not all the colour components of the visible
spectrum are available for marine plants.
d. Soil
 The nature and properties of soil in different places vary. It is dependent on the climate,
the weathering process, sedimentation, method of soil development etc.
 Various characteristics of the soil (soil composition, grain size and aggregation)
determine the percolation and water holding capacity of the soils.
 These characteristics and parameters such as pH, mineral composition & topography
determine the vegetation and animals in an area.
 In aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics determine the type of benthic
animals.
Responses to Abiotic Factors

 Organisms maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis) despite varying

external environmental conditions. This is possible by following processes.
a. Regulate

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 47

  It is the maintenance of homeostasis by physiological & behavioural means that ensures
constant body temperature (thermoregulation), constant osmotic concentration
(osmoregulation) etc.
E.g. All birds & mammals, very few lower vertebrates and invertebrates.
 Thermoregulation in mammals: The success of mammals is mainly due to their ability
to maintain a constant body temperature. In summer, when outside temperature is more
than body temperature (37ºC) we sweat profusely. This results in evaporative cooling and
brings down body temperature.
 In winter, when the temperature is below 370C, shivering occurs. It produces heat and
raises the body temperature.
b. Conform
 99% of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain a constant internal environment.
Their body temperature or osmotic concentration change with the surrounding conditions.
They are called conformers.

 In aquatic animals, osmotic concentration of body fluids changes with that of the ambient
osmotic concentration.
 Thermoregulation is energetically expensive especially for small animals (shrews,
humming birds etc). They have a larger surface area relative to their volume. So they lose
body heat very fast when it is cold outside. Then they have to expend much energy to
generate body heat. Therefore very small animals are rare in Polar Regions.
c. Migrate
 Many animals like birds move away temporarily from stressful habitat to a more
hospitable area and return when stressful period is over.
 E.g. During winter, Keolado National Park (Bhartpur, Rajasthan) hosts migratory birds
coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions.
d. Suspend

 In bacteria, fungi & lower plants, thick walled spores are formed which help to survive
unfavourable conditions. When conditions are suitable they germinate.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 48

  In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve to tide
over periods of stress by reducing their metabolic activity. They germinate under
favourable moisture and temperature.
o In animals: Examples are
 Hibernation of bears during winter.
 Aestivation of some snails and fishes during summer.
 Diapause (a stage of suspended development) of many zooplanktons in
lakes & ponds.
Adaptations
 Adaptation is the morphological, physiological & behavioural attribute that enables an
organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat.
 Many adaptations have evolved over a long evolutionary time and are genetically fixed.
Adaptations of kangaroo rat in North American deserts:
 Internal fat oxidation gives water as byproduct if there is no external source of water.
Ability to concentrate urine so that minimal volume of water is used to remove excretory
products.
Adaptations of desert plants:
 Presence of thick cuticle on leaf surfaces. Their stomata are arranged in deep pits to
minimise water loss through transpiration.
 A special photosynthetic pathway (CAM) that enables their stomata to remain closed
during day time.
 Desert plants like Opuntia have no leaves (they are reduced to spines). Photosynthesis is
done by stems.
Adaptations of mammals:

 Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to reduce heat loss. (This is
called Allen’s Rule).
 Aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) below their skin that acts
as an insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
Physiological and biochemical adaptations:
 In most animals, there is an optimum temperature for metabolic reactions. But
archaebacteria are found in hot springs & deep sea hydrothermal vents where
temperature is >100ºC. Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters (temperature is below 0ºC).
 Many marine invertebrates & fishes live at great depths in the ocean where the pressure is
>100 times the normal atmospheric pressure.
 At a high altitude place (>3,500 m) we feel altitude sickness. Its symptoms are nausea,
heart palpitations & fatigue. This is due to low atmospheric pressure. So the body does
not get enough O2. Gradually, we acclimatize the situation and the body compensates
low O2 availability by increasing RBC & breathing rate and decreasing the binding
capacity of hemoglobin.
Behavioural adaptations:
 Desert lizards bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature is low, but
move into shade when the ambient temperature starts increasing.
 Some species are capable of burrowing into the soil to hide and escape from the above-
ground heat.

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POPULATIONS
 A population is a group of individuals of same species that live in a given geographical
area, share or compete for similar resources and potentially reproduce.
 E.g. All the cormorants in a wetland, rats in an abandoned dwelling, teakwood trees in a
forest tract, bacteria in a culture plate and lotus plants in a pond etc.
 Population ecology is an important area of ecology as it links ecology to population
genetics & evolution.
Population Attributes:
 Birth rates: Refer to per capita births.
E.g. Consider in a pond there are 20 lotus plants last year and through reproduction 8 new
plants are added. Hence, the current population = 28
The birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year.
 Death rates: Refer to per capita deaths.
E.g. Consider 4 individuals in a laboratory population of 40 fruit flies died during a week.
Hence, the death rate = 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week.
 Sex ratio: A population has a sex ratio.
E.g. 60% of the population is females and 40% males.
 Age pyramid: If the age distribution (% individuals of a given age or age group) is
plotted for the population, the resulting structure is called an age pyramid.
For human population, the age pyramids generally show age distribution of males and
females in a combined diagram. The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of
the population- whether it is (a) growing (b) stable or (c) declining.

 Population size or population density (N): It is the number of individuals of a species

per unit area or volume. E.g. population density of Siberian cranes at Bharatpur wetlands
in any year is <10. It is millions for Chlamydomonas in a pond.
 In some cases, population size is measured in % cover or biomass. E.g. consider in an
area, 200 Parthenium plants and a single huge banyan tree are seen. In such cases, the %
cover or biomass is a more meaningful measure of the population size to show the
importance of banyan tree.
 Total number is a difficult measure for a huge population. In such cases, relative
population density (without knowing absolute population density) is used. E.g. the
number of fish caught per trap indicates its total population density in the lake.
 In some other cases, indirect estimation of population sizes is performed. E.g. Tiger
census in national parks & tiger reserves based on pug marks & fecal pellets.
Population Growth

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  The population size changes in time, depending on various factors like food availability,
predation pressure & weather. Changes in population density give some idea about the
population – whether it is flourishing or declining.
 4 basic processes that fluctuate the population density:
a. Natality (B): It is the number of births in a population during a given period.
b. Mortality (D): It is the number of deaths in a population during a given period.
c. Immigration (I): It is the number of individuals of the same species that have come
into the habitat from elsewhere during a given time period.
d. Emigration (E): It is the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat
and gone elsewhere during a given time period.
 Natality & immigration increase the population density and mortality & emigration
decrease the population density.

 If N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t +1 is

Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
 This equation indicates that population density increases if B + I is more than D + E.
Otherwise it will decrease.
 Under normal conditions, births & deaths are important factors influencing population
density. Other 2 factors have importance only under special conditions. E.g. if a new
habitat is just being colonized, immigration may be more significant to population growth
than birth rates.
Growth Models
a. Exponential growth
 Resource availability (food & space) is essential for the unimpeded population growth.
 If resources are unlimited, each species shows its full innate potential to grow in number.
Then the population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion.
 If in a population of size N, the birth rates (per capita births) are represented as b and
death rates (per capita deaths) as d, then the increase or decrease in N during a unit time
period t (dN/dt) will be
dN/dt = (b – d) × N
Let (b–d) = r, then
dN/dt = rN

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 The r (‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’) is an important parameter for assessing impacts
of any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth.
The r value for the Norway rat = 0.015
The r value for the flour beetle = 0.12
The r value for human population in India (1981) = 0.0205
The integral form of the exponential growth equation is
Nt = N0 ert
Where,
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
b. Logistic growth
 There is no population in nature having unlimited resources for exponential growth. This
leads to competition between individuals for limited resources.
 Eventually, the ‘fittest’ individuals survive and reproduce.
 In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support a maximum possible number,
beyond which no further growth is possible. It is called carrying capacity (K).
 A population with limited resources show initially a lag phase, followed by phases of
acceleration & deceleration and finally an asymptote, when the population density
reaches the carrying capacity. This type of population growth is called Verhulst-Pearl
Logistic Growth. It is described by following equation:

 Since resources for growth for most animal populations are finite the logistic growth
model is more realistic one.
Population growth curves:

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Life History Variation
 Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness or Darwinian fitness (high r
value). Under a particular set of selection pressures, organisms evolve towards the most
efficient reproductive strategy.
 Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime (Pacific salmon fish, bamboo) while
others breed many times (most birds and mammals).
 Some produce a large number of small-sized offspring (Oysters, pelagic fishes) while
others produce a small number of large-sized offspring (birds, mammals).
 The above facts indicate that life history traits of organisms have evolved due to limited
abiotic and biotic components of the habitat.
Population Interactions
 In nature, animals, plants and microbes interact in various ways to form a biological
community.
 Interspecific interactions arise from the interaction of populations of two different
species. They include
o Mutualism: Both the species are benefitted (+).
o Competition: Both the species are harmed (-).
o Parasitism: One species (parasite) is benefitted and other species (host) is
harmed.
o Predation: One species (predator) is benefitted and other species (prey) is
harmed.
o Commensalism: One species is benefitted and the other is neither benefitted nor
harmed (0).
o Amensalism: One species is harmed and the other is unaffected.

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  In predation, parasitism and commensalisms, the interacting species live closely together.
a. Predation
 In a broad ecological context, all carnivores, herbivores etc are predators. About 25 % of
all insects are phytophagous.
 If a predator overexploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct. It results in the
extinction of predator. This is the reason why predators in nature are ‘prudent’.
Importance of predators:
 Predators keep prey populations under control. When certain exotic species are
introduced into a geographical area, they spread fast due to the absence its natural
predators in the invaded land. E.g. the prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia in the
early 1920’s caused havoc by spreading. Finally, the invasive cactus was brought under
control only after a cactus-feeding predator (a moth) was introduced into the country.
 Biological control methods are based on the ability of the predator to regulate prey
population.
 Predators maintain species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of
competition among competing prey species. E.g. the starfish Pisaster is a predator in the
rocky intertidal communities of the American Pacific Coast. In an experiment, when all
the starfishes were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10 species of
invertebrates became extinct within a year, due to interspecific competition.
Defenses of prey species to lessen impact of predation:
 Some insects & frogs are camouflaged (crypticallycoloured) to avoid being detected by
the predator.
 Some are poisonous and so avoided by the predators.
 The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) due to a special chemical
in its body. This chemical is acquired during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a
poisonous weed.
 Thorns (Acacia, Cactus etc) are the most common morphological means of defence of
plants.
 Many plants produce chemicals that make the herbivore sick, inhibit feeding or digestion,
disrupt its reproduction or kill it. E.g. Calotropis (a weed growing in abandoned fields)
produce highly poisonous cardiac glycosides. Therefore cattle or goats do not eat it.
Nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc. are defenses against grazers and
browsers.
Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 54
b. Competition
 Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic evolution.
 Competition is a process in which fitness of one species (measured as ‘r’ value) is
significantly lower in presence of another species.
 Competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same limited resources.
 Unrelated species can also compete for the resource. E.g. Flamingoes & fishes in some
shallow South American lakes compete for zooplankton.
 Competition occurs in abundant resources also. E.g. In interference competition, the
feeding efficiency of one species is reduced due to the interfering and inhibitory presence
of other species, even if resources are abundant.
Evidences for competition:
o The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade after goats
were introduced on the island, due to greater browsing efficiency of the goats.
o ‘Competitive release’: A species, restricted to a small geographical area (due to the
presence of competitively superior species), expands its distributional range when the
competing species is experimentally removed. Connell’s field experiments showed that
on the rocky sea coasts of Scotland, the larger & competitively superior barnacle Balanus
dominates intertidal area, and excludes the smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone.
Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’:
o It states that two closely related species competing for the same resources cannot co-exist
indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually. This may be
true in limited resources, but not otherwise.
o Species facing competition may evolve mechanisms that promote co-existence rather
than exclusion. E.g. ‘resource partitioning’.
o Resource partitioning: If two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid
competition by choosing different times for feeding or different foraging patterns. E.g.
MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living on the same tree
were able to avoid competition and co-exist due to behavioural differences in their
foraging activities.
c. Parasitism
 Many parasites have evolved to be host-specific (they can parasitize only a single species
of host) in such a way that both host and the parasite tend to co-evolve. i.e., if the host
evolves special mechanisms for rejecting or resisting the parasite, the parasite has to
evolve mechanisms to counteract and neutralize them, in order to be successful with the
same host species.
o Adaptations of parasites: Loss of sense organs, presence of adhesive organs or suckers
to cling on to the host, loss of digestive system, high reproductive capacity etc.
o Life cycles of parasites are often complex. E.g. Human liver fluke depends on 2
intermediate hosts (a snail & a fish) to complete its life cycle.
o Malarial parasite needs mosquito to spread to other hosts.
o Majority of the parasites harm the host. They may reduce the survival, population
density, growth and reproduction of the host. They might render the host more vulnerable
to predation by making it physically weak.
Types of parasites:

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 o Ectoparasites: Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism. E.g. lice
on humans and ticks on dogs. Many marine fish are infested with ectoparasitic copepods.
Cuscuta, a parasitic plant that is commonly found growing on hedge plants, has lost its
chlorophyll and leaves in the course of evolution. It derives its nutrition from the host
plant which it parasitizes. The female mosquito is not considered a parasite, although it
needs our blood for reproduction.
o Endoparasites: Parasites that live inside the host body at different sites (liver, kidney,
lungs, RBC etc). The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex. Their morphological
& anatomical features are simplified while emphasizing their reproductive potential.
o Brood parasitism in birds: Here, the parasitic birds lay eggs in the nest of its host and
lets the host incubate them. During the course of evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird
have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in size and colour to reduce the chances of the
host bird detecting the foreign eggs and ejecting them from the nest. E.g. Brood
parasitism between cuckoo and crow.
d. Commensalism
 Examples:
o Orchid (+) growing as epiphyte on a mango branch (0).
o Barnacles (+) growing on the back of a whale (0).
o Cattle egret (+) & grazing cattle (0). The egrets forage close to where the cattle
are grazing. As the cattle move, the vegetation insects come out. Otherwise it is
difficult for the egrets to find and catch the insects.
o Sea anemone (0) & clown fish (+). The fish gets protection from predators with
the help of stinging tentacles of sea anemone. The anemone has no any benefit.
e. Mutualism
 Examples:
o Lichen: It is an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus &
photosynthesizing algae or cyanobacteria.
o Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi & the roots of higher plants. The
fungi help the plant in the absorption of essential nutrients from the soil while the
plant provides the fungi with carbohydrates.
o Mutualism b/w plant & animal through pollination and seed dispersion:
Examples:
1. Many fig trees & wasps. The fig species is pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species
and no other species. The female wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching for
suitable egg-laying sites in fruits. The fig offers the wasp some developing seeds, as food
for the wasp larvae.
2. Orchids show diversity of floral patterns. They can attract the right pollinator insect (bees
& bumblebees) to ensure pollination. Not all orchids offer rewards.
3. ‘Sexual deceit’ of Ophrys (the Mediterranean orchid). One petal of its flower resembles
female bee in size, colour & markings. So male bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower.
The bee is dusted with pollen from the flower. When the same bee ‘pseudocopulates’
with another flower, it transfers pollen to it. If the female bee’s colour patterns change
slightly during evolution, pollination success will be reduced unless the orchid flower co-
evolves to maintain the resemblance of its petal to the female bee.

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 7. ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
Types of ecosystems
 Terrestrial ecosystem: Forest, grassland, desert etc
 Aquatic ecosystem: Pond, lake, wetland, river & estuary
 Man-made ecosystem: Crop fields and aquarium
The entire biosphere can be regarded as a global ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
o In an ecosystem, interaction of biotic and abiotic components occurs. These components
function as a unit.
o Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called
stratification. E.g. trees occupy top vertical strata (layer) of a forest, shrubs the second
and herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers.
4 basic components of functioning of an ecosystem:
i. Productivity ii. Decomposition
iii. Energy flow iv. Nutrient cycling
Pond (Aquatic ecosystem)
o A pond is a shallow, simple, self-sustainable water body that exhibits all basic
components of an ecosystem.
 Abiotic components in pond: water and the rich soil deposit at the bottom.
 Climatic conditions: The solar input, the cycle of temperature, day-length etc.
 Autotrophic components: phytoplankton, some algae and the floating, submerged and
marginal plants.
 Consumers (heterotrophs): zooplankton, free swimming and bottom dwelling forms.
 Decomposers: fungi, bacteria and flagellates.
o Pond performs all the functions of an ecosystem such as
 Conversion of inorganic into organic material with the help of the radiant energy of
the sun by the autotrophs.
 Consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs.
 Decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to release them back for reuse
by the autotrophs.
PRODUCTIVITY
o A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to function
and sustain.
o The amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis is called primary production. It is expressed in terms of
weight (g m–2) or energy (kcal m–2).
o The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in terms of g m–2
yr–1 or (kcal m–2) yr–1.
o It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity
(NPP).
 Gross primary productivity: It is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration.

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 o Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R) is the net primary productivity
(NPP), i.e. NPP is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores
and decomposers).
NPP = GPP – R
 Secondary productivity: It is the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
o Primary productivity depends on
 The plant species inhabiting a particular area
 Environmental factors
 Availability of nutrients
 Photosynthetic capacity of plants
Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems.
o The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170
billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 % of the
surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55 billion tons. Rest of course, is on land.
DECOMPOSITION
o It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into inorganic substances
like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients.
o It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
o Detritus (dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals,
including fecal matter) is the raw material for decomposition.
Steps of decomposition
a. Fragmentation: It is the breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores
(e.g. earthworm).
b. Leaching: By this process, water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil
horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts.
c. Catabolism: Degradation of detritus into simpler inorganic substances by bacterial and
fungal enzymes.
Fragmentation, leaching and catabolism operate simultaneously on the detritus.
d. Humification: Accumulation of humus (dark amorphous substance) in soil. Humus is
resistant to microbial action and so decomposes very slowly. Being colloidal in nature it
serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
e. Mineralization: It is the release of inorganic nutrients due to the degradation of humus
some microbes.
Factors influencing decomposition
o Chemical composition of detritus: Decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in
lignin & chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances
like sugars.
o Climatic factors like temperature and soil moisture: Warm and moist environment
favour decomposition whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition
resulting in buildup of organic materials.
ENERGY FLOW
o Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems (except deep sea hydro-thermal
ecosystem).
o Of the incident solar radiation less than 50% of it is photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR).

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 o Plants and photosynthetic & chemosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix solar radiant
energy to make food.
o Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR and this small amount of energy sustains the entire
living world. So, it is very important to know how the solar energy captured by plants
flows through different organisms of an ecosystem.
o Ecosystems obey 2nd Law of thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to
synthesise the molecules they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward
increasing disorderliness.
o Producers: All organisms are dependent for their food on producers (green plants),
either directly or indirectly. In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous
and woody plants. Primary producers in an aquatic ecosystem are phytoplankton, algae
and higher plants.
o The energy trapped by the producer is either passed on to a consumer or the organism
dies. Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain/web.
o Consumers (heterotrophs): These are all animals that depend on plants (directly or
indirectly) for their food.
They include:
o Primary consumers (herbivores- feed on plants). E.g. insects, birds and mammals in
terrestrial ecosystem and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
o Secondary consumers (primary carnivores- feed on herbivores). E.g. frog, fox, man
etc.
o Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores- feed on primary carnivores).
o A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below:

o Detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of
decomposers (saprotrophs) which are heterotrophic organisms. E.g. fungi & bacteria.
They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or
detritus.
o Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into
simple, inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.
o In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
o In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the DFC than
through the GFC.
o DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels: some of the organisms of DFC are prey
to the GFC animals. Some animals (cockroaches, crows etc.) are omnivores. These
interconnections of food chains make a food web.
o Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a community according to
their feeding relationship. A specific place of organisms in the food chain is known as
their trophic level. Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores to the second
and carnivores to the third.

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 o The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When an organism dies it
becomes dead biomass (detritus) that serves as an energy source for decomposers.
o Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their
energy demands.
o Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the
standing crop. It is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number
in a unit area. Biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate.
o The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of
energy follows 10 % law – only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic level
from the lower trophic level. In nature, it is possible to have so many levels – producer,
herbivore, primary carnivore, secondary carnivore in the grazing food chain.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
o The representation of a food chain in the form of a pyramid is called ecological pyramid.
o The base of each pyramid represents the producers (first trophic level) while the apex
represents tertiary or top level consumer.
Ecological pyramids are 3 types:
(a) Pyramid of number
(b) Pyramid of biomass
(c) Pyramid of energy
a) Pyramid of number: E.g. grassland ecosystem:

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b) Pyramid of biomass: It shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels.

 Inverted pyramid of biomass: Small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large

standing crop of zooplankton.

c) Pyramid of energy: Primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight
available to them into NPP.

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 o Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to include all organisms at
that trophic level.
o The trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A given species may
occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time. E.g. A
sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a secondary consumer
when it eats insects and worms.
o In most ecosystems, all the pyramids are upright, i.e., producers are more in number and
biomass than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in number and biomass than the
carnivores. Also energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level.
o Examples for inverted pyramids:
 Insects feeding on a big tree
 Pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because the biomass of fishes far
exceeds that of phytoplankton.
o Pyramid of energy is always upright, because when energy flows from a trophic level to
the next trophic level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
o Limitations of ecological pyramids:
 It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic
levels.
 It assumes a simple food chain that almost never exists in nature; it does not
accommodate a food web.
 Saprophytes are not included in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital
role in the ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
o It is a gradual, slow and predictable change in the species composition of an area leading
to a climax community (community that is in equilibrium with the environment).
o During succession some species colonize an area and become more numerous, whereas
populations of other species decline and disappear.
o The entire sequences of communities that successively change in a given area are called
sere. The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages (seral
communities).
o In the successive seral stages there is a change in the diversity of species, increase in the
number of species and organisms and an increase in the total biomass.
o The present day communities are the results of succession that occurred over millions of
years. Succession and evolution would have been parallel processes at that time.
o Succession is 2 types:
 Primary: The succession taking place in areas where no living organisms ever
existed. E.g. newly cooled lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir.
Before a biotic community is established, there must be formation of fertile soil
through natural processes. So the primary succession is a very slow process.
 Secondary: The succession taking place in an area after the existed organisms are
lost. E.g. abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been
flooded.
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary
succession. The species that invade depend on the condition of the soil,
availability of water etc.

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 o In succession, changes in vegetation affect food & shelter of various animals. Thus, as
succession proceeds, the number and types of animals & decomposers also change.
o Natural or human induced disturbances (deforestation, fire etc.), can convert a particular
seral stage of succession to an earlier stage. Such disturbances create new conditions that
encourage some species and discourage or eliminate other species.
Succession of Plants
o Based on the nature of the habitat, succession of plants is 2 types: hydrarch and xerarch.
 Hydrarch succession: It takes place in wetter areas. The successional series
progress from hydric to the mesic conditions.
 Xerarch succession: It takes place in dry areas. The series progress from xeric to
mesic conditions.
o Hence, all successions (both hydrarch & xerarch) lead to medium water conditions
(mesic, the climax community).
o The species invading a bare area are called pioneer species.
o Primary succession on rocks (xerophytic habitat): Lichens (pioneer species. They
secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weathering & soil formation) → small plants
like bryophytes (they need only small amount of soil) → bigger plants → stable climax
forest community (mesophytic).
The climax community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged.
o Primary succession in water: Phytoplankton (pioneers) → free-floating angiosperms →
rooted hydrophytes → sedges, grasses → trees (climax community is a forest).
With time the water body is converted into land.
NUTRIENT CYCLING
o The amount of nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium etc. present in the soil
at any given time, is referred to as the standing state. It varies in different kinds of
ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis.
o Nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems. They are recycled again and again. The
movement of nutrient elements through various components of an ecosystem is called
nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles).
o Nutrient cycles are 2 types:
a. Gaseous cycle: For this, the reservoir exists in the atmosphere (e.g., nitrogen, carbon
cycle etc).
b. Sedimentary cycle: For this, the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust. (e.g., sulphur and
phosphorus cycle).
o Environmental factors (soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc.) regulate the rate of release
of nutrients into the atmosphere. The reservoir meets with the deficit of nutrients due to
imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
Carbon Cycle
o Reservoir of carbon: Atmosphere (about 1%), organisms (49% of dry weight), oceans
(71% dissolved carbon. It regulates the amount of atmospheric CO2), fossil fuel etc.
o Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead
organisms.
o 4×1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually.
o A major amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiration.

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 o Decomposers also contribute to CO2 pool by their processing of waste materials and dead
organic matter.
o Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation.
o Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel and volcanic
activity are other sources for releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
o Role of human activities in carbon cycle: Deforestation, burning of fossil fuel etc. has
increased the rate of release of CO2 into the atmosphere.

Phosphorus Cycle
o Phosphorus is a constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids & cellular energy
transfer systems. Many animals use phosphorus to make shells, bones and teeth.
o The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock (in the form of phosphates).
o When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of phosphates dissolve in soil solution and
are absorbed by the plants. Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants.
The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed by phosphate-solubilising
bacteria releasing phosphorus.

Differences between carbon and phosphorous cycles

Carbon cycle Phosphorous cycle

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 Atmospheric input is higher Much smaller
There is gaseous exchange Gaseous exchange is
b/w organism & environment negligible

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
o The products of ecosystem processes are called ecosystem services.
o E.g. healthy forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and floods, cycle
nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, pollinate
crops, provide storage site for carbon and provide aesthetic, cultural & spiritual values.
o Robert Constanza and his colleagues have tried to put price tags on nature’s life-support
services.
o Researchers have put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on these fundamental
ecosystems services. This is nearly twice the value of the global gross national product
GNP which is (US $ 18 trillion).
o Out of the total cost of various ecosystem services, the soil formation accounts for about
50%.
o Contributions of other services like recreation & nutrient cycling are less than 10% each.
o The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are about 6 % each.

Science TUTOR Dr. Sujith Sugathan 65

 8. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
 Human population explosion increases the demand for food, water, home, electricity,
roads, automobiles etc. It leads to pollution of air, water and soil.
 Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of
air, land, water or soil. Agents that cause pollution are called as pollutants.
 The Government of India has passed the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to control
environmental pollution and protect and improve the quality of our environment.
AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
Causes of air pollution:
o Particulate & gaseous air pollutants from smokestacks of thermal power plants, smelters
etc.
o According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), particulate size of less than
2.5µm in diameter (PM 2.5) causes greatest harm to human health. It causes respiratory
problems, irritation, inflammations & damage to lungs and premature deaths.
o Pollutants from automobiles.
Harmful effects of air pollution:
 Air pollutants cause injury to all living organisms.
 They reduce growth and yield of crops and cause premature death of plants.
 Air pollutants affect the respiratory system.
Control of air pollution
o Particulate matters must be separated/filtered out before releasing the harmless gases into
the atmosphere.
o Use of lead-free petrol or diesel.
o Use of catalytic converters (having platinum-palladium & rhodium as the catalysts). It
reduces emission of poisonous gases. This converts unburnt hydrocarbons to CO 2 &
water, and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide to CO 2 and nitrogen gas, respectively.
Motor vehicles having catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol because lead in the
petrol inactivates the catalyst.
o Phasing out of old vehicles
o Use of low-sulphur petrol and diesel
o Application of pollution-level norms for vehicles, etc.
o In Delhi, compressed natural gas (CNG) in public transport (buses) is used. CNG is
better than petrol & diesel because CNG burns most efficiently and very little of it is left
unburnt. CNG is cheaper than petrol or diesel, cannot be siphoned off by thieves and
adulterated like petrol or diesel. The main problem with switching over to CNG is the
difficulty of laying down pipelines to deliver CNG through distribution points/pumps and
ensuring uninterrupted supply.

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Electrostatic precipitator:

o It is the device widely used to remove particulate matter.

o It can remove over 99% particulate matter present in the exhaust from a thermal power
plant.
o The electrons released from electrode wires (maintained at several thousand volts) attach
to dust particles and give a negative charge. The collecting plates attract the charged dust
particles.
o The velocity of air between the plates must be low enough to allow the dust to fall.
o A scrubber removes gases like SO2. In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray
of water or lime.
o Very small particulates are not removed by this precipitator.
 In India, the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act (1981) was amended in 1987
to include noise as an air pollutant. Noise is undesired high level of sound.
Sources of noise pollution: Music instruments, loudspeaker, crackers, industries etc.
Harmful effects of noise:
o Noise causes psychological and physiological disorders.
o The sound level above 150 dB (generated by takeoff of a jet plane or rocket) may damage
ear drums.
o Chronic exposure to relatively lower noise may damage hearing abilities of humans.
o Sleeplessness, increased heartbeat & breathing, stress etc.
Control of noise pollution:
o Use of sound absorbent materials in industries.
o Delimitation of horn-free zones around hospitals & schools.
o Permissible sound-levels of crackers and loudspeakers.
o Delimit the timings of using loudspeakers.
Laws & policies in India to control vehicular pollution:
o Auto fuel policy has laid out a roadmap to cut down vehicular pollution in Indian cities.
o Euro II norms: It stipulates that sulphur be controlled at 350 parts-per-million (ppm) in
diesel and 150 ppm in petrol. Aromatic hydrocarbons are to be contained at 42% of the

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 concerned fuel. The goal is to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol and diesel and bring
down the level to 35%. Vehicle engines will also need to be upgraded.
o The Bharat Stage II: All automobiles and fuel were to have met the Euro III emission
specifications in these 11 cities from 1 April 2005 and have to meet the Euro-IV norms
by 1 April 2010. The rest of the country will have Euro-III emission norm compliant
automobiles and fuels by 2010.
WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
o Water bodies are lifeline of all living organisms.
o Due to human activities, the ponds, lakes, stream, rivers, Estuaries and oceans are
becoming polluted.
o The Government of India has passed the Water
 (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to safeguard our water resources.
Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents
o A mere 0.1 % impurities make domestic sewage unfit for human use. They include
suspended solids (sand, silt, clay etc), colloidal materials (faecal matter, bacteria, cloth,
paper fibres etc) and dissolved materials (nutrients like nitrate, NH 3, phosphate, Na, Ca
etc).
o Solids are easy to remove. Removal of dissolved materials, organic compounds and toxic
metal ions are most difficult.
o Domestic sewage contains biodegradable organic matter. It is decomposed by
microorganisms, which can multiply using these organic substances as substrates and
hence utilize some of the components of sewage.
o The amount of biodegradable organic matter in sewage water is estimated by measuring
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
o During biodegradation, microorganisms consume a lot of O 2. It results in a sharp decline
in dissolved O2. This causes death of aquatic organisms.

o Presence of large amounts of nutrients in waters also causes excessive growth of

planktonic algae (algal bloom). It imparts a distinct colour to the water bodies and
deteriorates the water quality resulting in death of fishes. Some bloom-forming algae are
extremely toxic to human beings and animals.
o The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is the most problematic aquatic weed (Terror
of Bengal’). They grow faster than our ability to remove them. They grow abundantly in

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 eutrophic water bodies. It leads to an imbalance in the ecosystem dynamics of the water
body.
o Sewage from homes & hospitals may contain undesirable pathogens and its disposal into
water causes serious diseases (dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera, etc).
o Industrial (petroleum, metal, paper manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, etc.) waste
water contains toxic substances like heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, etc.)
and organic compounds.
o Some toxic substances (mercury, DDT etc) present in industrial waste waters, cause
biological magnification (Biomagnification) in the aquatic food chain.
o Biomagnification is the accumulation of the toxicant at successive trophic levels. The
organism in each trophic level cannot metabolize or excrete the toxicant, and is thus
passed on to the next trophic level.
Biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain:
o Water (DDT: 0.003 ppb) → zooplankton (0.04 ppm) → small fish (0.5 ppm) → large fish
(2 ppm) → birds (5 ppm).
o DDT disturbs calcium metabolism in birds, which causes thinning of eggshell and their
premature breaking. It causes decline in bird populations.

Eutrophication:
o It is the natural aging of a lake by nutrient enrichment.
o In a young lake the water is cold and clear. With time, streams draining into the lake
introduce nutrients (N2, P etc), which encourage the growth of aquatic organisms.
o As the lake’s fertility increases, plants and animals grow rapidly, and organic remains are
deposited on the lake bottom. Thus the lake grows shallower and warmer, with warm-
water organisms.

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 o Marsh plants take root in the shallows and fill in the original lake basin. Eventually, the
lake becomes a bog, finally converting into land.
o Depending on climate, size of the lake and other factors, the eutrophication may span
thousands of years. However, pollutants like effluents from the industries and homes
accelerate the aging process. This phenomenon is called Cultural or Accelerated
Eutrophication.
o The prime contaminants are nitrates and phosphates, which act as plant nutrients. They
over stimulate the growth of algae, causing unsightly scum and unpleasant odors, and
robbing the water of dissolved oxygen vital to other aquatic life. At the same time, other
pollutants flowing into a lake may poison whole populations of fish; whose decomposing
remains further deplete the water’s dissolved oxygen content.
o Heated (thermal) wastewater from electricity-generating units (e.g. thermal power
plants) eliminates organisms sensitive to high temperature. It may enhance the growth of
plants and fish in extremely cold areas but, only after causing damage to the indigenous
flora and fauna.
Integrated Waste Water Treatment
o It includes artificial and natural processes.
o An example is the town of Arcata, situated along the northern coast of California.
Collaborating with biologists from the Humboldt State University, the townspeople
created an integrated waste water treatment process within a natural system.
o The cleaning occurs in two stages
a. Sedimentation, filtering and chlorine treatments. After this stage, lots of dangerous
pollutants like dissolved heavy metals still remain. To combat this, an innovative
approach was taken.
b. The biologists developed a series of six connected marshes over 60 hectares of
marshland. Appropriate plants, algae, fungi and bacteria were seeded into this area,
which neutralize, absorb and assimilate the pollutants. Hence, as the water flows
through the marshes, it gets purified naturally. The marshes also constitute a
sanctuary, with a high level of biodiversity in the form of fishes, animals and birds
that now reside there. A citizens group called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) is
responsible for the upkeep and safeguarding of this wonderful project.
o Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human excreta, using dry
composting toilets. This is a practical, hygienic, efficient and cost-effective solution to
human waste disposal. The key point to note here is that with this composting method,
human excreta can be recycled into a resource (as natural fertilizer), which reduces the
need for chemical fertilizers. There are ‘EcoSan’ toilets in many areas of Kerala & Sri
Lanka.
SOLID WASTES
o Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash.
o Municipal solid wastes are wastes from homes, offices, stores, schools, hospitals, etc.,
that are collected and disposed by the municipality.
o The municipal solid wastes include paper, food wastes, plastics, glass, metals, rubber,
leather, textile, etc.
o Burning reduces the volume of the wastes, although it is generally not burnt to
completion and open dumps often serve as the breeding ground for rats and flies.

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 o Sanitary landfills were adopted as the substitute for open-burning dumps. In a sanitary
landfill, wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction, and covered with
dirt every day.
o Landfills are also not really much of a solution since the amount of garbage generation
especially in the metros has increased so much that these sites are getting filled too. Also
there is danger of seepage of chemicals, etc., from these landfills polluting the
underground water resources.
o All wastes can be categorized into 3 types –
(a) Bio-degradable
(b) Recyclable
(c) Non-biodegradable
o It is important that all garbage generated is sorted. What can be reused or recycled should
be separated out. Kabadiwallahs & rag-pickers help to separate materials for recycling.
o The biodegradable materials can be put into deep pits in the ground and be left for natural
breakdown. That leaves only the non-biodegradable to be disposed off.
o We are increasing the use of non-biodegradable products. E.g. plastic packets of eatables
such as biscuit packet, milk and water in polybags, packed fruits and vegetables (in
polystyrene and plastic packaging) etc.
o State Governments are trying to push for reduction in use of plastics and use of eco-
friendly packaging. We can use carrying cloth or other natural fibre carry-bags instead of
polythene bags for shopping.
o Hospital wastes contain disinfectants and other harmful chemicals, and also pathogenic
micro-organisms. The incinerators are used to dispose hospital wastes.
o Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are known as electronic wastes (e-
wastes). They are buried in landfills or incinerated.
o Over half of the e-wastes generated in the developed world are exported to developing
countries, mainly to China, India and Pakistan, where metals like copper, iron, silicon,
nickel and gold are recovered during recycling process.
o Developed countries have specifically built facilities for recycling of e-wastes. Recycling
in developing countries often involves manual participation thus exposing workers to
toxic substances present in e-wastes. Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-
waste, provided it is carried out in an environment friendly manner.
Polyblend: A Remedy for Plastic Waste
o Ahmed Khan (A plastic sack manufacturer in Bangalore) developed Polyblend. It is a
fine powder of recycled modified plastic. Polyblend is mixed with the bitumen and is
used to lay roads.
o Blend of Polyblend and bitumen enhances the bitumen’s water repellant properties and
helps to increase road life.
AGRO-CHEMICALS AND THEIR EFFECTS
o In the wake of green revolution, use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides,
fungicides, etc. has increased manifold for enhancing crop production.
o These are toxic to non-target organisms that are important components of the soil
ecosystem. These can be biomagnified in the terrestrial ecosystems.
o Chemical fertilizers cause eutrophication.
Integrated Organic Farming

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 o It is a cyclical, zero-waste procedure, where waste products from one process are cycled
in as nutrients for other processes. This allows the maximum utilization of resource and
increases the efficiency of production.
o Ramesh Chandra Dagar (a farmer in Sonipat, Haryana) included bee-keeping, dairy
management, water harvesting, composting and agriculture in a chain of processes, which
support each other and allow an extremely economical and sustainable venture.
o There is no need of chemical fertilizers, as cattle excreta (dung) are used as manure. Crop
waste is used to create compost, which can be used as a natural fertilizer or can be used to
generate natural gas for satisfying the energy needs of the farm.
o Dagar has created the Haryana Kisan Welfare Club, with a membership of 5000 farmers
to spread information on the practice of integrated organic farming.
RADIOACTIVE WASTES
o Use of nuclear energy has two very serious problems:
 Accidental leakage. E.g. incident in the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl
incidents
 Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
o Radiation from nuclear waste is extremely damaging to organisms, because it causes
mutations at a very high rate. At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal but at lower doses,
it creates various disorders, such as cancer.
o It has been recommended that storage of nuclear waste, after sufficient pre-treatment,
should be done in suitably shielded containers buried within the rocks, about 500 m deep
below the earth’s surface. However, this method of disposal is meeting stiff opposition
from the public.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT & GLOBAL WARMING
o The Greenhouse is a small glass house used for growing plants during winter. The glass
panel lets the light in, but does not allow heat to escape. Therefore, the greenhouse warms
up.
o Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon responsible for heating of Earth’s surface and
atmosphere. It maintains the present average temperature (15ºC).
o Without greenhouse effect, the average temperature at Earth surface would have been a
chilly (–18ºC).
o Clouds and gases reflect about 1/4th of the incoming solar radiation, and absorb some of
it. But almost half of incoming solar radiation falls on Earth’s surface heating it, while a
small proportion is reflected back. Earth’s surface re-emits heat as infrared radiation. But
a part of infrared is absorbed by atmospheric gases (CO2, CH4 etc.) and so cannot escape
into space. These gases (greenhouse gases) radiate heat energy, and a major part of which
again comes to Earth’s surface, thus heating it up again. These gases cause the
greenhouse effect.
o Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to global warming (overheating of Earth
leading).
o During the past century, the temperature of Earth has increased by 0.6ºC, most of it
during the last 3 decades.
Impacts of global warming:
o Deleterious changes in the environment resulting in odd climatic changes (e.g. El Nino
effect).

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 o Melting of polar ice caps, Himalayan snow caps etc.
o Over many years, this will result in a rise in sea level that submerges many coastal areas.
Control of global warming:
o Reduce the use of fossil fuel
o Improve efficiency of energy usage
o Reduce deforestation and plant trees
o Slowing down the growth of human population
International initiatives are also being taken to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere.
OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE
o ‘Bad’ ozone is formed in the lower atmosphere (troposphere). It harms plants and
animals.
o The ‘good’ ozone is found in the stratosphere. It acts as a shield absorbing ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.
o UV rays are highly injurious since they cause mutation.
o The thickness of the ozone (O3) in a column of air from the ground to the top of the
atmosphere is measured in terms of Dobson units (DU).
o Ozone is continuously formed by the action of UV rays on molecular oxygen, and also
degraded into molecular oxygen in the stratosphere.
o Production & degradation of ozone in the stratosphere should be balanced. But the
balance is disrupted due to ozone degradation by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
o CFCs (used as refrigerants) move upward and reach stratosphere. UV rays act on them
releasing Cl atoms. In presence of Cl (catalyst), ozone degrades releasing molecular
oxygen (O2). This causes ozone depletion. It has formed ozone hole over the Antarctic
region.
o UV radiation of wavelengths shorter than UV-B, are almost completely absorbed by
Earth’s atmosphere. But, UV-B causes mutation of DNA. It causes aging of skin, damage
to skin cells and skin cancers. A high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of cornea
(snow-blindness), cataract, etc. It permanently damages the cornea.
o The Montreal Protocol (an international treaty in Canada, 1987) was signed to control
the emission of ozone depleting substances. Subsequently many more efforts have been
made and protocols have laid down definite roadmaps, separately for developed and
developing countries, for reducing the emission of CFCs and other ozone depleting
chemicals.
DEGRADATION BY IMPROPER RESOURCE UTILISATION AND MAINTENANCE
Soil erosion and desertification:
o Human activities like over-cultivation, deforestation, grazing and poor irrigation
practices, leads to soil erosion. It results in arid patches of land and desertification.
o Increased urbanization also creates desertification.
Water logging and soil salinity:
o These are the problems as a part of Green Revolution.
o Irrigation without proper drainage of water leads to water logging in the soil.
o It draws salt to the surface of the soil. The salt is deposited on the land surface or collects
at the plant roots. This damages the agriculture.
DEFORESTATION

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 o It is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones.
o Almost 40% forests have been lost in the tropics, compared to only 1% in the temperate
region.
o National Forest Policy (1988) of India has recommended 33% forest cover for the plains
and 67% for the hills. But we have only 19.4% of forest cover (it was about 30% at the
beginning of 20th century).
Reasons of deforestation:
o Conversion of forest to agricultural land.
o For timber, firewood, cattle ranching etc.
o Slash & burn agriculture (Jhum cultivation) in the north-eastern states of India. In
this, the farmers cut down the trees of the forest and burn the plant remains. The ash is
used as a fertilizer and the land is then used for farming or cattle grazing. After
cultivation, the area is left for several years so as to allow its recovery. In earlier days,
enough time-gap was given for recovery. With increasing population and repeated
cultivation, this recovery phase is done away with, resulting in deforestation.
Consequences of deforestation:
o CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is enhanced because trees that could hold a lot of
carbon in their biomass are lost with deforestation
o Loss of biodiversity due to habitat destruction
o Disturbs hydrologic cycle
o Soil erosion & Desertification
Reforestation: The process of restoring a forest that once existed in the past. It may occur
naturally in a deforested area. However, we can speed it up by planting trees.
People’s Participation in Conservation of Forests
Bishnoi movement
o In 1731, the king of Jodhpur in Rajasthan asked to arrange wood for constructing a new
palace. The minister and workers went to a forest near a village, inhabited by Bishnois.
The Bishnois thwarted them from cutting down the trees. A Bishnoi woman Amrita Devi
hugged a tree. Sadly, the king’s men cut down the tree along with Amrita Devi. Her three
daughters and hundreds of other Bishnois followed her, and thus lost their lives saving
trees.
o Government of India has instituted the Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection
Award for individuals or communities from rural areas for extraordinary courage and
dedication in protecting wildlife.
Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas
o In 1974, local women participated to protect trees from the axe of contractors by hugging
them. Realizing the significance of participation by local communities, the Government
of India in 1980s has introduced the concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM) so as
to work closely with the local communities for protecting and managing forests. In return
for their services to the forest, the communities get benefit of various forest products
(e.g., fruits, gum, rubber, medicine, etc.), and thus the forest can be conserved in a
sustainable manner.

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