OPINION

published: 19 June 2017

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00988

The Future of Musical Emotions

Dylan van der Schyff 1* and Andrea Schiavio 2, 3*
1
Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2 Institute for Music Education, University of Music
and Performing Arts Graz, Graz, Austria, 3 Music Mind Machine in Sheffield, Department of Music, The University of Sheffield,
Sheffield, United Kingdom

Keywords: musical emotions, basic emotions, affective science, dynamical systems theory, music cognition

INTRODUCTION
Basic Emotion Theory proper (BET) has only recently begun to make an appearance in musical
research (see Juslin, 1997, 2013a,b). However, much theory and research in music psychology has
been driven by a more general assumption that musical emotions should be investigated in terms of
discrete ad-hoc1 categories associated with the ways specific neural mechanisms respond to musical
stimuli (see Schiavio et al., 2016). This has been problematized, however, by studies that show
that the physiological changes associated with musical emotions do not always align clearly with
those exhibited in association with everyday emotion categories (Krumhansl, 1997, p. 351; Scherer
and Zentner, 2001). Such concerns have led some scholars to posit that musical emotions may
be somehow different (or perhaps “impoverished”) versions of real emotions (Sloboda, 2000). In
response to this, other researchers (e.g., Scherer and Coutinho, 2014) have developed models that
do away with the notion of basic emotions altogether, preferring instead to describe emotional
Edited by: reactions to music in terms of complex information processing components that combine in
Fausto Caruana,
various ways to produce relevant outputs (see also Huron, 2006). Still others (Krueger, 2013;
University of Parma, Italy
van der Schyff, 2013; Schiavio et al., 2016; see also Koelsch, 2013) have suggested that reducing
Reviewed by:
musical experience to a stimulus-response framework—where emotions are thought to be caused
Marco Viola,
in listeners by pre-given stimuli in the environment—may play down the active and creative role
Istituto Universitario di Studi Superiori
di Pavia (IUSS), Italy living embodied agents play in musical experience.
Joel Krueger, With this in mind, we offer below a brief critique of BET, suggesting that it may not in fact
University of Exeter, United Kingdom provide the best way forward for research in musical emotions. We then outline an alternative
*Correspondence: perspective, drawing on research that employs dynamical systems theory (DST) (Lewis and Granic,
Dylan van der Schyff 2000; Colombetti, 2014). To conclude, we offer some preliminary suggestions for how this approach
[email protected] might be applied in musical contexts.
Andrea Schiavio Before we begin, it should be noted that musical research that draws on the idea of basic
[email protected] emotions has indeed produced important insights2 . Such studies are carried out in controlled
settings that adhere to high scientific research standards—they offer important sources of data that
Specialty section: will have to be taken into consideration by any alternative theoretical orientation. To be clear, then,
This article was submitted to
our aim is not to debunk or discredit the work of researchers endorsing BET. Rather, our goal is
Theoretical and Philosophical
Psychology,
simply to outline another perspective that could make important contributions to the dialogue3 .
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology 1 Indeed, these categories tend to vary from study to study. Some have focused on more “basic” emotions (e.g., joy and

Received: 03 May 2017 sadness), while others introduce categories that might be better described as “moods” (e.g., tenderness or nostalgia). Recent
Accepted: 29 May 2017 approaches have developed more nuanced models that introduce complex “aesthetic” categories such as wonder and awe. For
Published: 19 June 2017 useful overviews see (Juslin and Laukka, 2004; Juslin and Västfjäll, 2008; Eerola and Vuoskoski, 2013; Trost et al., 2013).
2 This includes the work of (Juslin, 1997, 2013a; Johnson, 2007) who argues that BET proper should be adopted more widely
Citation: in musical emotion studies. In line with this, recent research has explored (among other things) the relationship between
van der Schyff D and Schiavio A perceived emotions and physiological changes (Lundqvist et al., 2008), as well as how emotional categories may be recognized
(2017) The Future of Musical consistently across listeners (Fritz et al., 2009).
Emotions. Front. Psychol. 8:988. 3 Indeed, comparisons of research results between competing programs may lead to important new discoveries and avenues

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00988 of investigation.

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 June 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 988

van der Schyff and Schiavio The Future of Musical Emotions

BASIC EMOTIONS EMOTIONS AS DYNAMIC AND EMERGENT

In folk psychology, the notion of “basic emotions” involves Research based on DST suggests that emotional episodes may
the assumption that emotions come in a group of pre-defined not be reducible to pre-given response mechanisms in the brain,
categories such as happy, sad, angry, and so on. This idea has been but rather emerge through developmental processes spanning
formalized by BET proper, which claims the existence of a small an integrated body-brain-environment network (Freeman, 2000;
group of “discrete” basic emotions that evolved in response to Lewis, 2000, 2005). Colombetti (2014, p. 57–82) suggests
the challenges our ancestors faced in their everyday life (Ekman, three mutually informing levels of inquiry that may help us
1980). It is argued that each basic emotion is defined by a better understand how this is so. The first of these involves
dedicated (innate and distinct) neural network, which controls the development of the muscular linkages and coordinative
the “affect programs” that give rise to them (Tomkins, 1962, structures associated with emotional expression (e.g., facial,
1963; see also Colombetti, 2014). Here the term “affect programs” vocal, limb, and hand movement). And indeed, research shows
refers to the mechanisms that produce “the patterns for these that the appearance of recurrent and meaningful patterns of
complex organized responses, and which when set off directs expressive behavior in infants is not best understood wholly in
their occurrence” (Ekman, 1980 p., 82). Such programs and the terms of predetermined (i.e., genetic) developmental programs,
responses they trigger (i.e., basic emotions) are thought to be but rather as emergent properties of the dynamic interaction of
culturally universal and are thus understood to function as “auto a range of environmental and bodily factors (Fogel and Thelen,
appraisals” selected by evolution (Ekman and Friesen, 1971, 1986; 1987; Camras and Witherington, 2005). The second level draws
Ekman, 1999, 2003). It has also been suggested that because of the on existing work in affective neuroscience that highlights the
supposed categorical fixity of these basic emotions, they might plasticity and self-organizing nature of neural structures (see
form the “building blocks” from which more complex emotions Freeman, 1999, 2000). Here, emotional episodes are explored
emerge (Prinz, 2004a,b). as patterns of convergence (basins of attraction) in the neural
Some critics have raised the question of how, precisely, trajectories of an agent that may both stabilize and transform
alleged basic emotions relate to non-basic ones (Ortony and due to contingent shifts in the global constraints of the brain-
Turner, 1990). And there is an ongoing debate between those body-world system. The third level focusses on environmental
who argue that basic and non-basic emotions are continuous concerns, exploring how agents enact meaningful emotional
(Plutchik, 2001; Prinz, 2004a,b; Clark, 2010), and those who engagements (i.e., recurrent patterns of relational behavior) with
insist that the two involve distinct processes and should thus the things and people they interact with, and the situations they
be studied separately (Damasio, 1994; LeDoux, 1996). Other live through (Laible and Thompson, 2000; Hsu and Fogel, 2003).
authors question BET’s lack of context sensitivity (Russell, 2003; From this perspective, emotional episodes are not limited to the
Barrett, 2006): emotions can be expressed and experienced in skull or the skin of the organism. There is, rather, a strong sense
various ways and their meanings shift depending on the situation. in which they “extend” (Krueger, 2014; Slaby, 2014; Krueger
Attention has also been drawn to the BET methodology, which and Szanto, 2016) into environments where agents co-enact
often employs a forced choice approach (generally between facial meaningful worlds through forms of participatory sense-making
expressions and a given scenario). Indeed, research has shown (such as music; see Schiavio and De Jaegher, 2017).
that quite different responses may be given when participants are In brief, the DST approach explores the active and self-
not constrained by emotional labeling (Russell, 1994). It has also organizing nature of emotional experience as it develops across
been pointed out that the close correlations that are expected to bodily, neural, and ecological dimensions, suggesting that while
occur between specific brain areas, autonomic nervous system emotional episodes can indeed be unique to an individual
activity, and the putative affect programs associated with basic organism, they may also emerge in ways that are shared between
emotions are often less consistent than hypothesized (Barrett, agents with similar biological/social needs and histories of
2006). While advocates of BET have responded to such criticisms interaction with the environment.
in various ways (e.g., Ekman and Cordaro, 2011), another
more general problem remains concerning the rather arbitrary EXPLORING THE DYNAMICS OF MUSICAL
way basic emotion categories were originally introduced4 . To EMOTIONS
be clear, all of this does not negate the observation that
emotional episodes involve recurring psycho-physical patterns of It should be noted that work in music cognition has already
behavior that are indeed nameable, and that may bear striking begun to develop DST approaches. For example, researchers
similarities across individuals and groups. Rather, it suggests (e.g., Large and Jones, 1999) have investigated how the neural
that we need to develop new approaches for studying such dynamics associated with musical experience actively resonate
phenomena. and self-organize with those of the body and the environment in
a recursive or “circular” way. However, such “dynamic attending”
to music has been explored mostly in the context of rhythmic
4 Thisrefers to the work of Tomkins (1962, 1963), who posited the existence of entrainment and pitch perception (e.g., Large et al., 2016; see also
nine primary affect categories (1962, p. 111–112). While no sustained justification McGrath and Kelly, 1986). We suggest that future research could
was given by Tomkins for why these categories were chosen, subsets of them have
nevertheless been assumed to comprise the basic emotional responses that guide
develop the emotional implications of this more fully. Indeed,
our affective engagements with the world. For a full discussion see Colombetti this would contribute to a larger body of inter-disciplinary
(2014), p. 36–40. work that explores the creative, social, embodied, ecological,

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 June 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 988

van der Schyff and Schiavio The Future of Musical Emotions

and developmental aspects of musical experience (DeNora, 2000; In all, we suggest that a DST approach may better capture
Leman, 2007; van der Schyff, 2015). the (inter)active ways people enact emotional relationships with
For example, it has been shown that even in contexts music, and how such experiences develop diachronically. That is,
that appear to be “passive” (e.g., listening in a concert hall) it may help us better understand how musical emotions emerge
people play active roles in shaping their engagements with and transform developmentally in the context of people’s lives—
musical environments5 (Clarke, 2005; Krueger, 2014)—e.g., where stable or recurrent patterns of behavior may come to
by developing “metaphorical,” cross-modal, and “narrative” be experienced in similar ways between embodied agents, and
relationships between various temporal, spatial, textural, bodily, thus be subject to “loose” labeling without being wholly pre-
social, ecological, and affective dimensions (see Johnson, 2007). determined, fixed, or simply reducible to discrete categories.
Here, DST could be useful for exploring how such experiences Likewise, it may also provide insights into the more idiosyncratic
are enacted, especially when integrated with phenomenological ways we engage emotionally with music—e.g., the conscious
descriptions6 . ways individuals seek out new approaches to music making as a
This orientation could also be developed in contexts involving means of creative expression, or as a way of enacting meaningful
the production of music (performance, rehearsal, instrumental but highly personal embodied-emotional relationships (aesthetic,
practice, and so on). Indeed, because musical performance social, therapeutic) with the environments they inhabit (DeNora,
clearly involves the integration of the three levels of description 2000).
discussed above (bodily/neural/environmental), DST might be
used to investigate and describe situations where two or more
individuals participate in realizing the same musical event. This
CONCLUSION
could include the use of electrophysiological measurements in While BET-based approaches will continue to provide many
association with techniques such as functional near-infrared useful insights in more controlled environments, we suggest
spectroscopy (fNIRS), which are increasingly adopted in the that the DST perspective may better capture the manifold ways
context of social cognition (Osaka et al., 2015; Pu et al., 2016). emotional engagement with music unfolds in the complex,
As fNIRS allows for the measurement of hemodynamic embodied, and socially interactive contexts that characterize lived
activities in participatory settings it could be particularly useful experience. Because this approach sees emotions as emergent and
for exploring music-related activities in terms of interpersonal enacted, and not first in terms of pre-given categories or “affect
emotional dynamics. These could be analyzed in conjunction programs,” it arguably sidesteps the problematic issue introduced
with audio and video recordings (to help capture sonic, bodily, above regarding whether musical emotions correspond with
and other environmental aspects); as well as through interviews “basic,” “real,” or “everyday” emotions. In line with this, it would
with the participants to better understand how various forms of be very interesting to see how the results of musical research
musically adaptive behavior might initiate (and be driven by) that assume a basic emotion approach might be reinterpreted
emotional episodes that are both recurrent and new, and how from a DST perspective. Additionally, DST might also shed
such episodes are experienced by the participants (e.g., as shared light on important aspects of musical development in early
and/or as personal). Examples of similar data collection methods childhood8 . Lastly, because DST-based research sees emotionality
come from work by Walton et al. (2014, 2015) who have used as inextricable from our embodied and social existence, it could
DST to study perceptions of creativity in interacting musical have more general implications for areas such as music education
improvisers (see also Borgo, 2005; Laroche and Kaddouch, and therapy—perhaps providing ways for teachers, students,
2015)7 . therapists, and patients to better understand and discuss their
5 Here one might also consider the ways people use personal music listening devices engagements with music and its meaning for their lives.
to regulate their emotions (Skånland, 2013) in everyday life and to transform or
“aestheticize” the environments they live though (Bull, 2000, 2007). This could
offer yet another avenue to explore from a dynamical perspective. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
6 Here the recently developed “4E” model (embodied, embedded, enactive, and

extended) associated with enactive cognitive science could provide a general The authors have made equal contribution to this paper and are
framework for guiding the phenomenological aspects of such research (for a brief thus both considered as first authors.
overview see van der Schyff, 2017; for a range of more detailed perspectives see
8 E.g., the emergence of the (proto)musical forms of embodied-affective
Menary, 2010).
7 On a related note, readers may also be interested to consider a study by Salice communication that characterize the interactions between infants and primary
et al. (2017) that examines the enmeshed embodied, social, affective, and musical caregivers (see Trevarthen, 2002); as well as the independent and collaborative
dynamics of a string quartet to explore the phenomenon of “plural self-awareness.” exploratory musical activities of young children.

REFERENCES Bull, M. (2000). Sounding Out the City: Personal Stereos and the Management of
Everyday Life. Oxford: Berg.
Barrett, L. F. (2006). Solving the emotion paradox: categorization and the Bull, M. (2007). Sound Moves: iPod Culture and Urban Experience. London:
experience of emotion. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10, 20–46 doi: 10.1207/s1532 Routledge.
7957pspr1001_2 Camras, L. A., and Witherington, D. C. (2005). Dynamical system approaches
Borgo, D. (2005). Sync or Swarm: Improvising Music in a Complex Age. New York, in emotional development. Dev. Rev. 25, 328–350. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2005.
NY: Continuum. 10.002

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 June 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 988

van der Schyff and Schiavio The Future of Musical Emotions

Clark, J. A. (2010). Relations of homology between higher cognitive emotions and Cochrane, B. Fantini, and K. Scherer (Oxford: Oxford University Press),
basic emotions. Biol. Philos. 25, 75–94. doi: 10.1007/s10539-009-9170-1 177–196.
Clarke, E. F. (2005). Ways of Listening: An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Krueger, J. (2014). Affordances and the musically extended mind. Front. Psychol.
Musical Meaning. New York, NY: Oxford UP. 4:1003. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.01003
Colombetti, G. (2014). The Feeling Body: Affective Science Meets the Enactive Mind. Krueger, J., and Szanto, T. (2016). Extended emotions. Philos. Compass 11,
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 863–878. doi: 10.1111/phc3.12390
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. New Krumhansl, C. L. (1997). An exploratory study of musical emotions and
York, NY: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. psychophysiology. Can. J. Exp. Psychol. 51, 336–352 doi: 10.1037/1196-
DeNora, T. (2000). Music in Everyday Life. New York, NY: Cambridge UP. 1961.51.4.336
Eerola, T., and Vuoskoski, J. K. (2013). A review of music and emotion Laible, D. J., and Thompson, R. A. (2000). “Attachment and self-organization,” in
studies: approaches, emotion models, and stimuli. Music Percept. 30, 307–340. Emotion, Development, and Self-Organization: Dynamic Systems Approaches to
doi: 10.1525/mp.2012.30.3.307 Emotional Development, eds M. D. Lewis and I. Granic (Cambridge: Cambridge
Ekman, P. (1980). “Biological and cultural contributions to body and facial University Press), 298–323.
movement in the expression of emotions,” in Explaining Emotions, ed A. O. Large, E. W., and Jones, M. R. (1999). The dynamics of attending:
Rorty (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press), 73–102. how people track time-varying events. Psychol. Rev. 106, 119–159.
Ekman, P. (1999). “Basic emotions,” in Handbook of Cognition and Emotion, eds T. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.106.1.119
Dalgleish and M. J. Power (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.), 45–60. Large, E. W., Kim, J. C., Flaig, N., Bharucha, J., and Krumhansl, C. L. (2016).
Ekman, P. (2003). Emotions Revealed: Understanding Faces and Feelings. London: A neurodynamic account of musical tonality. Music Percept. 33, 319–331.
Weidenfeld & Nicolson. doi: 10.1525/mp.2016.33.3.319
Ekman, P., and Cordaro, D. (2011). What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emot. Laroche, J., and Kaddouch, I. (2015). Spontaneous preferences and core tastes:
Rev. 3, 364–370. doi: 10.1177/1754073911410740 embodied musical personality and dynamics of interaction in a pedagogical
Ekman, P., and Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and method of improvisation. Front. Psychol. 6:522. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.
emotion. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 17, 124–129. doi: 10.1037/h0030377 00522
Ekman, P., and Friesen, W. V. (1986). A new pan-cultural facial expression of LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The Emotional Brain. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
emotion. Motiv. Emot. 10, 159–168. doi: 10.1007/BF00992253 Leman, M. (2007). Embodied Music Cognition and Mediation Technology.
Fogel, A., and Thelen, E. (1987). Development of early expressive and Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
communicative action: reinterpreting the evidence from a dynamical systems Lewis, M. D. (2000). “Emotional organization at three timescales,” in Emotion,
perspective. Dev. Psychol. 23, 747–761. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.23.6.747 Development and Self-Organization, eds M. D. Lewis and I. Granic (Cambridge:
Freeman, W. J. (1999). Consciousness, intentionality, and causality. J. Conscious. Cambridge UP), 37–69.
Stud. 6, 143–172. Lewis, M. D. (2005). Bridging emotion theory and neurobiology
Freeman, W. J. (2000). “Emotion is essential to all intentional behavior,” in through dynamical systems modeling. Behav. Brain Sci. 28, 169–245.
Emotion, Development, and Self-Organization: Dynamic Systems Approaches to doi: 10.1017/S0140525X0500004X
Emotional Development, eds M. D. Lewis and I. Granic (Cambridge: Cambridge Lewis, M. D., and Granic, I. (eds.). (2000). Emotion, Development, and
University Press), 209–235. Self-organization: Dynamic Systems Approaches to Emotional Development.
Fritz, T., Jentschke, S., Gosselin, N., Sammler, D., Peretz, I., Turner, R., et al. (2009). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Universal recognition of three basic emotions in music. Curr. Biol. 19, 573–576. Lundqvist, L.-O., Carlsson, F., Hilmersson, P., and Juslin, P. N. (2008). Emotional
doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.058 responses to music: experience, expression, and physiology. Psychol. Music 37,
Hsu, H.-C., and Fogel, A. (2003). Stability and transitions in mother-infant face- 61–90. doi: 10.1177/0305735607086048
to- face communication during the first 6 months: a microhistorical approach. McGrath, J. E., and Kelly, J. R. (1986). Time and Human Interaction: Toward a
Dev. Psychol. 39, 1061–1082. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.39.6.1061 Social Psychology of Time. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Huron, D. (2006). Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation. Menary, R. A. (2010). Introduction to the special issue on 4E cognition.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Phenomenol. Cogn. Sci. 9, 459–463. doi: 10.1007/s11097-010-9187-6
Johnson, M. (2007). The Meaning of the Body: Aesthetics of Human Understanding. Ortony, A., and Turner, T. J. (1990). What’s basic about emotions? Psychol. Rev. 97,
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 315–331.
Juslin, P. N. (1997). Can results from studies of perceived expression in musical Osaka, N., Minamoto, T., Yaoi, K., Azuma, M., Minamoto Shimada,
performances be generalized across response formats? Psychomusicology 16, Y., and Osaka, M. (2015). How two brains make one synchronized
77–101. mind in the inferior frontal cortex: fNIRS-based hyperscanning during
Juslin, P. N. (2013a). From everyday emotions to aesthetic emotions: towards cooperative singing. Front. Psychol. 6:1811. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.
a unified theory of musical emotions. Phys. Life Rev. 10, 235–266. 01811
doi: 10.1016/j.plrev.2013.05.008 Plutchik, R. (2001). The nature of emotions. Am. Sci. 89, 334–350.
Juslin, P. N. (2013b). What does music express? Basic emotions and beyond. Front. doi: 10.1511/2001.4.344
Psychol. 4:596. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00596 Prinz, J. J. (2004a). “Embodied emotions,” in Thinking about Feeling, ed R. C.
Juslin, P. N., and Laukka, P. (2004). Expression, perception, and induction Solomon (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 44–60.
of musical emotions: a review and a questionnaire study of everyday Prinz, J. J. (2004b). Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotion. New York, NY:
listening. J. N. Music Res. 33, 217–238. doi: 10.1080/09298210420003 Oxford University Press.
17813 Pu, S., Nakagome, K., Yamada, T., Itakura, M., Yamanashi, T., Yamada,
Juslin, P. N., and Västfjäll, D. (2008). Emotional responses to music: the S, et al. (2016). Social cognition and prefrontal hemodynamic responses
need to consider underlying mechanisms. Behav. Brain Sci. 31, 559–575 during a working memory task in schizophrenia. Sci. Rep. 6:22500.
doi: 10.1017/S0140525X08005293 doi: 10.1038/srep22500
Koelsch (2013). “Striking a chord in the brain: the neurophysiological correlates Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion.
of music-evoked positive emotions,” in The Emotional Power of Music: Psychol. Rev. 110, 145–172. doi: 10.1037//0033-295X.110.1.145
Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Musical Expression, Arousal, and Social Russell, J. A. (1994). Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial
Control, eds T. Cochrane, B. Fantini, and K. Scherer (Oxford: Oxford University expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies. Psychol. Bull. 115, 102–141.
Press), 177–196. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.102
Krueger, J. (2013). “Empathy, enaction, and shared musical experience: evidence Salice, A., Høffding, S., and Gallagher, S. (2017). Putting plural self-
from infant cognition,” in The Emotional Power of Music: Multidisciplinary awareness into practice: the phenomenology of expert musicianship. Topoi.
Perspectives on Musical Expression, Arousal, and Social Control, eds T. doi: 10.1007/s11245-017-9451-2

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 June 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 988

van der Schyff and Schiavio The Future of Musical Emotions

Scherer, K. R., and Coutinho, E. (2014). “How music creates emotion: D. J. Hargreaves, and D. Miell (Oxford: Oxford University Press),
a multifactorial process approach,” in The Emotional Power of Music, 21–38.
Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Musical Arousal, Expression, and Social Trost, W., Ethofer, T., Zentner, M., and Vuilleumier, P. (2013). Mapping
Control, eds T. Cochrane, B. Fantini, and K. R. Scherer (Oxford: Oxford aesthetic musical emotions in the brain. Cereb. Cortex 22, 2769–2783.
University Press), 121–145. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhr353
Scherer, K. R., and Zentner, M. R. (2001). “Emotional effects of music: production van der Schyff, D. (2013). Emotion, embodied mind, and the therapeutic aspects
rules,” in Music and Emotion: Theory and Research, eds P. N. Juslin and J. A. of musical experience in everyday life. Approaches Music Ther. Special Music
Sloboda (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 361–392. Educ. 5, 20–58.
Schiavio, A., and De Jaegher, H. (2017). “Participatory sense-making in joint van der Schyff, D. (2015). Music as a manifestation of life: exploring enactivism
musical practices,” in The Routledge Companion to Embodied Music Interaction, and the ‘Eastern perspective’ for music education. Front. Psychol. 6:345.
M. Lesaffre, M. Leman, and P. J. Maes (New York, NY; London: Routledge), doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00345
31–39. van der Schyff, D. (2017). Refining the model for emotion research: a 4E
Schiavio, A., van der Schyff, D., Cespedes-Guevara, J., and Reybrouck, M. perspective. Construct. Found. 12, 227–229.
(2016). Enacting musical emotions. Sense-making, dynamic systems, and Walton, A., Richardson, M. J., and Chemero, A. (2014). Self-organization and
the embodied mind. Phenomenol. Cogn. Sci. doi: 10.1007/s11097-016-9 semiosis in jazz improvisation. Int. J. Signs Semiotic Syst. 3, 12–25. doi: 10.4018/
477-8 IJSSS.2014070102
Skånland, M. S. (2013). Everyday music listening and affect regulation: the role of Walton, A., Richardson, M. J., Langland-Hassan, P., and Chemero, A. (2015).
MP3 players. Int. J. Qual. Stud. Health Well-being 8:20595. doi: 10.3402/qhw. Improvisation and the self-organization of multiple musical bodies. Front.
v8i0.20595 Psychol. 6:313. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00313
Slaby, J. (2014). “Emotions and the extended mind,” in Collective Emotions, eds M.
Salmela and C. von Scheve (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 32–46. Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was
Sloboda, J. A. (2000). “Musical performance andemotion: issues and conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
developments,” in Music, Mind and Science, ed S. W. Yi (Seoul: Western be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Music Research Institute), 220–238.
Tomkins, S. S. (1962). Affect, Imagery, and Consciousness, Vol. 1. New York, NY: Copyright © 2017 van der Schyff and Schiavio. This is an open-access article
Springer. distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
Tomkins, S. S. (1963). Affect, Imagery, and Consciousness, Vol. 2. New York, NY: The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the
Springer. original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this
Trevarthen, C. (2002). “Origins of musical identity: evidence from infancy for journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution
musical social awareness,” in Musical Identities, eds R. A. R. MacDonald, or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 June 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 988