Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Exploring land use/land cover change and drivers in Andean mountains

in Colombia: A case in rural Quindío
María Eunice Quintero-Gallego a, Mauricio Quintero-Angel b,⁎, José Joaquín Vila-Ortega c
a
Universidad Santiago de Cali, Faculty of Engineering, Specialization Program on Environmental Management and Sustainable Development, Calle 5 # 62-00, Cali 760035, Colombia
b
Universidad del Valle, Carrera 31 Av. La Carbonera, Palmira, Colombia
c
Faculty of Engineering, Universidad del Quindío, Carrera 15 Calle 12 Norte, Colombia

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Presents changes in land use and cover

in rural Quindío, Colombia (1954–2009)
• Constructs maps and calculate the rates
of change in area and their spatial tran-
sition
• Explore the main drivers of land use and
cover change
• Livestock and agriculture are the main
drivers in the modification of the
landscape

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Given that Land Use and Cover Changes (LUCC) and deforestation are activities with the highest anthropic inter-
Received 22 December 2017 vention on ecosystems and increase the loss of biodiversity, this paper explores the LUCC and the main drivers of
Received in revised form 28 March 2018 change in Andean mountains, taking a rural area located between the municipalities of Montenegro and
Accepted 29 March 2018
Quimbaya (Quindío, Colombia) (1954–2009), as a case of study. Aerial photographs and geographic information
Available online xxxx
systems (GIS) are used to create maps of LUCC, as well as a systemized search of information on LUCC and main
Editor: Simon Pollard drivers. The results showed that pastureland presented the largest area during all periods, occupying N60% of
studied area, while the secondary and mixed forests had a contraction from 23% in 1954 to 9% in 2009. The
Keywords: change rates evidenced a greater affectation for the secondary forest that lost 86% of its initial area through de-
Deforestation forestation and transformation processes, while crops gained 410% with respect to their initial area. As for the
GIS transition matrix, about 27.8% of the study area presented transformation from land use and cover into other
Change rates land covers, 14.7% presented deforestation and loss of land cover in their initial area, and 57.5% remained un-
Land use transition changed. It is concluded that socio-economic factors such as livestock farming, agriculture and market prices
Driving forces
have been an important driver in the modification of the landscape.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

⁎ Corresponding author.
The historical relationship between human beings and nature, the
E-mail addresses: [email protected], (M. Quintero-Angel), modes of production and the main technologies used, generated accu-
[email protected]. (J.J. Vila-Ortega). mulative environmental impacts that at the beginning of the 21st

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.359
0048-9697/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299 1289

century did not seem to be as easily assimilated by nature (Rockström factors or hypothetical causes of LUCC, but the evidence or knowledge
et al., 2009). The human pressure over the biosphere and geosphere is about it is not sufficient to firmly establish the causal effects and explain
significant, manifesting itself in an accelerated biodiversity loss, acidifi- the causal mechanisms (Meyfroidt, 2016).
cation of oceans, climate change, alteration of biogeochemical cycles, For land systems science, understanding of LUCC causes raised atten-
Land Use and Cover Changes (LUCC), among others (Steffen et al., tion at different spatial and temporal scales, and the richness of explana-
2015). tions has greatly increased, often at the expense of generality (Lambin
In particular, LUCC cause important alterations in the structure and et al., 2003). Nevertheless, “land use change processes and land use
function of ecosystems (Betts et al., 2017; Lambin et al., 2003), affecting change impacts are generally addressed in isolation, while only few
– in the end – the quality of life of people, as human societies depend in studies considered trajectories of drivers through changes to their im-
many ways upon the proper functioning of natural systems (Chiesura pacts and their potential feedbacks” (van Vliet et al., 2016).
and de Groot, 2003; Turner et al., 2007). In the Colombian case the changes of land-cover has been consider-
Land covers such as forests and vegetation, contribute to human able, with estimates indicating annual deforestation of between
wellbeing providing fundamental protection of soil and water resources 124,035 and 315,635 ha from 2000 to 2015 (WWF-Colombia, 2017),
as well as multiple ecosystem services and cultural or spiritual values which has modified an area of over 42-million hectares of native forest
(Costanza et al., 2017; Miura et al., 2015). However, the transformation since 1500 (Etter et al., 2008). The principal causes of deforestation in-
of forest cover into pastures, croplands, or urban areas is a global prob- clude the expansion of agricultural fields, wood extraction, extensive
lem (Foley et al., 2005; Kareiva and Marvier, 2011). livestock farming and urbanization (WWF-Colombia, 2017). Deforesta-
The continuous interactions between the human and natural sub- tion usually begins with the clearing of small areas for subsistence agri-
systems produce LUCC (Rindfuss et al., 2008). While a land use change culture, later these areas are often replaced by pastures for livestock
may affect land cover, changing land cover may similarly affect land grazing; and finally many of these areas are transformed into mecha-
use (Zvoleff et al., 2014). According to Erb (2012), two aspects of land nized agriculture (Sánchez-Cuervo et al., 2012).
use changes can be distinguished: Particularly, the Andean region experienced a demographic growth
during the 20th century, emigration and colonization areas, land con-
i) Changes in land cover: alterations of biophysical characteristics of centration and extensive uses, as well as a growing market economy;
the Earth's surface, such as the expansion or contraction of a certain and recently a lowered governability, and the expansion of illicit crops
land use type – e.g., the expansion of agricultural fields into pristine (Etter and van Wyngaarden, 2000). However in Colombia, studies of
forests. land cover change have focused on the landscape-level, while little is
ii) Changes in land use intensity: alteration in the human use of land known about the patterns and drivers of land cover changes at regional
and transformation of the levels of socioeconomic inputs and national-levels (Etter et al., 2006; Sánchez-Cuervo et al., 2012).
(e.g., labour, resources, water, energy or capital) and/or altered out- The Andean region in Colombia covers 287,720 km2, and extends
put (value or quantity) per unit area and time. Nevertheless, along three main N-S oriented mountain ranges (eastern, central and
“changes in intensity need not result in changes in land cover, but western), with an elevation range between 500 and 5400 masl. Temper-
cause ecological changes within the same land cover type” (Erb, ature is correlated with elevation, with mean annual values of 26–28 °C
2012:8). in lowlands, 13–14 °C at 2500 masl, and 0 °C at 4800–5000 masl. The In-
tertropical Convergence Zone influences rainfall distribution, so the
eastern Andes has annual precipitation values of ∼5000 mm since
For Lambin et al. (2003) the land use change is driven by synergetic trade winds create humid and rainy conditions. In the western region
factor combinations of depletion of key resources, economic change, (Pacific slope) the annual precipitation is above 5000 mm, with values
outside policy intervention, loss of adaptive capacity, and changes in so- of 12,000–13,000 mm in some sectors, due to a Monzonic circulation
cial organization and attitudes. In this respect, “the concept of land use system that produces even more rain. Finally, the inter-Andean valleys
transition highlights that land use change is non-linear and is associated has an annual rainfall of 1000–3000 mm (Eraso et al., 2013).
with other societal and biophysical system changes” (Lambin and In the region, there are 30 natural parks, which encompass 9% of the
Meyfroidt, 2010: 108). total area (Eraso et al., 2013). The remnants of the natural ecosystems
However, LUCC causes can be differentiated by: are either located on steep slopes or in the external wet slopes of eastern
and western mountain ranges, which lowers the probability of them
i) Proximate causes: are human activities or immediate actions at the being transformed (Etter and van Wyngaarden, 2000).
local level originated from intended land use and directly impact This region is the center of Colombian economic activity and con-
land covers– e.g., as agricultural expansion. (Geist and Lambin, tains most of its population (77.4%). The economy mainly depends on
2002). the industrial sector, followed by agriculture and recently livestock
ii) Underlying drivers of change: are fundamental social processes that farming, due to increased availability of pastures since the 1980s–
underpin the proximate causes and either operate at the local level 1990s. Land tenure is predominantly concentrated in farms smaller
or have an indirect impact from the national or global level – e.g. than 10 ha (Eraso et al., 2013).
such as human population dynamics or agricultural policies (Geist Within this context, and recognizing the complexity and the high
and Lambin, 2002). intraregional variability in Andean region (Eraso et al., 2013), the objec-
tives of this study are to approach the main drivers and to quantify the
LUCC in Andean mountains in Colombia, taking a rural area located be-
Regarding the causal explanations of LUCC, Meyfroidt (2016) stated tween the municipalities of Montenegro and Quimbaya (Quindío,
that combining assessments of causal effects and causal mechanisms is Colombia), as an example.
required. This author defined the causal effects as “the change in an out-
come variable brought about by change in the value of an explanatory 2. Materials and methods
variable (the cause)”, and defined the causal mechanism as “the pro-
cesses through which a factor produces its effect”. Also, Meyfroidt, 2.1. Study area
stated that a causal chain will explain why and how any event, fact or
variable occurred. A causal chain is “a series of causal mechanisms The study area comprises 2900 ha and is located in the central
which links an underlying cause to the final outcome of interest” mountain range in the department of Quindío (Colombia), between
(Meyfroidt, 2016:506). However, a driver or driving force are typical southwestern zone of the municipality of Quimbaya and the
1290 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299

northwestern zone of the municipality of Montenegro (coordinates 450 22

400
4°34′13″ N, 75°51′34″ W, 4°37′8″ N and 75°51′22″ W). The area com- 22

Precipitation (mm)

Temperature (ºC)
350
prise townships of El Laurel, part of Palermo and El Chaquiro in
300 21
Quimbaya, as well as part of the township El Gigante in Montenegro.
250
To the north is limited by the Buenavista Creek and to the west by La 21
200
Vieja River (Fig. 1). 150 20
The elevation range is between 975 and 1100 masl, the mean annual 100
20
precipitation is 1691 mm with two major rainy seasons (April to 50
May and October to December), the mean annual temperature is 0 19
around 24 °C and the relative humidity is around 76% (Fig. 2). According J F M A M J J A S O N D
to the Holdridge classification the study area belongs to the life zones: Months
premontane moist forest (PM-mf) and premontane very moist forest
(PM-vmf) (Agudelo and Vélez, 2001). Mean Precipitation Mean Temperature
The study area has a great biodiversity and three areas of ecological
interest for conservation: Fig. 2. Mean monthly precipitation and temperature 2010–2016 in Quimbaya, Quindío-
Colombia.
i) La Montaña del Ocaso natural reserve located in Hacienda El Source: Cenicafé.
Ocaso in El Laurel Township with an area of 148 ha. It has over
350 species representing Andean flora, fauna as the howler mon- The aerial photographs in physical format were digitized with a
key Alouatta seniculus, white-faced capuchin C. capucinus, over high-resolution 1200 dpi scanner and were georeferenced with the
100 species of birds and various species of insects (Agudelo and ArcGIS 9.3 software (Environmental Systems Research Institute Inc.),
Vélez, 2001; Aguilar-Isaza et al., 2010); taking as base between 15 and 20 random points of precise control
ii) La Cascada farm located in Palermo Township with an area of identifiable in the images and the GIS in Quindío – e.g. roads and con-
637 ha. It has several wetlands that are habitat for some fauna structions whose locations have not been modified over time. Then,
species, among them 38 species of birds (Narváez, 2011). other control points were field verified and taken with a GPS
iii) Veraguas farm located in El Gigante Township with an area of (mobileMapper10 Ashtech). The mean geo-referencing error for the ae-
40 ha, comprising some guadua (Guadua angustifolia), mixed rial photographs from 1954, 1969, and 1989 was at 5.94 m; for the
guadua, and forest zones (Gómez, 2007). image from 2003 it was at 6.16 m and for the image from 2009 it was
at 1 m. These values are below the allowable theoretical value by
2.2. Methodology INGEOMINAS (1999), which corresponds for class 2 at 0.5 mm × the
scale denominator, thus 14 m, 15,7 m and 15, 54 m for the aerial photo-
The identification of LUCC was carried out based on the physiog- graphs from 1954, 1969, and 1989, respectively and for the image from
nomy, patterns, and tonality of the covers observed in sheer aerial pho- 2003 and 2009 it was at 7,5 m and 5 m, respectively.
tographs and satellite images available in the study area (1954, 1969, The vegetation covers and land uses were classified following previ-
1989, 2003 and 2009) (Table 1), by using a mirror stereoscope ous research in the study area (Aguilar-Isaza et al., 2010; Camargo and
(Topcon), a photogrammetry magnifier, and a stereoscope (Carl Zeiss). Cardona, 2005; IGAC, 2010) (Table 2). The land cover corresponds to

Fig. 1. Location of the study area in Colombia and in the department of Quindío.
 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299 1291

Table 1
Photography and cartography material used for the analysis.

Element Scale Year Source Data

Aerial photograph 1:28.000 1954 IGAC Bogotá Flight C-730, photographs nos. 192 and 193; Flight C-731, photograph no. 048
Aerial photograph 1:31.413 1969 CIBUQ Flight C-1257, photograph no. 91
Aerial photograph 1:33.082 1989 IGAC Armenia Flight C-2396, photograph no. 262
CIBUQ
Digital image 980 × 742 pix 2003 Google Earth http://www.google.com/intl/es/earth/index.html downloaded March 2013
(x, y) 0.00917; 0.00925 units
Digital image 1:10.000 2009 S.I.G. Quindío http://200.21.93.53/sigquindioii/VisorGeneral.aspx downloaded March 2013
Digital map 1:5.000 2012 CIBUQ Digital map of El Ocaso hacienda, March 2010

the biophysical state of the land surface, that is, the physical character- (2004),1 which corresponds to a value of 0.72, considered a good
istics that shape the distribution of the vegetation, water, and soil, while agreement.2
land uses refer to how and for what these have been used specifically by The areas for land uses and covers were calculated using ArcGIS 10.2,
humans (Guhl, 2004; Rawat and Kumar, 2015). Although constructions then this data was used to quantify and evaluate the rates of change,
(houses or areas built), roads (roadways and/or main paths used for dis- using the indicators and Eq. (1) proposed by IDEAM et al. (2002)
placement), and hydrography (principal rivers and creeks defining the which estimates changes in area (loss or gain) in a group of land covers
zone) were identified, their areas were not included in calculations. or ecosystem during a given period. The Eq. (1) was used for the calcu-
With the results from the initial classification of the types of covers lation of the annual change, as proposed by the Colombia's Environmen-
and through the ArcGIS 9.3 software, polygons were drawn of the land tal Information System (IDEAM et al., 2002) in order to allow
covers and elements identifiable in each of the images, creating the dif- comparisons over time and in different areas.
ferent layers that compose the final map of covers. For the zones and
photographs that were confusing, the study used the classification LnA2 −Ln A1

100 ð1Þ
assisted by the MultiSpecWin32 open source software, which consists T 2 −T 1
in the selection of representative areas of each cover to obtain their
spectral value. Later, using ArcGIS 9.3, we proceeded to correct digitiz- where,
ing errors, consolidate the database, and produce the respective maps Ln = Natural logarithm
at 1:50,000 scale. A1 y A2 = Total surface of the cover analyzed for the initial and final
The precision of the obtained maps was evaluated using the verifica- year respectively
tion methodology of nominal measurement scales, which indicates the T1 y T2 = Initial and final time respectively.
measurement belonging to some type of classification; that is, analyzing Meanwhile, the change in areas (CA) comes from the difference
if the result coincides or does not coincide, based on Cohen's Kappa cor- A2 − A1; the percentage of change from the ratio (A2 − A1)/A1 × 100;
relation coefficient. The latter consists in casually choosing a certain and the mean annual change from the ratio (A2 − A1)/T2 − T1.
amount of results from all classes of land uses and covers to confront The spatial transition of land uses covers and land uses was per-
with the field data taken with the GPS (192 in total); thereafter, the formed following the methodology of Aguayo et al. (2009). A transition
error classification matrix was constructed and – lastly – the coefficient matrix was constructed with the data from the areas of each land use
of agreement (K) was calculated with Cohen's formula adapted by Vila and cover obtained for 1954 and 2009, using the map overlay and alge-
bra tools of the ArcGis 10.2. Thereafter, thematic maps were elaborated
for each land use and cover in which three specific processes were clas-
sified: i) Loss: when the land covers went on to become land uses; ii)
Table 2
Transformation: when the land covers transformed into other land
Classification of land covers and uses identified in the study area for the period 1954 to
2009. covers or when the land uses went on to become land covers; and iii)
without modifications: when land uses and covers remained in their
Vegetation Description Source
original state of 1954.
covers and
land uses
Although this methodology allows establishing the LUCC, it is lim-
ited to establishing the forces driving the quantified changes. For the lat-
Secondary Patches or fragments of natural (Aguilar-Isaza et al.,
ter, a systematized search of information was done according to the
forest (SF) secondary forest in different succession 2010; Camargo and
states Cardona, 2005) predefined search criteria, sources of information and keywords as
Mixed forest Cover presenting a mix of secondary (Aguilar-Isaza et al., follows:
(MF) forest and guadua area (dominant 2010)
presence of G. angustifolia) i) Search criteria: Reports, documents, scientific publications about
Guadua forest Patches or fragments of forest (Aguilar-Isaza et al., the use and transformation of nature, as well as the LUCC and the
(GF) dominated by the G. angustifolia 2010; Camargo and socio-economic activities in the studied area.
Cardona, 2005)
ii) Sources of information: Publications and reports from re-
Secondary Low-height vegetation that is generally (IDEAM et al., 2007)
vegetation a product of the succession process from searchers and institutions that work LUCC and socio-economic
(SV) pasturelands or crops to tree covers. activities known by the authors, research databases and the goo-
Stubbles and vegetation cover are found gle search engine.
in early succession state. iii) Key words: Montenegro, Quimbaya, Quindio, Andean moun-
Pasturelands Comprises lands covered with dense (IGAC, 2010)
(P) grass of floristic composition dominated
tains, land use, land cover, change, agriculture, livestock, forestry,
mainly by grasses from the Poaceae deforestation, research and conservation of flora, fauna, tourism,
family. exchanges of economic type, product sales, and supplies
Crops (C)a Areas dedicated to agricultural activity Own classification
P
a
The crops category was included, given that it is a use identified in some zones within 1 d−q
K ¼ N−q , where q ¼ ncNnr , d = number of successful samples; N = total number of sam-
the study area. It should be clarified that these were classified without considering their ples; q = calculated number of causal results.
2
specific type (coffee, corn, plantain, etc.) due to the difficulty of this process posed by If K N 0.75, correspondence is considered high; if it is between 0.4 and 0.75, it is con-
the resolution and quality of the photographs, especially those from 1954 to 1989. sidered good; below 0.4, it is considered poor (Grauwer and Argipova, 2014).
1292 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299

purchase. The three basic boolean operators used are AND, OR, original cover (215.8 ha), while pasturelands conserved 73.3%
and NOT. (1451,5 ha) and croplands 36.18% (18,2 ha) of their original cover of
1930,8 ha and 50.3 ha, respectively (Table 6). The transition matrix
also showed for the period 1954–2009 that 57.5% of the study area
3. Results and discussion remained without changes in the original land uses and covers (mostly
pasturelands), around 27.8% had transformations in land uses and
3.1. Areas of vegetation covers and land uses covers into other land covers, and 14.7% experienced a deforestation
and loss in area in land covers (Fig. 4). However, during the period all
Throughout the study period, prevalence pasturelands followed by land uses and covers had internal dynamics because of a set distur-
the guadua forest and in lower proportion the cropland use (Table 3). bances and connected drivers.
The guadua forest are patches or fragments of forest dominated by The secondary forest was the land cover with the highest contrac-
Guadua angustifolia Kunth, a bamboo species native from tropical re- tion throughout the study period, losing 85.52% (326.01 ha) of the orig-
gions in Central and South America, that grows in natural stands, pre- inal area, at an annual change rate of −3.51% (Table 5). The period
dominantly along rivers either as pure stands or as mixed with trees 1954–1969 had the greatest change with an annual rate of −6.95%, los-
(Kleinn and Morales-Hidalgo, 2006). It is one of the three largest grow- ing 246 ha (64.74%) (Table 4). Likewise, the biggest change occurred
ing bamboo species (with diameters up to 18.5 cm and a growth rate during the periods prior to 1989, with a significant loss in area, equiva-
between 11 to 21 cm per day in Colombia) and one of the economically lent to 291 ha. In 1969, the whole area of secondary forest was
most important in the world (Londoño et al., 2002). In the coffee region deforested in Finca Veraguas (El Gigante Township) and part of El
of Colombia, the estimated area of forests dominated by Guadua is of Ocaso (El Laurel Township); then, during 1969 to 1989, deforestation
about 28,000 ha (Kleinn and Morales-Hidalgo, 2006). took place in La Cascada (Palermo Township) in the northern part of
In 1954, pasturelands occupied 66% (1930.81 ha) of the area, and the study zone and another area in eastern part (Palermo, El Chaquiro,
63% (1854.31 ha) in 2009. Guadua forest occupied 7,40% (215,81 ha) and El Laurel townships) (Fig. 4). The period 2003–2009 also presented
in 1954 while in 2009 occupied 16,21% (472,10 ha). The secondary for- a loss, but it is not given by the deforestation per se, but because of the
est occupied in 1954 13,06% (381.21 ha) and the mixed forests 10% transformation from secondary forest to mixed forest and guadua forest,
(299.92 ha) of the area. Nonetheless, these cover types presented the which agrees with the data obtained in the transition matrix (Fig. 4).
greatest contraction, occupying in 2009 the 1,90% (55.20 ha) and The results for the secondary forest are related to those found by
7.12% (207.41 ha) of the area, respectively (See Table 3 and Fig. 3). Villa (1998) in El Ocaso, who observed that zones with high vegetation
(trees 25–40 m) diminished significantly from 1969 to 1980, as well as
3.2. Rates of change zones with high and low vegetation, which diminished drastically be-
tween 1969 and 1989. Similarly, Aguilar-Isaza et al. (2010) and
Regarding the annual rates of change presented by land covers and Gómez-Posada and Londoño (2012) mention a loss of 42% of the forest
land uses, the period 2003–2009 had the highest rate of loss, with cover of El Ocaso between 1954 and 2003, almost half occurring during
−10.48% for the secondary forest and the highest rate of gain for the the 1960s, when continuous pasturelands replaced the forest. In addi-
secondary vegetation cover with 16.22% (Table 4). For the 55-year stud- tion, according to the owners of the Veraguas farm, historically the
ied, the guadua forest, secondary vegetation, and croplands experienced wild covers were deforested to make room for grazing paddocks, but
an area expansion of 256,29 ha (118.76%), 26,20 ha (65,14%), and because of the steep slopes and erosion generated some sites were left
205,92 ha (409,38%), respectively. While, the secondary forest, mixed for regeneration.
forest and pastureland experienced an area contraction of −326,01 ha With regard to the mixed forest, it had the biggest loss in area during
(−85,52%), −92,51 ha (−30,84%) and −76,50 ha (−3.96%), respec- 1969–1989 with −38.39% (102.13 ha) and 1989–2003 with −30.10%
tively. Concerning the annual rate of change, secondary forest had the (49.34 ha) at annual rates of change of −2.42% and −2.56%, respec-
highest rate of loss with −3.51% and cropland the highest rate of gain tively (Table 4). During 1954–2009, close to 1.68 ha/year of mixed forest
with 2,96% (Table 5). was deforested, for a total of 92.51 ha (Table 5). The changes between
1954 and 1969 and 1969–1989 were in hacienda El Ocaso and some
3.3. Transition matrix and the anthropogenic drivers of change areas in the north-east part of the study area (Palermo Township) due
to deforestation for crops. For 1989, the loss was due to the transforma-
The transition matrix showed important LUCC during the studied tion from mixed forest to guadua forest and for the subsequent periods,
period. For 2009 the secondary forest only conserved 9.9% (37, ha) of there was a recovery of some zones occupied by guadua and transfor-
the original cover (381,2 ha), that was mainly transformed for pasture- mation from secondary forest to mixed forest (Table 6, Fig. 4).
lands 42.4% (161.5 ha), mixed forest 17.8% (67.8 ha) and guadua forest The Guadua forest experienced a gain of 118% in area during
19.5% (74.2). Also, the mixed forest for 2009 only conserved 20.2% 1954–2009, with an annual change rate of 1.42% (Table 5). Specifically
(60.6 ha) of its original cover (299.9 ha), that was mainly transformed between 1969 and 1989, its area increased by 95% (9 ha/year), with a
into guadua forest 36% (108,5 ha) and pasturelands 34% (101,9 ha). rate of change of 3.34% (Table 4). Likewise, for the period 1969–2003,
Similarly for 2009 the guadua forest conserved 51,1% (110.2 ha) of its the increased area may have been related to the transformation of the

Table 3
Areas occupied by land covers and uses for 1954, 1969, 1989, 2003 and 2009.

Land covers and uses Area (ha)

1954 % 1969 % 1989 % 2003 % 2009 %

Secondary forest 381.21 13.06 134.43 4.59 89.61 3.06 103.51 3.52 55.20 1.90
Mixed forest 299.92 10.28 266.03 9.08 163.90 5.59 114.56 3.90 207.41 7.12
Guadua forest 215.81 7.40 197.62 6.75 385.44 13.16 527.81 17.95 472.10 16.21
Secondary vegetation 40.22 1.38 46.34 1.58 70.63 2.41 25.10 0.85 66.42 2.28
Pasturelands 1930.81 66.16 2043.77 69.79 1947.13 66.46 2046.87 69.61 1854.31 63.69
Crops 50.30 1.72 240.33 8.21 273.21 9.32 122.64 4.17 256.22 8.80
 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299 1293

Fig. 3. Land covers and uses during the period 1954–2009.

secondary and mixed forest in to Guadua forest. Also for 1989, its area 2012). According to IGAC (1989), few native species remained between
was increased, given that it recovers part of the zone that had been 1000 and 1600 masl after the colonization of the department of Quindío
deforested in Finca Veraguas (El Gigante Township) (Fig. 4). in 1880. However, guadua was conserved because of its usefulness for
The results for guadua forest are consistent with that by Villa (1998) diverse tasks as the elaboration of water ducts, fences, bridges and it
for El Ocaso where guadua increased in and out of the forest by N50% be- has remained as a remnant due to deforestation and landscape transfor-
tween 1969 and 1989. This increase may respond to the conservation of mation (Ospina, 2002).
the area, by the limited use by peasants (Gómez, 2007). Besides, it is Since the late 20th century, the increase of guadua cover may be ex-
consistent with the established by Aguilar-Isaza et al. (2010), who indi- plained because of its higher trade and demand for construction, furni-
cate that the area of guadua has increased over 50% in the last 10 years, ture, and handicrafts sectors, as well as in vegetable charcoal
and with Ospina and Cardona (2005) in the coffee zone, where over 45% production, and the paper industry, placing Quindío as the biggest ex-
of the patches analyzed in the six landscapes, corresponded to patches porter with 49.4% of the country's total production (Capera and
with presence or prevalence of guadua. Moreno, 2005). Additionally, guadua is one of the best raw materials
In the Colombian Andes guadua is distributed between 1000 and for the manufacture of floors and it is very useful for home construction
2000 masl and is characterized for following the course of rivers and in any socioeconomic level of the population. Given its physical-
forming gallery forests in some zones (Gómez-Posada and Londoño, mechanical features, it has proven to be quite resistant to seismic
1294 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299

Table 5

change rate
Indicators of changes in area, presented by the land covers and uses throughout the

−10.48
Annual

−1.86

−1.65
55 years of study, period 1954–2009.

16.22

12.28
9.89
(%)
Land covers Period 1954–2009 Annual change
and uses rate (%)

Mean annual
Change area % of Mean annual change
(ha) change (ha/year)

(ha/year)

−32.09
change

−9.28
−8.05
−326.01 −85.52 −5.93 −3.51

15.47

22.26
Secondary

6.89
forest
Mixed forest −92.51 −30.84 −1.68 −0.67

−10.55
−46.67
Guadua forest 256.29 118.76 4.66 1.42

164.62

108.93
−9.41
81.05
Secondary 26.20 65.14 0.48 0.91
%

vegetation
2003–2009

Pasturelands −76.50 −3.96 −1.39 −0.07

area (ha)

−192.56
−55.71
−48.31
Change

Crops 205.92 409.38 3.74 2.96

133.58
41.32
92.85

Bold highlights the main changes.

change rate

events, which is why after the earthquake of January 1999 in the Coffee
Annual

−7.39
−2.56

−5.72
2.25
1.03

0.36

Triangle, it has been used massively in different reconstruction projects

(%)

in this region (Espinal et al., 2005).

Mean annual

With regard to the secondary vegetation, although for the period

(ha/year)

1989–2003, indexes showed a loss of 64.47% of the area, between

−10.76
change

−3.25
−3.52

1954 and 2009, this land cover had a gain in area (Table 5). During
10.17
0.99

7.12

1969–1989 the area increased by 52.43% at an annual change rate of

2.11%, and during 2003–2009 the area increase around 165% at an an-
−64.47
−30.10

−55.11
36.94
15.52

nual change rate of 16.22% (Table 4). According to the transition matrix
5.12

these changes are related with the transformation of pastureland

%
1989–2003

(32.9 ha) and deforestation of the secondary forest (22.8 ha) (Fig. 3).
area (ha)

−150.58
−45.53
−49.34
Change

142.37

Secondary vegetation has been mainly acts as a transition cover, oc-

13.90

99.74
Indicators of changes in area, presented by the land covers and uses during the periods 1954–1969, 1969–1989, 1989–2003, and 2003–2009.

cupying zones that have been deforested like in El Ocaso in 1969 or re-
covered like in Veraguas in 1989, which allowed it to increase its area;
change rate

the only loss presented was between 1989 and 2003 probably as the re-
Annual

sult of its transformation into pasturelands for cattle farming. These re-
−2.42
−2.03

−0.24
3.34
2.11

0.64
(%)

sults are corroborated for El Ocaso by (Villa, 1998) who found that the
low vegetation had a slight recovery between 1980 and 1989, among
Mean annual

other reasons because during this period a zone was no longer culti-
(ha/year)

vated and the regeneration process began.

change

−2.24

−4.83
−5.11

The pasturelands between 1954 and 2009 had a loss of area of nearly
9.39
1.21

1.64

3.96% (Table 5). However, during 1954–1969 and 1989–2003 it in-

creased by 5% and during the periods 1969–1989 and 2003–2009 it re-
−33.34
−38.39

−4.73
95.03
52.43

13.68

duced from 4% and 9%, respectively (Table 4), and with an annual
%

change rate of −1.65% during this last period. The transition matrix
1969–1989

area (ha)

showed that the main area gained corresponded to the deforestation

−102.13
−44.82

−96.64
Change

187.81
24.29

of secondary forest (161.5 ha), mixed forest (101.9 ha), and guadua for-
32.88

est (86.8 ha) (Table 6, Fig. 4).

The intensive livestock farming explains the predominance of pas-
change rate

turelands in the study area and corresponds to that observed in six lo-
Annual

−6.95
−0.80
−0.59

calities of the coffee zone by (Ospina and Cardona, 2005) and the one
10.43
0.94
0.38
(%)

observed in El Ocaso, where 57.86% of its area is intended for livestock

production (Aguilar-Isaza et al., 2010).
Mean annual

In 2009 Quimbaya dedicated 31,10% of its total surface to livestock

(ha/year)

−16.45
change

farming while the department of Quindío 27,16% (IGAC, 2010). Al-

−2.26
−1.21

12.67
0.41
7.53

though, livestock farming has been occurring for several centuries in

Colombia since the Spaniards introduced cattle farming (17th century)
−64.74
−11.30

and transform a lot of ecosystems toward pastureland, it had a greater

377.80
−8.43
15.22
5.85

intensity between 1920 and 1990 especially in low zones

%

(b1000 masl) (Murgueitio, 2003).

1954–1969

area (ha)

−246.78

Considering ecological perspective pastures are not adequate for the

−33.89
−18.19
Change

112.96
190.03

Bold highlights the main changes.

study area, given that approximately 50% of the area corresponds to

6.12

type VII3 soils, which should be maintained with permanent tree covers
and their use must be limited to protecting land, water, flora, and fauna.
Secondary vegetation

However, the main current use is for livestock production, whose im-
Secondary forest

pact causes compacted soils, terracettes erosion, contamination of riv-

Guadua forest

Pasturelands
Mixed forest
Land covers

ers, increased greenhouse gases emissions (Kattan and Naranjo, 2008;

Crops
Table 4

uses

3
Agro-ecological classification of the soil: http://datateca.unad.edu.co/contenidos/
30160/leccin_5_clases_agrolgicas_del_suelo_land_capability_classification.htm.
 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299 1295

Table 6
Transition matrix for the land covers and uses during the period 1954–2009.

Year 1954 Total (ha) 2009

Secondary forest Mixed forest Guadua forest Secondary vegetation Pasturelands Crops Const.

2009 Secondary forest 37.7 2.9 0.1 0.7 13.5 0.2 0 55.2
Mixed forest 67.8 60.6 5.3 12.0 61.5 0.4 0 207.4
Guadua forest 74.2 108.5 110.2 3.6 172.2 3.5 0 472.1
Secondary vegetation 22.8 6.4 4.3 0 32.9 0 0 66.4
Pasturelands 161.5 101.9 86.8 23.4 1451.5 27.9 1.2 1854.3
Crops 17.1 19.6 9.1 0.4 191.8 18.2 0 256.2
Const. 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.1 0.4 8.2
Total (ha) 1954 381.2 299.9 215.8 40.2 1930.8 50.3 1.6 2919.8

Murgueitio, 2003), and affectation of the composition of the plant com- 1,750,000 ha have been deforested between 1985 and 2005, with a
munity due to its influence on the movements of pollinators and seed loss of 13.68% of the total area (MAVDT, 2010).
dispersers (Laurance et al., 2011). In the study area land covers such as forests and vegetation are being
The cropland between 1954 and 2009 had the highest gain in area deteriorated and reduced due to lack of knowledge of their natural his-
with 409% approximately, however the period 1989–2003 had a loss tory, the type of management of the production systems, the use of bio-
of 55.11% mainly because of the change into pasturelands in the eastern diversity and tourism (Gómez, 2007). The latter because of the increase
part of the study area (Fig. 4). For 1954–1969 croplands experienced a of country houses, hotels, resorts and the establishment of an agricul-
gain of 190 ha (377.8%) with an annual change rate of 10.43% tural theme park in Quimbaya and a coffee theme park in
(Tables 4 and 5), mainly due to the transformation in the eastern part Montenegro. However, in the study area the secondary and mixed forest
(Palermo, El Chaquiro, and El Laurel townships) of secondary forest, are extremely important for the survival of different species of plants,
mixed forest, guadua forest, and especially pasturelands for growing birds, arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, mammals (Alouatta seniculus
plantations of different perennial crops as coffee, avocado, banana, plan- howler monkeys and Choloepus hoffmanni sloths) (Agudelo and Vélez,
tain, citric crops and annual crops as maize, that has been an important 2001).
income source in Quimbaya, Montenegro and the department of Particularly, in the Department of Quindío (Colombia), the defores-
Quindío (Fundación las Mellizas, 2012). tation rose since the 1990s, due to the expansion of agricultural fields
According to Villa (1998) in El Ocaso, crops remained stable between to establish livestock farming and cultivate plantain and citrus crops in
1969 and 1989, but after 1989 a zone of coffee plantation was no longer municipalities of Quimbaya and Montenegro (Gómez, 2007). Although
cultivated and began a recovery process. This may be triggered by the this study analyses the period 1954–2009, after 2009 agriculture and
disintegration of the international coffee agreement in 1989 that livestock farming continue to be an important driving force in the
changed the coffee production quotas, generating the lowest prices for study area, especially crops such as plantain, coffee, citrus and pasture-
Colombian coffee in the successive years. Between 1992 and 1996, in land for cattle.
the Colombian Andean mountains, 14,000 ha of coffee crops were elim- Statistics from The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of
inated, mostly becoming livestock systems (Camargo and Cardona, Colombia for Quimbaya and Montenegro (2007–2016) suggest that be-
2005), which is related to the loss registered between 1989 and 2003 tween 2007 and 2011 plantain in Montenegro was cultivated in an area
not only in El Ocaso but in the whole area. Nevertheless, changes in relatively stable between 6265 and 6201 ha, but in 2012 it had a drastic
croplands also could be related to the fractionation of property in all decrease stabilizing the production area around 2500 ha, with a slight
the municipalities of Quindío that occurred during the mid-1970s, increase until 2016. In Quimbaya the production area was around
which changed the generalized trend for the concentration of land 3600 ha between 2007 and 2011 with a slight tendency to the increase,
(IGAC, 1989). but in 2012 the area had a reduction to 2278 ha, and later had a recovery
During 1954–2009 in study area, several changes occurred in land and increased to 4824 ha in 2016. The cultivated coffee areas in
use system from one state to another – e.g., the change in Veraguas Quimbaya had a tendency to decrease but stayed between 3018 and
farm where land covers were deforested for pastures, but after aban- 3610 ha, while Montenegro had a slight increase to having cultivated
donment, the forest succession began. This showed that land use areas with an average of 1321 ha. Regarding citrus crops, Quimbaya
change is non-linear and is associated with other societal and bio- and Montenegro had a tendency to increase with areas among 311
physical changes through a series of transitions (Geist et al., 2006; and 748 ha and 721 and 1534 ha, respectably. Other crops such as avo-
Lambin and Meyfroidt, 2010). Nonetheless in some instances the cado, pineapple and banana had an important increase in their culti-
temporal resolution of this study was too coarse to catch all land vated area between 2007 and 2016, and in some cases the original
use transitions. area had tripled, suggesting a probable change in land covers (Fig. 5).
Although, the importance of conserving forests is given primarily by In addition, statistics from Fedegán (Colombian Cattle Ranching As-
their capacity to sustain viable populations (Forman, 1995) and main- sociation) show that between 2001 and 2015 the number of cattle farms
tain biodiversity (Betts et al., 2017), the results evidence that LUCC gen- in Quimbaya and Montenegro had a tendency to decrease, with a num-
erated the loss of habitats in the most conserved forest covers, ber of farms oscillating between 209 and 285 and 241–319 ha, respect-
increasing the continuous deterioration of the forests and its contrac- ably. Regarding the number of cattle during 2001–2016 Montenegro
tion, contrary to the relative slightly change of pastureland and expan- had a tendency to decrease, while for 2001–2005 had an increase to
sion of cropland. This is consistent with the LUCC in department of 15,667 cattle, in 2006 decreased to 12,412, maintaining and average of
Quindío as according to IGAC (1989) in 1988 the natural forests had 10,276 to 2016. For 2001–2016 Quimbaya had a slight tendency to de-
30% (58,600 ha) of the departmental area, but for 2009 had 19.84% crease, from 2001 to 2008 the number of cattle was relatively stable
(38,283 ha), experiencing a contraction due to the land cover change around 10,000, but from 2009 to 2011 there was a reduction and in
for pastureland and cropland that in 2010 occupied 50.24% of the 2012 and the years later it experienced an increase stabilizing the num-
department's area (IGAC, 2010). Also corresponds with a national ten- ber of cattle around 10,000. The latter suggest changes in land use inten-
dency in which in the last 500 years the natural and semi-natural land- sity since 2006, as the number of cattle farms has been reduced in both
scapes have been transformed; especially in the Andean region municipalities but the number of cattle has increased (Fig. 6).
1296 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299

Fig. 4. Changes in each land cover and use during el period 1954–2009.

In early 2018, the main crops in the study area were plantain, citrus, and livestock farming continued over time pressuring land covers in
pineapple and pastures for cattle.4 According to LUCC analysis from the study area. However, some contextual factors may affect LUCC in
1954 to 2009 and Figs. 5 and 6, it is highly probable that croplands the study area – e.g., El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) that cyclic in-
crease or decrease precipitation and temperature in Colombia may af-
4
Personal communication with researchers from Universidad del Quindío, who visited fect crops and pastures strongly because of climate change. In
the study area in February 2018. addition, other factors such as agriculture policies that stimulate some
 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299 1297

7,000

6,000

Culvated area (ha)

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year

Avocado M Avocado Q Citrus M Citrus Q Coffee M

Coffee Q Banana Q Banana M Plantain Q Plantain M
Maize Q Maize M Pineapple Q Pineapple M

Fig. 5. Cultivated area by crop in Montenegro and Quimbaya (2007–2016).

Source: Own construction based on data from Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Colombia.

crops like pineapple can favor the expansion of cropland and pasture- seeking to propose actions that aid in generating recovery, mainte-
lands into the most conserved areas, as well as tourism. nance, and conservation processes of forests and natural ecosystems,
Furthermore, it is important to consider that “after more than 50- which ultimately support life.
years of armed conflict, Colombia is now transitioning to a more stable
social and political climate due to a series of peace agreements between 4. Conclusions
the government and different armed groups. Consequences of these
socio-economic and political changes on ecosystems are largely uncer- LUCC and deforestation dynamics are closely related in the study
tain, but there is growing concern about derived increases in environ- area; both are issues that constrain the biodiversity, the sustainability
mental degradation” (Sierra et al., 2017: 40). and the resilience of human societies. Thus, LUCC and the anthropogenic
Nevertheless, the anthropogenic changes in natural ecosystems factors causing it have great incidence on nature conservation and pro-
have occurred at such a rapid pace that it has been impossible for eco- found implications for modifying the territory to carry out production
systems to adapt to this rhythm of change (Guhl, 2004). Extensive and activities or construct housing or roadways. Only to the extent to
intensive agricultural practices, colonization activities, construction of which it is understood that LUCC, human and natural subsystems are in-
roadways and large-scale infrastructure, among others, have led to terconnected, will it be possible to structure more effective strategies to
changes in natural land covers in the planet, causing negative environ- confront the problem of the modification of forest zones into pasture-
mental impacts, like loss of natural habitats, diminished biological di- land, cropland, or urban centers.
versity, fragmentation of ecosystems, contamination of natural The case of study of Andean mountains in rural Quindío
resources, alteration of trophic chains and of hydrological cycles (1954–2009) is a specific example of how behaviors inherent to
among others. human development modify the territory, but the implications extend
This requires understanding the responses of ecosystems to changes to zones around the world. In this case, between 1954 and 2009 some
in their attributes and knowing and understanding the factors that have land uses and covers experienced a contraction of −326,01 ha
determined them (Herzog et al., 2012), to minimize the impact on the (−85,52%) for secondary forest, −92,51 ha (−30,84%) for mixed forest
ecosystem services (Guhl, 2004). This is where the analysis of LUCC and −76,50 ha (−3.96%) for pastureland. While some experienced an
and their causes gain importance to generate policies of sustainable de- expansion of 256,29 ha (118.76%) for guadua forest, 26,20 ha (65,14%)
velopment, carry out better planning and make better decisions, for secondary vegetation, and 205,92 ha (409,38%) for croplands.
Regarding the rate of change during the analyzed period, the guadua
18,000 350 forest had the highest percentage, with an annual rate of 1.42% and area
16,000
Nunber of cale Farms

300 gain of 118.76%; the secondary forest had the highest loss at an annual
14,000
Number of Cale

12,000
250 rate of 3.51%, diminishing its initial area by 85.52%. The period with
10,000 200 the highest annual change rate, in loss and gain, was 2003–2009 during
8,000 150 which the secondary forest reached a rate of loss of 10.48% and the sec-
6,000 ondary vegetation reached a rate of gain of 16.22%.
100
4,000 The transition matrix showed for 1954–2009 that 57.5% of the study
2,000 50
area remained unmodified, around 27.8% had transformations to land
0 0
covers, and 14.7% experienced deforestation and loss of land covers.
However, all land uses and covers had internal dynamics because of a
Year set disturbances and connected drivers, which were not always possible
to catch due to the coarse scale of the study.
Montenegro Cale Quimbaya Cale Specifically, for 2009, the secondary forest conserved 9.9% of the
Montenegro farms Quimbaya farms original cover, while with a deforestation by 42.4% to establish pasture-
lands, and 17.8% transformed into mixed forest and 19.5% into guadua
Fig. 6. Number of cattle and cattle farms in Montenegro and Quimbaya (2001–2015). forest. Similarly, the mixed forest conserved 20.2% of the original
Source: Own construction based on data from Fedegán. cover, 36% was transformed into guadua forest, and 34% was deforested
1298 M.E. Quintero-Gallego et al. / Science of the Total Environment 634 (2018) 1288–1299

for pasturelands. Pasturelands conserved 73.3% of their original cover C.J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J.A., Prentice, I.C., Ramankutty, N., Snyder, P.K., 2005. Global
consequences of land use. Science (80-.) 309, 570 (LP-574).
and crops conserved 36.18%. Forman, R., 1995. Land mosaics: some general principles of landscape and regional ecol-
LUCC in the study area is caused by multiple interacting factors like ogy. Landsc. Ecol. 10, 133–142.
climate variability, soil erosion, change in market prices, economic de- Fundación las Mellizas, 2012. Análisis de representatividad ecosistémica, identificación de
vacíos y prioridades de conservación en el departamento del Quindío. CRQ,
velopment programs and changes in methods of production, among Fundación Las Mellizas y WCS, Armenia – Quindío.
others. In spite of the limitations of the study due to the scarce availabil- Geist, H.J., Lambin, E.F., 2002. Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical
ity and quality of the aerial photographs and socio-economic informa- deforestation tropical forests are disappearing as the result of many pressures, both
local and regional, acting in various combinations in different geographical locations.
tion, in general, it was evident that livestock farming and agriculture Bioscience 52, 143–150.
represent an important driver of landscape modification. These activi- Geist, H., McConnell, W., Lambin, E.F., Moran, E., Alves, D., Rudel, T., 2006. Causes and tra-
ties must be restricted around forests, especially secondary and mixed jectories of land-use/cover change. In: Lambin, E.F., Geist, H. (Eds.), Land-Use and
Land-Cover Change: Local Processes and Global Impacts. Springer Berlin Heidelberg,
forests and, instead, focus on recovery and conservation strategies, in-
Berlin, Heidelberg:pp. 41–70 https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-32202-7_3.
creasing the areas and generating greater connectivity between them, Gómez, G., 2007. Composición florística y desfronde en zonas de interior y borde de dos
to protect the diverse species living there. fragmentos de selva subandina del departamento del Quindío. Universidad del
Finally, this paper constitutes an approach to understanding the Quindío.
Gómez-Posada, C., Londoño, J., 2012. Alouatta seniculus: density, home range and group
transformations of nature caused by human activities, based on the structure in a bamboo forest fragment in the Colombian Andes. Folia Primatol. 83,
quantification of changes in land uses and covers. Nevertheless, to gen- 56–65.
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Análisis correlacional. S. C.S Center, an Petersburgo, Rusia.
with more detail causal effects, causal mechanisms and causal chains, as Guhl, A., 2004. Coffee and Landscape Change in the Colombian Countryside 1970–2002
well as the proximate and underlying causes involved. In this way, an (THES). University of Florida, Miami, Florida.
interdisciplinary approach with the environmental history will be Herzog, S., Martinez, R., Jorgensen, P., Tiessen, H., 2012. Cambio climático y biodiversidad
en los Andes tropicales. Instituto Interamericano para la investigación del cambio
useful. global (IAI). Comite Científico sobre Problemas del Medio Ambiente (SCOPE), Paris.
IDEAM, SINCHI, IAVH, IIAP, INVEMAR, 2002. Sistema de información Ambiental de
Colombia SIAC: Primera Generación de Indicadores de la Línea Base de la
Acknowledgements información. IDEAM, Bogotá.
IDEAM, IGAC, IAVH, INVEMAR, I. SINCHI, E. IIAP, 2007. Ecosistemas continentales, costeros
y marinos de Colombia. Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales,
The authors are grateful to Faculty of Engineering and the Center for
Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi, Instituto de Investigación de Recursos
Studies and Research on Biodiversity and Biotechnology (CIBUQ) at Biológicos Alexander Von Humboldt, Instituto de Investigaciones Ambientales del
Universidad del Quindío, Colombia, for the support with materials, Pacífico, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras José Benito Vives de Andreis,
equipment and software. The authors would like to thank the anony- e Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas Sinchi, Bogotá.
IGAC, 1989. Características Geográficas Quindío. Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi,
mous reviewers, whose thoughtful comments greatly improved this Bogotá.
paper. IGAC, 2010. Coberturas y usos de la tierra del departamento del Quindío. Instituto
Geográfico Agustín Codazzi, Bogotá.
INGEOMINAS, 1999. Guías de información geocientífica digital. Proyecto Singeo.
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