Good evening sir, hereby I attach my picture when I do the final examination of

Summary materials of Pollution Prevention.

  Thank you for giving me this final assignment.

Hopefully, It might be useful for complete my grade.

May you always be healthy, sir.

Thank you.    
Ni Iluh Permata Ariase

018201700015
Introduction to Pollution Prevention
Pollution prevention is a term used to describe production technologies and strategies that result in
eliminating or reducing waste streams. The EPA defines pollution prevention as: “the use of materials,
processes, or practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants or wastes at the source. It
includes practices that reduce the use of hazardous materials, energy, water or other resources and
practices that protect natural resources through conservation or more efficient use.”

Pollution Prevention Practice (3P)

1. Product reformulation

2. Process modification

3. Equipment redesign

4. Recycling and reuse of waste materials

Waste Definition

• Usually tend to think of waste as a solid product left over at the end of a process or action, but waste is a
much broader issue than that

• It encompasses wastage of energy or water in producing or using a product

 • Industrial waste is usually described as materials coming from a manufacturing process that are not
directly used within the corporation and that are marked for disposal or release to the environment “A
waste is a resource out of place”

Categories of Waste

• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

• Hazardous waste

• Industrial waste

• Medical waste

• Construction and demolition debris

• Radioactive waste

• Mining waste

• Agriculture waste

Pollution Prevention Hierarchy

Pollution Prevention Goals

The goal of pollution prevention is zero pollution, but this is a goal only; not all waste can be prevented or
recycled and there will always be some waste to finally be disposed of. The objective should be to make
the volume of this waste small enough that it can be managed effectively in an environmentally safe
manner.

Environmental Ethics

- Most pollution prevention activities are initially begun because of regulatory pressure, an
understanding that there could be cost savings associated with minimizing waste generation, or a
desire to improve a corporate image.
- In recent years, however, some companies have moved beyond these impetuses to espouse
pollution prevention on a more moral basis. They base their pollution management decisions on
environmental ethics.
- Environmental ethics is a systematic account of the moral relationships between human beings
and their natural environment
- Environmental ethics is concerned with humanity's relationship to the environment, its
understanding of and responsibilities to nature, and its obligation to leave some of nature's
resources to posterity
- Pollution, population control, resource use, food production and distribution, energy production
and consumption, the preservation of the wilderness and of species diversity all fall under the
purview of environmental ethics

There are several philosophies used to describe environmental ethics:

• Conservationism: Its basis is the view that wilderness is a resource that must be utilized and protected at
the same time

• Preservationism: This philosophy promotes the ethic that nature is meant to be enjoyed and experienced
by humans and that it is our duty to protect the wilderness for our future enjoyment

• Deep ecology: Deep ecology extends the base of morality to include all life on Earth, including plants
and animals

• Social ecology: Social ecology places a strong value on human existence while still recognizing the
uniqueness of nature
Properties and Fates of Environmental Contaminants
Organic Chemical

•Organic compounds are those that contain carbon and usually hydrogen

•Organic compounds can be divided into two main groupings by their structure :

1. Aliphatic compounds : contain straight or branched chains of carbon atoms, or are formed into
rings containing single bonds between the carbons
- Alkane :
Aliphatic hydrocarbon compounds in which all bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds.
The names of all alkanes end in –ane. (i.e methane, ethane etc).
Aliphatic compounds in which double bonds exist between two adjacent carbon atoms. The
names of alkenes all end in -ene or in the past –ylene.
- Alkyne :
Alkynes are denoted by triple bond between two carbon atoms. Names of aklynes end in (-yne)
- Organic acids ussually have a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) attached to one end of the
molecule. The compound’s name ends in (-anoic acid)
- Organic acids ussually have a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) attached to one end of the
molecule. The compound’s name ends in (-anoic acid)
2. Aromatic compounds : a special group of organic compounds which contain carbon-based rings
or multi-rings with alternating single and double carbon bonds
- All aromatic compounds are ring compounds with alternating single and double bonds between
the ring carbons. The simplest aromatic compound is benzene (C6H6).
- Two or more benzene rings can be fused together, sharing pairs of carbon atoms. These
compounds are referred to as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PARs). The simplest twoand
three-ring PAR com- pounds are naphthalene and anthracene.

•Metal (Inorganic compounds)

- Heavy metals are defined as those with atomic numbers greater than that of iron and with
densities greater than 5.0 g/cm3. •Many heavy metals (e.g., lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury)
are of great environmental concern because of their toxicity.

CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT AND TRANSFORMATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT

• Because of the potential hazard that exposure to hazardous compounds poses to humans and the
environment, the levels of toxic and carcinogenic substances in the environment have become important
criteria for evaluating environmental quality.

• The amount of a material which enters the environment, though, is not always indicative of the amount
that will be found there.
•The concentration of a contaminant at any point in the environment depends on the quantity added and
the processes that influence its fate.

•This can include both transport and transformation mechanisms.

• Transport processes tend to move materials from one point to another and may involve intermedia
exchanges between atmospheric, aquatic, and soil environments, as well as movement within each of
these media. Transport may be due to advective, dispersive, or diffusional processes.

• Transformation processes within each media chemically alter the contaminants to new compounds that
may have lower, equal, or greater toxicity. Transformations may be due to chemical, photochemical, or
biological processes

Transport processes can be subdivided into:

 loading processes

 advective processes

 dispersive processes, and

 diffusive processes.
Environmental Regulation
USA

Law pertaining to clean air (Clean Air Act 1955)

• Is United States federal law designed to control air pollution on national level

• The first laws established to protect and enhance the quality of the nation's air resources were passed in
1955 (the Clean Air Act, or CAA), but these laws were completely replaced in 1967. The CAA was
amended in 1970 and 1977.

• In 1990, the air quality laws were again totally rewritten to provide for attainment and maintenance of
national ambient air quality. Followingis a brief synopsis of the law as currently enforced.

Law pertaining to clean water (Clean Water Act 1972)

• The Federal Water Pollution Control Act is the primary federal legislation that protects the nation's
surface waters, such as lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. The law was originally passed in 1948, but it was
totally rewritten and expanded in 1972 because of the growing public outcry about the state of our
nation's waters. This law became known as the Clean Water Act (CWA). It has since been revised several
times, with major revisions in 1977, 1981, and 1987. It is currently under review again

• The objective of the Clean Water Act is to improve and maintain water quality by restoring the
physical, chemical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters

Law pertaining to hazardous material (Toxic substance control act 1976)

• The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was passed in 1976 to give the EPA power to obtain
information on all new and existing chemical substances and to control any of these substances
determined to cause an unreasonable risk to public health or the environment.

• Prior to this, the EPA could act to control a toxic substance only after damage had occurred. There were
no provisions for prescreening chemicals before they entered the marketplace. Now, all new chemicals
must be evaluated before they are manufactured for commercial purposes

Law pertaining to hazardous material (RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT

1976)

• Until 1976, hazardous wastes were regulated under the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965, which dealt
primarily with the disposal of nonhazardous wastes. That year, Congress passed the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which totally rewrote the previous legislation and provided the
framework for national programs to achieve environmentally sound management of both hazardous and
nonhazardous wastes.

• The act established a permit program to manage potentially hazardous materials from their point of
origin to their point of ultimate disposal and beyond. This came to be known as the cradle-to-grave
concept
Law pertaining to products (Occupational safety and health act 1970)

• OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
was enacted by Congress in 1970 and amended in 1990. This was not the first time the workplace was
regulated. Inspection of factories by regulatory agencies began in England in the early nineteenth century
in response to' public protest against the working conditions for women and child laborers

• Later governments adopted regulations against unhealthful and dangerous working conditions. Factory
codes soon became standard in every industrialized country.

Laws Pertaining to Pollution Prevention (pollution prevention act 1990)

• POLLUTION PREVENTION ACT. Essentially all of the regulations on waste management described
to this point have dealt with end-of-pipe requirements. These all assume that creation of the pollution is
inevitable and that the waste must be treated after it is produced.

• Commonly, this meant that the waste was just shifted from one receiving medium to another to satisfy
the most pressing environmental regulation at that time. Aqueous contaminants were removed from water
and applied to land or to the air; air pollutants were scrubbed out of the air, creating a water pollution
problem; contaminated soils were washed, with the contaminants moving into the water phase; and so on.

• Since many contaminants cannot be destroyed, at least economically, waste management was essentially
a shell game, in which the waste was constantly being moved from one medium to another, with no real
solution to the problem.

JAPAN
INDONESIA
• Law Pertaining Clean Air (Government Regulation No 41 year 1999) Is National law designed to
control air pollution on national level

• Law Pertaining Clean Water (Government Regulation No 82 year 2001) The Federal Water
Pollution Control Act is the primary federal legislation that protects the nation's surface waters, such as
lakes, rivers, and coastal areas

• Law Pertaining Hazardous waste (Government Regulation No 101 year 2014) Is National law
designed to control Hazardous waste on national level

• Law Pertaining Pollution Prevention

- Law No. 32 year 2009 concerning Environmental protection and management. Resources and
waste management
- Law No 18 year 2008 concerning waste management Waste (Municipal waste, etc) minimization
- Government Regulation No 101 year 2014 concerning hazardous waste management Waste
(Industrial waste, etc) minimization
Improve Manufacturing Operations
Businesses are increasingly finding themselves in a dilemma created by:

• stockholders' demanding greater profits

• regulations demanding more stringent control of pollution

• increased competition for consumers, both national and international, demands for inexpensive high-
quality products, and

• rapid technological changes force businesses to do everything possible to reduce costs of production.

In the past, this often meant minimizing pollution control activities to the least necessary to meet
environmental regulations

• As environmental regulations become stricter and more contaminants must be removed from the waste
stream, treatment costs are skyrocketing
Treatment Cost

• Landfill disposal costs range from $15 - $75 per m3, depending on hydrocarbon concentration

• Thermal incinerations fast but costs range from $250 - $700 per m3

• Bioremediation cost range from $90 – 110 per m3

• Continually retrofitting an industrial waste treatment plant to keep up with these constantly changing
requirements pushes up the cost of the industry's products, making them less competitive

• In addition, the costs of raw materials that go into the product are going up as suppliers try to meet
environmental regulations. More efficient use of raw materials during processing and recycling of
materials lost from the process are becoming essential in a well-operated industry

• Finally, many companies have found that "going green" is not just a public boon but makes economic
sense. The public is increasingly demanding that products, and processes used to make them, be more
environmentally "friendly." Businesses are finding that it is necessary to become more environmentally
benign, even if initial costs are high.

• In most cases, though, companies have found that they can do much to improve their operations at little
or no long-term cost; indeed, in most cases they find that significant cost savings can be achieved

Manufacturing Process
The typical methodology used to accomplish this is to divide the manufacturing process into several
activities, arranged serially.

The steps involved in the design of a new product can be divided into three phases (Weck,
Eversheim, Konig, and Pfeifer, 1991):

• Product planning is the longterm process of identifying the product areas of interest to a company.

• Product development is the further examination of these product areas in relation to possibilities for the
future of the company.

• Product design is the creation of a design for the product on the basis of market related, functional,
technical, manufacturing, and aesthetics requirements.

The objective of this process is to achieve the highest overall quality for the product at the lowest
cost.
There are many areas where the design of the product can greatly influence the amount of waste
produced, both during production and during and after use of the product.

Sequential Engineering

• Typically in a manufacturing organization, marketing identifies the need for new products, price ranges,
and the performance customers or potential consumers expect. Design and engineering departments
commonly work alone developing the technical requirements (e.g., materials and size) and final design
details. The manufacturing, testing, quality control, and service groups generally see the design only in its
almost complete state. As the process is sequential in progression, it is commonly known as sequential
engineering.

• This type of engineering, although the most commonly used practice in industry, is inefficient because
any changes required in a later stage will cause delay and additional cost in upstream stages, and
subsequent stages will be delayed until the current stage has been completed (Syan and Menon, 1994).

• Because there is little communication between the design, engineering, and manufacturing sectors, there
is little opportunity for design or specification changes to a product, which could result in source
reduction of wastes.

Concurrent Engineering

• To overcome these deficiencies, a new mode of manufacturing, which is a dramatic departure from the
past, is now being implemented by some firms. Known as concurrent engineering (also referred to as
simultaneous engineering, life-cycle engineering, integrated product development, or team design).

• Concurrent engineering (CE) provides a systematic and integrated approach to introduction and design
of products. The purpose is to ensure that the decisions made in the design stage result in a minimum
overall cost during a product's life-cycle.

The main objectives of concurrent engineering may be summarized as follows (Syan and Menon,
1994):

• Decreased product development lead time.

• Improved profitability.

• Greater competitiveness.

• Greater control of design and manufacturing costs.

• Close integration of departments.

• Enhanced reputation of the company and its products.

• Improved product quality.

• Promotion of team spirit.

 Sequential Design VS Concurrent Design

Manufacturing Processes

• The objective of most industrial processes is to maximize the amount of output while minimizing
production costs.

• Until recently, the production of sidestreams (which typically have been sent to waste) has received little
attention.

• As an example, a dog food production plant in Illinois in the 1970s purchased meat, grease, grains, and
other materials and blended them together to produce the dog food. The process was not very efficient
and large amounts of grease, which had been purchased as a dog food ingredient, were wasted to the
sewer.

• The company was not interested in modifying the process to minimize the grease loss because the
expense involved was not worth the savings in purchase of the inexpensive grease. Only after the grease
totally clogged the wastewater treatment plant, requiring expensive remediation, did the company decide
to improve the blending process. This may seem like a sloppy piece of management, but in actuality it is
the way decisions are commonly made.

• In many cases, simple changes to a process can result in substantial savings in process chemicals and
waste treatment. Putting continuously flowing rinse tanks on an automated switch so that water flows
only when needed is one example. In other cases, much more elaborate and high-tech changes are needed.
Although often expensive, they still commonly payoff in a reasonably short period of time.

• Following is a very brief description of some of the more common industrial processes used.

• As the pollution prevention specialist for a particular company examines his/her processes, he or she
should be cognizant of the advantages and disadvantages, pollution potential, and ease of upgrading that
each type of process presents.

• The engineer should also consider whether batch processes can be replaced by continuous processes,
which are usually less polluting, as will be discussed later.

RAW MATERIALS

• Raw materials are usually purchased from an outside source or transferred from an on-site plant. Each
raw material needs to be studied to determine how it affects the amount of waste produced. The
specifications for each raw material entering the plant should be closely examined.

Improve Quality of Feeds

• Use Off-spec Material

• Improve Quality of Products

• Use Inhibitors

• Change Shipping Containers

• Re-examine Need for each Raw Material

Improve Quality of Feeds

Although the percentage of undesirable impurities in a feed stream may be low, it can be a major
contributor to the total waste produced by a plant. Reducing the level of impurities may involve working
with the supplier of a purchased raw material, working with on-site plants that supply feed streams or
installing new purification equipment. Sometimes the effects are indirect (e.g. water gradually kills the
reactor catalyst causing formation of by-products, so a drying bed or column is added).

Use Off-spec Material

Occasionally, a process can use off-spec material (that would otherwise be burned or landfilled) because
the particular quality that makes the material off-spec is not important to the process.

Improve Quality of Products

Impurities in your own products may be creating waste in your customers' plants. Not only may this be
costly, it may cause customers to look elsewhere for higher quality raw materials. Take the initiative in
discussing the effects of impurities with your customers.

Use Inhibitors
Inhibitors prevent unwanted side reactions or polymer formation. A wide variety of inhibitors are
commercially available. If inhibitors are already being used, check with suppliers for improved
formulations and new products.

Change Shipping Containers

If raw materials are being received in containers that can not be reused and need to be burned or
landfilled, change to reusable containers or bulk shipments. Similarly, con- sider using alternative
containers for shipping products to customers.

Re-examine Need for each Raw Material

Sometimes the need for a particular raw material (one which ultimately ends up as waste) can be reduced
or eliminated by modifying the process. A cooling tower, for ex- ample, uses inhibitors to control algae
growth. In one cross-flow cooling tower, the need for algae inhibitors was cut in half by shielding the
water distribution decks from sunlight.

CHEMICAL REACTOR

• CHEMICAL REACTORS. The reactor is the heart of the manufacturing process. It is the place where
raw materials are converted into products. This is usually the key unit process in a production facility
requiring reaction of chemicals or synthesis of new ones. It is also often the primary source of waste
materials. Reactors may be operated in batch or continuous mode; may be a single unit or may be
multiple units operated in series or in parallel; may involve various phase combinations (liquid-liquid,
liquid- solid, liquid-solid-gas, or gas-solid); and may provide contact between phases by one of several
methods (stirring, packed bed, fluidized bed).

REACTOR

• Distribute Feeds Better

Reactants entering at the top of a fixed catalyst bed are poorly distributed. Part of the feed short-circuits
down through the center of the reactor and does not allow adequate time for conversion to desired
products. In contrast, feed that is closer to the walls remains in the reactor too long and "over-reacts" to
by- products that eventually become waste.

• Improve Catalyst

Because of the significant effect a catalyst has on reactor conversion and product mix, searching for better
catalysts should be an ongoing activity. Changes in the chemical makeup of a catalyst, the method by
which it is prepared, or its physical characteristics (size, shape, porosity, etc.) can lead to substantial
improvements in catalyst life and effectiveness.

• Improve Physical Mixing in the Reactor

Modifications to the reactor such as adding or improving baffles, installing a higher rpm motor on the
agitator(s), or using a different mixer blade design (or multiple impellers) can improve mixing. Pumped
recirculation can be added or increased. Two fluids going through a pump, however, do not necessarily
mix well and a static mixer may be needed to insure good contacting.

• Improve Way in Which Reactants are Added

The idea here is to get closer to ideal reactant concentrations before the feed enters the reactor. This helps
avoid secondary reactions which form unwanted by-products. The way not to add reactants is shown in
the upper half of Figure 2 on the following page. It is doubtful that the "ideal" concentration exists
anywhere in this reactor

• Consider Different Re- actor Design

The classic stirred- tank backmix reactor is not necessarily the best choice. A plug flow reactor offers the
advantage that it can be staged, and each stage can be run at different conditions (especially
temperatures), closely controlling the re- action for optimum product mix (and minimum waste). Many
innovative hybrid designs are possible.

• Provide Separate Reactor for Recycle Streams

Recycling by-product and waste streams is an excellent technique for reducing waste, but often the ideal
reactor conditions for converting recycle streams back to usable products are considerably different from
conditions in the primary reactor. One solution is to provide a separate, smaller reactor for handling re-
cycle and waste streams as illustrated in Figure at the right. Temperatures, pressures and concentrations
can then be optimized in both reactors to take maximum advantage of reaction kinetics.

• Improve Control

For a given reactor configuration, there is one set of operating conditions that is optimum at any given
time. The control system should know that condition and make it occur, with little fluctuation. Such
control may be complex, particularly in the case of batch reactors, but can yield major improvements. In
less sophisticated systems, simply stabilizing reactor operation frequently reduces the formation of waste
products.

• Examine Heating and/or cooling techniques

- Heat Exchanger
Heat exchangers are used in many chemical processes to deliver heat to or from the reactants.
They may be either a heater or a cooler, depending on whether the transfer of heat is from or to
the process line. Shell and tube exchangers, in which a bundle of tubes carrying one of the fluids
is enclosed in a cylindrical shell containing the other fluid, are the most commonly used
Heat exchangers can be a source of waste, especially with products that are temperature sensitive.
There are a number of techniques for minimizing the formation of waste products in heat
exchangers. All reduce the amount of fouling.
• Desuperheat Plant Steam
• Use Lower Pressure Steam
• Install a Thermocompressor
• Use On-line Cleaning Techniques
 • Use Scraped-wall Exchangers
• Use Staged Heating

Fugitive Emission
Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other
unintended or irregular releases of gases, mostly from industrial activities

There are four basic approaches for estimating emissions from equipment leaks in a specific
processing unit. The approaches are:

1. Average emission factor approach;

2. Screening ranges approach;

3. EPA correlation approach; and

4. Unit-specific correlation approach.

Advantages and Disadvantages

WATER, ENERGY, AND REAGENT CONSERVATION

One major component of the resources used in an industry process-water-is often overlooked. Water is
used as a solvent to dissolve reagents and acts as a medium in which reactions occur. It is also used to
separate immiscible materials by means of differences in specific gravity and miscible materials by means
of differences in affmity of the material between two solvent phases (liquid-liquid, gas-liquid, or solid-
liquid). It is commonly used to move materials from one place to another in the manufacturing process.
Two major uses are for cleaning and for cooling. Water is often thought of as an essentially "free"
resource because of its relatively low cost. However, it is not free, and when used in large quantities, for
cooling or in washing of factory floors or equipment, for example, the cost can add up. It must be
remembered that the potable water used in most industrial processes is a resource that should not be
squandered. Another significant factor militating against excessive use of water, though, is the cost of
treating the resulting contaminated wastewater.

Wastewater treatment is expensive, and cost increases as the volume of water to be treated increases. If
the water becomes contaminated with hazardous materials, the cost can become prohibitive. Thus,
resource conservation aside, it is essential that water use be minimized to avoid costs associated with its
treatment. The implementation of good housekeeping practices to minimize water use was described in
Chapter 5, and treatment of industrial wasterwaters will be discussed in the next chapter. This chapter
examines methods for reducing the amount of water required for some industrial processes, while
maintaining good quality control. We begin with a discussion of simple plumbing changes that can
greatly minimize water use, and thus wastewater production, in the cleaning or rinsing of materials in the
production process. We then describe how a new analytical procedure, known as pinch analysis, can be
used to evaluate water recycling schemes that can be used to minimize overall water use. Pinch analysis
can also be used to minimize heating and cooling requirements in the production line and to promote
conservation of process reagents; these applications will also be presented.

Example :

10-1 Problem A nickel plating bath contains 58,000 mg/L nickel. The drag out rate is 0.05 L/min. The
parts being plated are placed in a 200-L dead rinse tank, which initially contained nickel-free water,
immediately after plating. Draw the plot of the nickel concentration in the dead rinse tank (and of the
dead rinse tank drag out) with time. Assume that evaporative losses are minimal.
Solution :
When used in large quantities, for cooling or in washing of factory floors or equipment, for example, the
cost can add up. It must be remembered that the potable water used in most industrial processes is a
resource that should not be squandered. Another significant factor militating against excessive use of
water, though, is the cost of treating the resulting contaminated wastewater. This chapter examines
methods for reducing the amount of water required for some industrial processes, while maintaining good
quality control. We begin with a discussion of simple plumbing changes that can greatly minimize water
use, and thus wastewater production, in the cleaning or rinsing of materials in the pro- duction process.

10.2 Problem For the operation in Problem, 10.1, assume that the dead rinse tank is replaced by
a single running rinse tank. What time water flow rate will be needed to achieve a maximum
nickel concentration of 15 mg/L in the dragout? What will be the total mass of nickel lost to the
wasted rinse water per day. Assuming 24 h/day operation? What will be the nickel concentration
is the final rinse water effluent?
Solution :
Figure below showed illustrates some of the many types of rinsing configurations. There can be
from one to four rinse tanks, with some in series and others in parallel, some stagnant and some
flowing, some with concurrent flow and others with countercurrent flow.
Single running rinse tanks require a large volume of water for contaminant removal. Commonly
used in the past, these have largely been replaced because of their large water demand and
consequent large volume of waste produced, often at a con- centration too dilute for efficient
recovery.

Cp is much greater than Ct and that C1 is much greater than Cg, the preceding equation can be simplified
to:
Figure above showed the mass balance for a single running rinse.
Recycling or reuse can be combined with these rinsing systems in order to return excess process
chemicals in the rinse waters to the plating bath from which they originated. This is common in
the metal plating industry, where the excess metal solution dragged out from a plating bath and
that removed from the plated workpiece during the rinse steps are concentrated, possibly using
ion exchange or reverse osmosis, and returned to the plating bath.

10-3 Problem Repeat Problem 10.2, Assuming that two countercurrent rinse tank in series are used. All
other parameter remain the same.

Solution :

Significant reductions in wastes reaching the environment while at the same time reducing costs to
industry use--pinch analysis- developed Bodo Linnhoff (1970s) to optimize energy use in industry, but it
has now been adapted for use in optimizing water and chemical use in industrial processes. The pinch
analysis procedure quantifies the potential for reducing energy consumption through improved heat use
by design of improved heat exchanger networks. Pinch analysis is widely accepted as a tool for heat
optimization, based on rigorous thermodynamic principles that are used to predict heat and materials
flows through the processes making up the manufacturing system.

Pinch analysis of heat exchange systems grew out of an analytical system for optimizing heat
exchangers called heat exchanger network (HEN) synthesis. Has purposed to maximize the
efficiency of energy use in a process by transferring the waste heat from one stage of the process
to another stage. Substantial energy can be saved through pinch analysis, and concomitant
financial savings are significant.

HEN ANALYSIS. Required evaluated to determine the extent to which streams that require heat
can be heated by other streams that have excess heat or that need to be cooled. The energy
inputs, and hence the energy costs, may be expressed based on energy losses.
The rate of heat transfer between two materials is partially governed by the difference in
temperatures between the two materials. The larger the difference, the more rapid will be the
heat transfer. the required exchanger area is a direct function of the allowed minimal temperature
gap between the two exchanger sides /!,.T min' The required exchanger area can be used to
establish the annualized investment cost C[ for the heat exchanger.

PINCH ANALYSIS COMPOSITE CURVES.The pinch analysis procedure for optimiz- ing
thermal systems (also known as the Linnh off method) is based on the rigorous analysis of all
sources and sinks of heat within the process in terms of their enthalpy H and temperature T. The
curves are separated by a temperature selected as the minimum driving force for efficient heat
transfer to take place. This minimum temperature is called the pinch temperature. The analysis is
begun by plotting all heat sinks (cold streams) and all heat sources (hot streams) with respect to
their starting and ending temperatures and enthalpies.

Shows the results for a system with two cold streams and two hot streams:

a) shows the individual plots for the two cold streams. Stream (a) exists between temperatures TJ
and T3, while stream (b) goes from T2 to T4' The temperature range for the two streams overlaps
between T2 and T3'

b) shows a composite of the heat load contributions. The single continuous curve represents all
heat sinks of the process as a function of heat load versus temperature. The same analy- sis is
done for the heat sources (hot streams), as shown in
c) andd) The composite curve in Figure (d) represents all heat sources in the process as a
function of heat load versus temperature.

Figure above is an example of combined composite curves, with plots from Figures (b) and (d)
plotted together. The area between the two curves indicates the amount of heat that potentially
could be transferred from the hot source to the cold source. The point of minimum vertical
separation between the two curves is called the pinch point. This represents the minimum
difference in temperature between the two curves. The point of minimum vertical separation
between the two curves is called the pinch point. This represents the minimum difference in
temperature between the two curves. In this case, the hot composite curve is always above the
cold composite curve, within the region of curve overlap, indicating that heat sources exist
within the process to satisfy all heating requirements for the cold streams.

Not all of the heat requirements for the entire process can be met, however, because the two
curves do not entirely overlap. The section of the plot to the left of this zone represents the
quantity of heat that cannot be recovered. The region to the right of the recovery zone defines the
quantity of heat that must be supplied in the form of steam or other heating source. These two
numbers represent the minimum amounts of required heating and cooling that can be achieved.

Equation that predicts the actual heat consumption of a process:

The value for the target is the t~min established for the process to ensure that there is a sufficient
driving force to transfer heat efficiently in the heat exchanger. The grand composite curve
represents the net heating or cooling requirement of the process as a function of temperature. The
amount of heating and cooling required beyond the transferred amount can be depicted by
plotting these amounts with the pinch as the origin in figure below.

from 1979 to 1982, production became limited by the available energy infrastructure at the
facility in figure above. As part of the overall scheme to reduce energy consumption at the plant,
use of pinch analysis was begun in 1982 to improve heat integration of most of the major
processes at the plant Ludwigshafen, Germany. Table below showed utilizing this waste heat
from one process step in another process step can greatly reduce overall energy requirements.
The heat value that must be sup- plied to satisfy the two nonoverlapping regions of the combined
composite curve is often only a small fraction of that required to cool the hot streams and heat
the cold streams without using integrated heat exchangers.

. 10.3.2 Pinch Analysis for Water Use

Public water sources are treated to be suitable for human consumption, and they are generally
safe from a public health standpoint and palatable, but they may not be of high enough quality
for many industrial purposes. Plants with large boilers for heat or steam production often must
treat public water supplies to remove dissolved salts that can cause scale in the boilers and
reduce their efficiency. Pinch analysis can be used to reduce water requirements. Direct reuse of
water from one stage in a process in another stage (or reuse within the same stage) will be
suitable only if the water quality is appropriate for the operation to which it is being sent. Water
regeneration reduces both freshwater and wastewater volumes and also reduces the contaminant
load in the wastewater. Has a purposed To maximize water reuse, the highest acceptable
contaminant inlet concentration to the process is needed. This allows the maximum amount of
contaminated wastewater to be reused. Specifying the maximum acceptable outlet concentration
for effective waste management minimizes the water flow rate.

The concentration of contaminant versus mass load of that contaminant in the waste stream can
be plotted as shown in Figure above point (b).This plot shows the effect of using clean water to
extract contaminants from the process stream. As long as the initial contaminant loading is low
enough to allow contaminant transfer between the two streams, the desired final process
concentration can be achieved figure above point (c). It shows the limiting conditions and is
designated the limiting water profile in figure (c).

WATER REUSE WITH RECYCLE. To allow for the use of the maximum allowable wash water
inlet concentrations to minimize water use, it is necessary to recycle some of the wastewater so
that it can be blended with the freshwater to achieve the desired acceptable inlet water
concentration. This is best done by constructing a composite curve for the process data, as was
done for temperature-enthalpy curves for energy conservation.

Graph below shows the process flow sheet for water utilisation

a) Water requirements if freshwater is used for each process stage

b) Water requirements if the maximum allowable inlet concentration is used, without

recycling wastes

Example 10.5. Using the data from Example 10.4, determine the minimum water requirement if
water recycling from one unit to another is allowable. The maximum inlet and outlet
concentrations must be maintained for each step.
Solution:

If the incoming freshwater has no contamination, a water supply line can be plot- ted from zero,
tangent to the limiting composite curve.

For this target to be reached, however, it must be possible to economically design a recycle
network in which the constraints stipulated in Table above are satisfied. Each contaminant must
be checked to ensure that problems with water recycling won't be encountered.

Graph above showed the limiting composite curve

a) The limiting water profile

b) Limiting composite curve

c) Matching the water supply line defines the minimum water flow rate
A real-world example of the use of pinch analysis to reduce water use is the Unilever plant in
Warrington, England (Buehner and Rossiter, 1996). This factory pro- duces more than 200
products, including paints, glues, and adhesives.

WATER REUSE WITH REGENERATION. The procedure described above works when
wastewater from one process is directly reused by another process. A similar approach can also
be used, though, when it is necessary to treat the wastewater before reuse. During treatment,
contaminants in the water will be removed and the concentration will be reduced to Co in figure
below, graph below showed the process design using water reuse and internal wastewater
regeneration.

Monsanto conducted a pinch analysis of the system. The company found that direct reuse of
wastewaters could reduce the freshwater requirement by 30 percent. This would also reduce the
size of the waste- water treatment plant required. However, the COD concentration would
increase because of the smaller volume, necessitating additional treatment. Monsanto found,
though, that if it installed a wastewater treatment unit (in this case, a constructed wet- land using
reeds), most of the water could be reused, reducing the final effluent by 95 percent. The capital
cost for the reed bed was only $500,000. The total investment was $3.5 million, but the annual
saving was $1million in water and other raw materials.

10.3.3Pinch Analysis for Process Emissions

Nowadays pinch analysis used to evaluate the potential for emissions reduction. As described,
pinch analysis can be effectively used to minimize water use in industrial processes by reusing
wastewater from one process stage in another stage, with or with- out regeneration of the water
quality. The procedure used is identical to pinch analysis for energy or water conservation, as
described earlier. Figure below showed the pinch analysis exchange of materials between a rich
and lean stream.

10.3.4

As was shown, substantial savings in energy, water, and process chemicals can be achieved by
applying pinch analysis techniques to industrial processes. These techniques are quite new,
however, and still need refinement and practical application procedures. As more examples of
their effectiveness become available, they will probably become a major tool for pollution
prevention engineers in their quest to minimize resource use and pollution generation.

Solution:

Known:

QD = 0.05L/min

Cp = 58000 mg/L

Evaporation = 0.01 L/min (Assume)

1. Deadrinse tank
Q M =Q D + Evaporation
L
Q M =0.05 +0.01 L/min
min

= 0.06L/min
 Asked:
- CD
( QD C P ) +(QM C M )
CD= (Equation From Example Calculation)
QD +¿Q ¿ M

( 0.05 x 58000 )+(0.06 x 0)

CD=
0.05+ 0.06

= 26,363.6 mg/L

2. SingleRinse Tank
Asked:
- Rinse Water flowrate
- Massnickelloss
- Nickelconcentration in final rinsewatereffluent
(C −C D )
Q R=Q D 1
(C R −C 1)

(15−58000)
Q R=0.05
(0−15)
L L
Q R=193.28 =278323.2
min day
3. Massnickelloss
Mass=Q R ×C 1
¿ 278,323.2 x 15
= 4,174,848 mg/day
= 4.174 kg/day

4. Two counter-current

1/ n
CP
Q R=
[( ) ]
Cn
+
1
Q
n D

58000 1/ 2 1
Q R= [( ) ]
15
+ 0.05
2
Q R=3.134 L/min

Mass=Q R ×C 1
¿ 3.134 x 15
= 46.95 mg.min
= 4168800 mg/day
RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT

The application of life-cycle assessment to manufacturing processes and implementation of appropriate

pollution prevention techniques can substantially eliminate the majority of wastes from most industries.
Except in unusual circumstances, however, no industrial process is 100 percent efficient, and none can
lead to zero pollution. Some waste by-products will always be produced during manufacture, and some
product will escape capture during recovery operations. Production efficiency can be increased by use of
catalysts and optimal operating conditions, and recovery of product can be improved by use of more
efficient equipment such as distillation columns, solvent extraction, and high-speed centrifuges.

Increasing product recovery, minimizing byproduct formation, and recycling waste materials can lead to
significant reductions in wastes requiring treatment, but there will always be some residual material that
cannot be economically or practically removed from the waste stream. The material may be in the form of
liquids, gases, or solids. As stated earlier in this book, a waste is really a resource out of place. However,
these wastes will often be mixed with other materials and in low concentrations, making recovery and
reuse infeasible. These waste materials must be properly collected, treated, and disposed in a manner that
will ensure that they will cause no current or future public health or environmental problems. A second
source of waste materials in industry is leaking equipment and evaporation of volatile organic carbon
compounds from storage tanks, open containers, process equipment, waste treatment processes, and other
locations. Good pollution prevention practices can minimize but usually cannot completely eliminate
these waste emissions.

A thorough discussion of the proper disposition of residual wastes would require several textbooks. Here
we examine residuals management from a broad perspective, giving the reader an idea of the complexity
of the problem and a brief description of some possible solutions. The necessity to practice pollution
prevention as rigorously as possible so as to minimize the amount of residuals needing treatment should
become readily apparent. Those interested in more detailed descriptions of treatment options for
wastewater should refer to the books by Metcalf & Eddy (1991), the Water Environment Federation
(WEF, 1991), Reynolds and Richards (1996), and Davis and Cornwell (1998). Excellent discussions of
industrial solid and hazardous waste management can be found in Pfeffer (1992), Tchobanoglous,
Theisen, and Vigil (1993), LaGrega, Buckingham, and Evans (1994), and Sincero and Sincero (1996). Air
pollution control at industrial facilities is thoroughly discussed in Buonicore and Davis (1992) and Wark,
Warner, and Davis (1998). This chapter will present brief summaries of options available for each of
these classes of residuals.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Industrial wastewaters vary enormously in composition, strength, and volume from industry to industry
and from facility to facility within an industry. Some wastewaters may be acidic or alkaline; contain
oxygen-depleting organic materials (BODs), nutrients (e.g., nitrogen or phosphorus) that can cause
eutrophication, or suspended solids that can settle in receiving waters causing unsightly and oxygen-
consuming sludge deposits; be aesthetically unacceptable because of color, taste, or odor; or contain
hazardous or toxic components. Therefore, it is impossible to present typical values that would be of use
in designing industrial wastewater treatment facilities. Determination of these parameters on a case-by-
case basis is essential. Many older industrial plants mix process, cooling, and sanitary wastewaters in one
sewer line. Unfortunately, various components in the wastewater may interfere with the treatment of other
components or make their handling more difficult. For example, a wastewater containing easily
biodegradable organic constituents can be readily and economically treated by several biological
treatment methods, but if a waste stream containing heavy metals is mixed with it, the toxicity of the
metals may inhibit the microorganisms from functioning properly. Even after biological treatment, the
waste may still be unacceptable for disposal because of the metals. A metal plating waste containing
sodium cyanide can also be easily treated, but if an acidic waste is mixed with it, potentially lethal
hydrogen cyanide gas can be evolved, creating a major health hazard. Mixing only slightly contaminated
clean cooling water with other wastes greatly increases the volume (and cost) of wastes requiring
treatment and dilutes the constituents in the other wastes, making recovery or treatment more difficult.
Thus segregation of waste streams in a manufacturing facility is essential.

Treatment Options, Industrial process wastewaters may be disposed of in three ways:

1. They may be treated in an industrial wastewater treatment plant prior to discharge to a receiving
stream.

2. They may be discharged directly to a municipal sewer and subsequently treated at the municipal
wastewater treatment plant (often referred to as a publicly owned treatment works, or POTW).

3. They may be pretreated at the industrial site to reduce the amount of pollutants present and then be
discharged into the municipal sewer for final treatment at the POTW

The U.S. EPA has established "prohibited discharge standards" (40 CFR §403.5) that apply to all
nondomestic discharges to the POTW and "categorical pretreatment standards" that are applicable to
specific industries (40 CFR §§ 405-71). The local POTWs are responsible for establishing a pretreatment
program and enforcing these standards. The General Pretreatment Regulations prohibit the discharge of
the following into a municipal sewer:

1. Pollutants that create a fire or explosion hazard in the POTW, including, but not limited to, waste
streams with a closed-cup flashpoint of less than or equal to 60°C using the test methods in 40 CFR §
261.21.

2. Pollutants that will cause corrosive structural damage to the POTW (but in no case discharges with a
pH lower than 5.0) unless the POTW is specifically designed to accommodate such discharges.

3. Solid or viscous pollutants in amounts that will cause obstruction to the flow in the POTW resulting in
interference.

4. Any pollutant, including oxygen-demanding pollutants (such as BODs), released in a discharge at a

flow rate and/or concentration that will cause interference with the POTW.
5. Heat in amounts that will inhibit biological activity in the POTW resulting in interference, but in no
case in quantities that the temperature at the POTW exceeds 40°C unless the approving authority, upon
request of the POTW, approves alternative temperature limits.

6. Petroleum oil, nonbiodegradable cutting oil, or products of mineral oil origin in amounts that will cause
interference or will pass through the treatment plant.

7. Pollutants that will result in the presence of toxic gases, vapors, or fumes within the POTW in a
quantity that may cause acute worker health and safety problems.

8. Any trucked or hauled pollutants, except at discharge points designated by the POTW (Davis and
Cornwell, 1998).

Physicochemical Processes

WASTE NEUTRALIZATION.

It is common for industrial wastes to have too high or too Iowa pH for proper treatment or for discharge
into a receiving stream or municipal sewer. For these wastes, neutralization is required. Neutralization is a
process in which either acid reagents are added to an alkaline waste or alkaline reagents are added to an
acidic waste in order to adjust the waste pH to a more acceptable value. It usually is not necessary to
achieve neutrality (pH 7.0); the resulting pH only needs to be brought within the acceptable range.

The desired pH will depend on the subsequent treatment units used. If the wastes are to be treated
biologically, the pH should be adjusted to between 6.5 and 9.0. If the waste is to be discharged into a
municipal sewer, the acceptable pH range is often set at 5.0-9.0. Sometimes it is feasible for an industry
to mix an acidic waste stream and an alkaline waste stream together to achieve neutralization of both
streams. Care must be taken, though, to ensure that undesirable side reactions do not occur when this is
done. Adjustment of waste pH may also be needed for certain treatment processes to be effective. For
example, pH adjustment is often required in oil emulsion breakage processes and in the precipitation of
chromium from metal plating or tannery wastes.

Cyanide waste treatment also requires careful pH control. Adjusting the pH of these wastes can be
accomplished in much the same way as for neutralization; the only difference will be the desired final pH.
The amount of reagent needed to neutralize or adjust the waste pH can be determined by developing a
titration curve, in which measured amounts of the reagent are added incrementally to an aliquot of waste
and the resulting pH is determined. After plotting the data, the relationship between reagent dosage and
desired final pH can be easily determined. The reaction can take place in batch or continuous-flow
reactors. For continuousfeed reactors, the resulting pH is usually monitored using a pH sensor. The sensor
is coupled through a feedback system to reagent feed pumps that can vary the reagent flow rate to achieve
the desired pH.

FLOTATION.

Flotation is essentially the reverse of sedimentation. If the wastewater contains solids or immiscible
liquids that are lighter than water, they will float to the surface in a flotation tank, where they can be
skimmed off. Materials that are heavier than water, such as light solids or grease, may also be removed by
flotation if they are made more buoyant by the attachment of air bubbles to their surfaces. In air flotation,
air is bubbled into the bottom of the flotation tank or water containing pressurized air is injected into the
bottom of the tank so that air bubbles are released from solution when the water pressure is reduced to
that in the tank.

The rising air microbubbles intercept suspended solids in the water; attach themselves to the particles,
making them more buoyant; and carry them to the surface, where they are skimmed off. Clarified liquid is
removed from the bottom of the tank. This process is particularly useful for material whose density is
close to that of water. A common use of flotation is in the separation of free oil from waters. The design
of gravity separators for oil is specified by the American Petroleum Institute, and the separators are
commonly referred to as API separators. These units are designed to remove free oil globules larger than
1.5 mm.

Typically, they can reduce the oil content of refinery wastewaters to less than 50 mg/L. The recovered oil
can be reprocessed. Other separators have been developed that can remove droplets down to 0.5-mm size,
achieving effluents with less than 10 mg/L free oil. Not all of the oil in water is in the free form, though.
Emulsified oils will not readily separate from water; the emulsion must first be broken. This is usually a
complex process requiring use of heat, acids, detergents, specialized polymers, alum, or iron salts. The oil
released from emulsion can then be recovered in the flotation separator.

COAGULATION.

Many industrial wastes contain suspended or colloidal waste materials that are too small to be effectively
removed by gravity separation. Removal of colloidal particles is made more difficult by the fact that they
usually have a surface electrical charge that causes them to repel other particles, thus preventing
agglomeration to a size that could settle. For these small suspended particles and colloids to be removed
from suspension, the surface charge must be destabilized and the particles must be brought together so
that they can achieve a settlable size.

This is the role of coagulation. Coagulation results from the addition and rapid mixing of a coagulant with
the wastewater to neutralize surface charges, collapse the surface layer around the particles, and allow the
particles to come together and agglomerate. The resulting formation, called afloc, can more readily settle.
As the floc settles, it interacts with more particles, enmeshing them in the floc and allowing the floc to
grow in size. The mechanisms which take place during coagulation are complex; more detailed
descriptions can be found elsewhere (Davis and Cornwell, 1998; Eckenfelder, 1989; Reynolds and
Richards, 1996; Viessman and Hammer, 1998). A number of coagulants are in common use. The most
popular coagulants are aluminum sulfate, or alum [Alz(S04h . 14HzO], and iron salts (ferric chloride,
ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate).

PRECIPITATION.

Chemical precipitation is the process whereby soluble-phase species are removed from solution by adding
a chemical which converts the contaminant to an insoluble form that can be removed by one of the
previously described processes. Precipitation is most commonly used for removal of heavy metals from
wastewaters. from metal plating, the steel and nonferrous industries, the inorganic pigments industry,
mining, and the electronics industry. In most cases, this is accomplished by converting the metal to its
hydroxide form by the addition of lime or caustic soda, increasing the pH to the point where the metal
hydroxide has its minimum solubility. The minimum solubility pH varies from metal to metal, as can be
seen in Figure 11.5. Many metals have a minimum point, rising in soluble concentration both above and
below the minimum pH. This is particularly true for metal hydroxides. Wastewaters with these
amphoteric compounds often require careful pH control during precipitation to ensure effective removal
of the metals. Treatment of wastes containing several metals is difficult because of the varying minimum
solubility pH values. A system designed to provide a pH of 9.2, the approximate minimum solubility
point for lead and zinc, will allow substantial quantities of cadmium to escape as soluble species.
Conversely, a pH of 11 will allow most cadmium species to be precipitated, but lead and zinc will have
solubilities in excess of 5 mg/L at this pH.

Chlorine, as a gas or as the hypochlorite salt, is often used as an oxidant, particularly for the oxidation of
cyanide. Chlorine is also commonly used for color removal from wastewaters. It is not normally used for
the oxidation of organics because the end products are usually chlorinated organics, which are themselves
toxic. Cyanides may be destroyed using a continuous-flow reactor system with metered chemical flow of
chlorine, caustic, and acid to each reactor. Many operations produce only small quantities of cyanide
waste. These facilities usually find it easier to treat the wastes on a batch basis.

Supercritical oxidation. Supercritical extraction was described in Chapter 5. Supercritical conditions can
also be used to oxidize the waste's constituents in the aqueous state. Oxygenating the water and increasing
the temperature and pressure to above the critical point of water (374°C and 218 atm) allows oxidation of
organics to quickly occur, producing inorganic salts. Reactor residence times vary from 1 to 20 minutes.
The salts are nearly insoluble in supercritical water and precipitate out. The heat produced by the
oxidation helps to maintain the reactor temperature. Upon depressurization, cooling, and vapor-liquid
separation, the water should be essentially free of contaminants. This process is not yet in commercial
operation for waste treatment, but pilot-scale testing indicates that destruction efficiencies greater than
99.99 percent can be achieved for a wide variety of organics. It may soon join our arsenal of industrial
waste treatment processes.

Chemical reduction. The principal use of reduction in wastewater treatment is for the removal of
chromium from wastes. The reducing agents ferrous sulfate, sodium metabisulfite, and sulfur dioxide are
commonly used under acidic conditions (pH < 3.0) to reduce toxic and soluble hexavalent chromium to
the less toxic and insoluble trivalent chromium. The chroIhium can then be removed from the wastewater
under alkaline conditions as chromic hydroxide by precipitation

Example :

1. If 380 m3 /day of the wastewater is to be neutralized to pH 6.0 using 4.0 N NaOH, how
much NaOH must be used per day? How difficult will it be to maintain the pH at exactly
6.0? Why?
 Asked: How much NaOH must be use?

Titration
12

10

8
Y-Values
6

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Use 5.6 ml of pH to as a dose

5.6 L titrate 1000 L
NaOH= (
100 L of Sample )( m3 )
(380 m 3 day )

= 21280 L/day
If we use 4 N NaOH
V1 x N1= V2 x N2
V2 = 21280 x 2/4
V2= 10640 L/day

2. Detennine the tenninal settling velocity in water of a spherical particle having a diameter
of 1.0 mm and a specific gravity of 2.60. Assume settling follows Stokes' law, and that
(a) the Reynolds number is 0.2, and (b) the Reynolds number is 100.
 Known:
g = 9.81 m/s2
𝞺l = 1000 kg/m3
𝞺s= 2.6= 2600 kg/m3
D= 1 mm = 10-3
Asked ?

a. Reynolds number 0.2

Cd = 24/ 0.2 = 120

4 xg ( ρ p −ρl ) D
v=
√ 3 C d ρl
4 x 9.81 ( 2600−1000 ) 10−3
v=
√ 3 x 120 x 1000
V = 0.013 m/s

b. Reynolds Number 100

24 3
Cd= + +0.34
100 √ 100
Cd= 0.88

4 xg ( ρ p −ρl ) D
v=
√ 3 C d ρl
4 x 9.81 ( 2600−1000 ) 10−3
v=
√ 3 x 0.88 x 1000

V= 0.023 m/s

3. An industry produces a wastewater containing suspended sand particles (specific gravity

2.65). Three sand particle sizes are present: 0.7 mm (300 mg/L), 1.0 mm (500 mg/L), and
1.5 mm (200 mg/L). The company plans to use an existing tank as a settling basin to
remove as much of the sand from the wastewater as possible. The tank is 5 m long, 2 m
wide, and 2 m deep. The flow rate into the tank will be 6.0 m3/s. What fraction of each
particle size will be removed, assuming that the particles entering the tank are unifonnly
distributed vertically?

Known,
Size of particle:
0.7 mm = 0.7 x 10-3 m
1.0 mm = 1 x 10-3m
1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10-3m
g = 9.81 m/s2
𝞺l = 1000 kg/m3
𝞺s= 2.65= 2650 kg/m3
Q = 6 m3/s
Surface area = 10 m2
Asked
Cd= 24 for laminar flow

6
Vo=
10
Vo = 0.6 m/s

a. Size of Particle 0.7 mm

4 xg ( ρ p −ρl ) D
v=
√ 3 C d ρl
4 x 9.81 ( 2650−1000 ) 0.7 x 10−3
v=
√ 3 x 24 x 1000

V= 6.29 x 10-4 m/s

V
= 6.29 x 10-4 m/s / 0.6 m/s
Vo
V
= 1.04 x 10-3
Vo

b. Size Particle of 1 mm
 4 xg ( ρ p −ρl ) D
v=
√ 3 C d ρl
4 x 9.81 ( 2650−1000 ) 10−3
v=
√ 3 x 24 x 1000

V= 8.99 x 10-4 m/s

V
= 8.99 x 10-4 m/s / 0.6 m/s
Vo
V
= 1.49 x 10-3
Vo

c. Size Particle of 1.5 mm

4 xg ( ρ p −ρl ) D
v=
√ 3 C d ρl
4 x 9.81 ( 2650−1000 ) 1.5 x 10−3
v=
√ 3 x 24 x 1000

V= 1.34 x 10-3 m/s

V
= 1.34 x 10-3 m/s / 0.6 m/s
Vo
V
= 2.24 x 10-3
Vo
MUNICIPAL POLLUTION PREVENTION PROGRAMS
Industry-initiated pollution prevention activities are increasing, particularly among larger companies
which have experienced the advantages of preventing pollution at the source and have the monetary
capabilities to see projects to completion. Pollution prevention is becoming more desirable than pollution
production followed by cleanup at a later period. Many industries, though, have not yet initiated P2 in a
significant way and continue to discharge unnecessary wastes into municipal sewers. As a result, publicly
owned treatment works (POTWs) are increasingly experiencing system overloads, resulting in inadequate
wastewater treatment before discharge to receiving streams.

An option available to the POTW is to expand the facility to meet this increased demand, but this is
usually very expensive. Industrial pretreatment programs are required at all POTWs. In a pretreatment
program, before using the municipal sewer, industries must receive a permit, which restricts discharges of
certain contaminants. These restrictions usually consist of concentration-based limits, although in some
cases, mass-based limits or volume limits are also imposed to prevent industries from reaching the
concentration limit by merely diluting the wastewater with clean water. In almost all cases, pretreatment
programs are based on end-of-pipe treatment.

A second option available to municipalities is to institute a pollution prevention program as part of the
pretreatment program. A successful municipal P2 program would benefit both the industry and the
municipality, because the industrial process would be made more efficient and less waste would be
generated that requires treatment. To date, only a few municipalities have fully implemented pollution
prevention programs, but many more are beginning to put them in place or to study how to structure
them. T.1is chapter discusses elements of effective municipal pollution prevention programs and how to
properly implement them. The goal of such a P2 program is to develop a well-structured waste reduction
protocol that is not a burden to industry and that benefits all participants, monetarily and environmentally.

The remainder of this chapter will lead to the development of a pollution prevention protocol that can be
enacted by sewerage agencies. This goal is achieved by reviewing pollution prevention regulations, the
essence of pretreatment programs, elements of pollution prevention programs, preferences ofPOTWs and
industries, and the pollution prevention program development flowchart.
REGULATORY BASIS FOR POLLUTION PREVENTION PROGRAMS

Pollution prevention has been an afterthought of previous regulatory efforts which focused on controlling
and cleaning up the most acute environmental problems. Hence the development of regulations and
performance standards has proceeded with a technology orientation and resulted in controls that are based
on the treatment of pollutants rather than the prevention or elimination of pollutants. The impetus for
pollution prevention has been an indirect message in much of the nation's environmental legislation.
Major statutes that address pollution control and management in a specific medium acknowledge some
role for prevention as a national policy or a goal for public sector programs; they and other statutes
provide a strong incentive for pollution prevention by including expenses and responsibilities for properly
managing existing pollution.

Congress first emphatically endorsed hazardous waste minimization in the Hazardous and Solid Waste
Amendments of 1984, a reauthorization of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. This act
introduced pollution prevention into the hazardous waste regulatory scheme by stipulating that hazardous
waste generators must have a waste minimization program in place and that they must report the results of
their waste minimization efforts (Ross and Konrad, 1993). The following sections discuss relevant
environmental statutes; note that not all of the major environmental statutes are discussed in the following
section. This is because many environmental statutes focus on the control, management, and disposal of
pollutants, rather than their prevention.

Although many of these environmental statutes do not directly authorize or mandate pollution prevention,
many indirectly promote pollution prevention by establishing regulatory programs that increase the cost,
potential liability, and public scrutiny associated with managing hazardous materials. A good example is
the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). Thurber and
Sherman (1995) note that CERCLA is not a pollution prevention statute, but it does promote pollution
prevention through its pervasive liability scheme.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) addresses the management of solid waste,
hazardous waste, and underground storage tanks that contain petroleum or hazardous substances. The act
establishes a comprehensive regulatory scheme applicable to hazardous wastes. However, the RCRA's
hazardous waste provisions regulate wastes after they are generated; they generally do not authorize the
EPA to regulate inprocess materials. Hence, the RCRA does not provide extensive authority to mandate
pollution prevention-but the statute does provide some authority for addressing pollution prevention. The
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) added several new provisions to the RCRA, some of
which do require pollution prevention.

These provisions make it clear that pollution prevention is a fundamental element of the United States
hazardous waste management policy. This statute states that "wherever feasible, the generation of
hazardous waste is to be reduced or eliminated as expeditiously as possible." These amendments mandate
that hazardous waste generators (i.e., industrial users) and treatment, storage, and disposal facilities have
waste minimization programs in place. Such programs must exist to the extent that they are economically
practical. With the passage of the HSWA, the reduction or elimination of hazardous waste generation at
the source was given legal priority over the management of hazardous wastes after they are generated.
The RCRA legislation applied to hazardous waste generators that transport their wastes off site. It
declares that the generators are required to certify on their hazardous waste manifests that they have
programs in place to reduce the volume or quantity and toxicity of hazardous waste generated to the
extent economically practicable. These programs are preventive in nature.

Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

The primary goal of the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) is to provide
information to the public concerning the presence and release of toxic and hazardous chemicals in the
community. To fulfill this purpose, the EPCRA requires that certain companies that manufacture, process,
and use chemicals in specified quantities must file written reports, provide notification of spills/releases,
and maintain toxic chemical inventories. Companies that meet certain requirements must submit an
annual report of releases of listed toxic chemicals pursuant to EPCRA Section 313, known as the Toxic
Release Inventory (Form R). These requirements for reporting apply to companies (1) with 10 or more
full-time employees; (2) that fall under the Standard Industrial Classification codes 20 through 39; and (3)
that manufactured or processed a reportable toxic chemical in quantities exceeding 10,000 pounds. In
1994, more than 300 toxic chemicals and 20 chemical categories were subject to reporting (Ohio EPA,
1995).

With the passage of the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA), new requirements were added to expand and
make mandatory the source reduction and recycling information that is reported for the EPCRA list of
toxic chemicals. Dunams (1997) found in his analysis of Hamilton County in Ohio that the TRI indicates
that more than 5.5 million pounds of toxic material was discharged to Hamilton County's POTWs (nearly
60 percent of Ohio's overall discharges to POTWs). The EPCRA is a reporting and public right-to-know
law and not necessarily a pollution prevention statute. It is nevertheless one of the primary drivers of
pollution prevention through the publicity it generates in this current era of environmentalism.

Clean Water Act The Clean Water Act (CWA) establishes legislation to restore and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's water. The act contains five main components
that work to accomplish this goal:

1. Technology-based, industry-specific minimum national effluent (i.e., wastewater discharge) standards.

2. Water quality standards.

3. A permit program for discharges to U.S. bodies of water.

4. Specific provisions applicable to certain toxic and other pollutant discharges (oil, hazardous chemical,
etc.).

5. A revolving POTW construction loan program.

The primary focus of this act is to ensure that toxic levels of pollutants are not discharged to the nation's
waters. This is achieved by restricting the types and amounts of pollutants that are discharged. Such
restrictions are imposed through the use of enforceable effluent standards specified in National Pollution
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. By nature, the NPDES permit program relies primarily
on treatment (i.e., pollution control) as the principal means of achieving compliance with discharge
restrictions. In this sense, the CWA does not focus on pollution prevention.

However, CWA programs do include significant pollution prevention components, such as the
development of effluent standards and best management practices (BMPs), which are inherently
considered pollution prevention practices. Recently, pollution prevention practices have become part of
the NPDES program, working in conjunction with BMPs to reduce potential pollutant releases. Best
management practices have become recognized as an important part of the CWA's NPDES permitting
process in preventing the release of toxic and hazardous chemicals (Dennison, 1996).

Over the years, as BMPs for many different types of facilities have been developed, numerous case
studies have demonstrated not only the successes but the flexibility of the BMP approach in controlling
releases of pollutants to receiving waters. Based on the authority granted by the CWA regulations, BMPs
span the universe of pollution prevention activities encompassing production modifications, operational
changes, materials substitution, materials and water conservation, and other such measures. Best
management practices may be divided into general BMPs, applicable to a wide range of industrial
operations, and facility-specific BMPs, tailored to the require ments of an individual process.

General BMPs are widely practiced measures that are independent of chemical compound, source of
pollutant, or industrial category; they are typically low in cost and easy to implement. Common general
BMPs include facility housekeeping, preventive maintenance, inspections, security, employee training,
and record keeping and reporting. Facility-specific BMPs are measures used to control releases associated
with individually identified toxic and hazardous substances and/or one or more particular ancillary
sources. Facility-specific BMPs will vary from site to site depending on chemical toxicity, proximity to
water bodies, proximity to populace, climate, age of facility or equipment, process complexity,
engineering design, employee safety, and environmental release history.

Pollution Prevention Act Since 1984, the direct references to pollution prevention, albeit minor, have
been expanding in federal legislation. The Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) of 1990 is notable among
federal statutes in this regard; it overtly supports pollution prevention, focuses on reducing the volume
and toxicity of wastes at the source, and directs the EPA to implement pollution prevention activities as
the national environmental management policy of the United States.

In its findings, Congress stated that source reduction opportunities often went unexploited because of a
variety of factors: existing regulations and industrial resources were focused on treatment and disposal;
the applicable regulations did not require or address a multimedia approach to pollution prevention; and
there was a lack of essential information on source reduction technologies that industry needed to
overcome institutional barriers to source reduction (Thurber and Sherman, 1995). The institutional
barriers will be discussed later. With the passage of the PPA, the first real opportunity to change the
pollutant production culture arrived. In particular, the act advances the following four approaches (Ross
and Konrad, 1993): eFunding of state technical assistance programs. e Integration of pollution prevention
into EPA activities. e Establishment of a pollution prevention information clearinghouse. e Reporting on
pollution prevention activities as an addition to the Toxics Release Inventory requirements. Note that
these approaches are largely nonregulatory, with the exception of the reporting requirement. The
framework for a preventive approach in the United States was laid out in law as early as 1984 in HSWA
and RCRA, but it was not until passage of the Pollution Prevention Act that the goals of pollution
prevention were seriously addressed. The HWSA introduced the term waste minimization, which includes
source reduction and recycling. Interestingly, the subsequent Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 did not
specifically define pollution prevention, but it did define source reduction.

A survey was recently conducted of industry environmental compliance coordinators in Cincinnati to

determine what municipal P2 programs would be desirable for industry (Dunams, 1997). Eleven possible
pollution prevention program options were presented to those surveyed:

1. Educational outreach and technical assistance programs.

2. Waste minimization audits.

3. Demonstration projects.

4. Voluntary reduction programs.

5. Marketable wastewater permits.

6. New local limits.

7. Pollution prevention plans.

8. Mass-based limits.

9. Reasonable control measures.

10. New permitting class and requirements.

11. Supplemental environmental projects.