What is Algebra ?

Algebra is the branch of mathematics that deals with symbolizing general numerical
relationships and mathematical structures and with operating on those structures
(Keiran,1991). Algebra also defined as the abstract study of number systems and operations
within them, including such advanced topics as groups, rings, invariant theory, and
cohomology. This is the meaning mathematicians associate with the word ‘algebra’. When
there is the possibility of confusion, this field of mathematics is often referred to as abstract
algebra (Paul Drijvers, Aad Goddijn, Martin Kindt, 2011).

Algebra involves more than just the equalities to which the original Arabic word
referred; it involves investigating number systems and their operations. This includes
operating with variables, solving equations, creating formulas for problem situations
(algebrafication), working with functions in terms of formulas, tables and graphs, finding
derivatives, etc.

The word ‘algebra’ is a derivation of the Arabic aljabr from the title of the book Hisab
al-jabr w’al-muqabala written by Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi. Al-Kwarizmi
lived in Baghdad from about 780 to 850. Al-Khwarizmi defined al-jabr as eliminating
subtractions. For example, (if the geometry of rectangles and squares is converted into
contemporary notation), by applying al-jabr
x 2=50 x−4 x2
is reduced to
2
5 x =50 x.

There is a difference between algebra as it is used and developed by

mathematicians, and algebra as it is taught in school. Although such a difference should
ideally not exist, and algebra at school and abstract algebra should have as much in
common as possible in terms of their method and mode of thought, it turns out that an
excessively structuralist approach to algebra in secondary education overshoots the mark
(Kindt, 2000).

Therefore, regarding the delineation of algebra at school, let us primarily seek

inspiration from Al-Kwarizmi. For the school situation, algebra is first of all a way of working,
where ‘working with formulas that contain letters’ is important but is not everything. Algebra
at school is strongly associated with verbs such as solve, manipulate, generalize, formalize,
structure and abstract. Although a certain amount of brain work is required for these
activities, the emphasis in educational practice often lies primarily on activity.
Algebra can be referring to as solving equations is actually arithmetic, but in reverse.
In the equation situation, ‘someone or something’ has begun with one or more numbers or
quantities and has conducted some arithmetic operations with a numerical final result. The
challenge is to retrieve the original number, numbers, or the lengths of segments. This is the
perspective from school: that someone already knows the answer and asks you the ‘trick
question’.

Algebra is also known as notation that clarifies and organizes. This is an important
phenomenon which we will now explore more deeply; it is also a good time to reflect briefly
on the role of various notations in algebra. There are two extreme standpoints regarding the
relationship of algebra to its notation:
 Without notation using letters, there would be no algebra.
 Algebra concerns relationships and structures; notation is only a memory aid.

The first standpoint is a superficial definition of algebra; the second standpoint

appears to go far beyond the superficial appearance but does disregard the fact that we
require such a memory aid in complex situations. In a certain sense, the notation of algebra
has evolved from being a memory aid to an active mechanism, which has its own part in
solving complex problems.

Algebra in school’s method differs from traditional algebra in various ways:

a. Variable and unknown

Traditional algebra sees ‘x’ as indicating a solution for which the existence is
assumed, and after transforming the equation to a different form, for example by reducing to
zero and factorization, the unknown is essentially revealed. It turns out to be simply 11 (or
-7). The graphing calculator approach shows that both and 77 are descriptions of lines in the
plane. The solutions (x = 11 and x = -7) are now associated with the intersection points of
these geometric curves. In these descriptions, x must be seen as a changing quantity, which
can take on all possible values in a domain in order to provide the graph. In traditional
algebra, there is no such interpretation of the letter x in the equation.

b. Analysis versus algebra

The graph concept is closely linked with the concept of change, which has a rather
limited place in algebra, but is of great conceptual importance for analysis. The intersect
button of the graphing calculator is also part of analysis; with the numerical graphing
calculators this is based on a step-by-step approximation process, and not on an algebraic
strategy constructing the roots with some general solution formula (although some students
expect this).
c. Function versus equation
When solving equations, with Descartes we also encountered geometric figures still in a
coordinate-like system – but these were of an entirely different nature: the solutions for an
equation were constructed geometrically and the drawn figures (lines, circles, parabolas)
had nothing to do with the equation to be solved in the sense of a figure that represents the
equation. An essential aspect of analytical geometry with a Cartesian coordinate system is
the equivalence of the x and y directions. This concerns the plane, and the coordinates
describe the points. With a graph, also in the graphing calculator example just mentioned,
one variable – here the x – has the independent role, and the other variable is dependent, in
this case via a formula.

An algebra curriculum that serves its students well in the coming century may look
very different from an ideal curriculum from some years ago. The increased availability of
computers and calculators will change what mathematics is useful as well as changing how
mathematics is done. At the same time as challenging the content of what is taught, the
technological revolution is also providing rich prospects for teaching and is offering students
new paths to understanding (Stacey & Chick, 2000, p. 216).

In the 21st century, Algebra is related to the technologies. We first identify the
following three global didactical functions for technology in algebra education: technology as
a tool for doing algebra, as an environment for practicing skills, and as an environment for
developing concepts.

The first didactical function of technology in algebra education is the function of a tool
for outsourcing algebraic procedures while doing algebra. Probably the student would be
able to carry out the routine procedures by hand as well but chooses not to spend his energy
on that. Just like numerical calculations can be left to the calculator, tables of numerical
values can be produced using spreadsheet software such as Excel, graphs can be drawn
with graphical software or on a graphing calculator, and algebraic procedures can be left to a
computer algebra system (CAS). In these cases, technology acts as a tool, as an ‘algebra
assistant’, and offers a broad range of applications, not necessarily designed for educational
purpose. To play this didactical role of tool for algebra, technology should fulfil several
criteria, such as mathematical soundness and correctness, as well as flexible support of
conventional algebraic notations, representations and operations.

A characteristic of the use of technology as a tool for carrying out algebraic

procedures is that the initiative usually remains with the students; they decide whether or not
to use the technology for this purpose. A second characteristic is that this didactical function
of technology is ‘didactics-free,’ in the sense that this type of use does not involve a specific
didactic approach to or view on the teaching and learning of algebra. The advantage of using
technology as a tool for doing algebra is that it relieves the student from a lot of procedural
work, and therefore allows for quick investigations of several examples or situations, which
can lead to exploration, reflection, and theoretical proceedings.

A second didactical function of technology for the learning of algebra is the function
of environment for practice. Technology offers several options for practicing algebraic skills.
Through intelligent, diagnostic feedback, the technological environment can respond
immediately to students’ solutions and strategies. Randomization of task parameters allows
for a huge variety of tasks, so that students can practice without straight repetition. The pace
and length of the session is determined by the student himself. The technological tool is
patient and consistent, and mistakes can remain invisible for peers and teacher. There is in
fact no need for the teacher to correct mistakes, as this task is taken over by the tool; rather,
the teacher can focus on the fundamental and conceptual difficulties that students
encounter.

The teacher does, however, determine the type of tasks; in that sense, the practice
role of technology is often more teacher driven than is the case when ICT is used as just a
tool for doing algebra. Also, a digital environment for practicing algebraic skills often implicitly
contains didactical choices through the structure and sequence of algebra tasks. Therefore,
the didactical function of an environment for practicing algebraic skills is not as didactics-free
as the tool functionality described above. Criteria for appropriate tools for practicing algebra
are good features for feedback on and registration of student work, and compatibility of
problem-solving strategies and procedures within the technological environment with those
of paper-and-pencil algebra (Bokhove & Drijvers, 2010).

A third didactical functionality of technology for the learning of algebra is its use for
the development of concepts and mental models. The aim is to evoke specific thinking
processes and to guide the development of the students’ algebraic thinking. For example,
ICT may help to visualize a concept, or present it in a dynamic way, which can lead to a
more versatile and deeper conceptual understanding of the mathematical object or
procedure. Also, the ICT environment can function as a generator of examples, which
provoke the students’ curiosity and invite generalization or investigation of relationships or
properties.

This didactical functionality is the most complex of the three we distinguish. First, this
type of use of technology requires a careful didactical analysis of the relationship between
the use of the tool with its representations and techniques on the one hand, and the
mathematical thinking and skills that the students are supposed to acquire on the other. This
relationship is subtle and complex: a mismatch between the two may reduce the benefit of
the work with technology to zero. In addition, more than the other two, this didactical
functionality of technology is guided by the teacher and also embodies didactical choices
and views. Criteria for technology that supports concept development are a perfect match
between the representations and techniques in the tool environment on the one hand, and
the mental images and conceptual understanding on the other. Furthermore, some
construction space is needed for students to develop their thinking.

One of the famous way to solve algebra problems is ‘cover-up’ method. A well-known
and widely used example of the reverse principle in primary education are the composed ‘fill
in-the-blank’ exercises; these are called equations in the algebraic context. Nowadays some
textbooks initially use the ‘cover-up’ method. For example: what value of x makes 3x + 7
equal to 19? Solution with the cover-up method:

You could call this a ‘multiple fill-in-the-blank’ exercise

(…. + 7 = 19 and 3 x …. = 12)

The cover-up method is actually a simple search strategy, not based on an artificial
solution procedure, and is therefore very suitable to use and practice at the initial stage of
solving equations. Moreover, even with young students, the teacher can confidently push on
to more complicated equations, which lead to two, three or four step solutions, such as the
ones given in figure below.
 The core of the vision about learning algebra can be summarized as follows:
 Algebra as human activity.
In the course of history, algebra has been constructed by people. From this cultural-
historical perspective, it is important that students do not experience algebra as rigid and
uncompromising, but as a human construction of tools and knowledge that can be used for
solving recognizable problems.

 Algebra as brain activity.

This not only means that people think about things, but also that students experience
something of the detachment from tangible problems that often occurs when working with
algebra. A context problem will initiate a process in which context transcending reflections
lead to the development of algebra at a more abstract level, i.e. algebra as an abstract world
of mathematical objects. The brain activity comprises a combination of skills and
understanding, which are generally not separate from each other.

 Algebra as personal activity.

Based on their intuition and ideas, students can independently design representations
and develop algebra along the route of progressive formalization. In this way, students can
‘internalize algebra’.

 Algebra as meaningful activity.

Whether students use algebra at a tangible or an abstract level, it is crucial that the
activity is experienced as meaningful. Sometimes this requires a tangible problem situation
taken from the students’ world of experience. In other cases, the meaning for the students is
contained in a more abstract, theoretical context. But what is most important is that the
problem situation is ‘experientially real’; the students must experience it as meaningful and
realize what they are doing.
What is Algebraic Thinking?

Algebraic thinking is about reasoning, using notations and calculation of unknown

and
numbers. Algebraic thinking should develop in the early stages to enhance success in
algebra. In a process known as thinking algebraically, students are required to think and
solve problems using abstractions and logic. The development of algebraic thinking is
through fostering the relationship between numbers and unknowns that connect with spatial
and structure of numbers. Typically, young students are taught arithmetic, also known as
pre-algebra, prior to learning algebra.

Algebraic thinking includes recognizing and analyzing patterns, studying and

representing relationships, making generalizations, and analyzing how things change. Of
course, facility in using algebraic symbols is an integral part of becoming proficient in
applying algebra to solve problems. But trying to understand abstract symbolism without a
foundation in thinking algebraically is likely to lead to frustration and failure. Algebraic
thinking can begin when students begin their study of mathematics. At the earliest grades,
young children work with patterns. At an early age, children have a natural love of
mathematics, and their curiosity is a strong motivator as they try to describe and extend
patterns of shapes, colors, sounds, and eventually letters and numbers. And at a young age,
children can begin to make generalizations about patterns that seem to be the same or
different. This kind of categorizing and generalizing is an important developmental step on
the journey toward algebraic thinking. The development of algebraic thinking is a process,
not an event.

Algebraic thinking is sometimes thought of as being only symbol manipulation and

taught only in secondary grades. However, (Jinfa et al, 2005) agree that an emphasis should
be placed on students developing algebraic thinking as a way to help them make a smooth
transition between arithmetic and algebra. In Malaysia, algebraic concepts are formally
introduced in lower secondary mathematics curriculum in seventh grade (age 13+). At this
level, the concept of unknowns is introduced using abstract letters as variable. Students
solve word problems by identifying unknowns in given situations. Students are taught how to
construct, simplify, and evaluate algebraic expressions of one variable. The computations
involving algebraic expressions are developed in eighth grade (age 14+ onwards). At this
level, students perform multiplication and division involving algebraic terms, and addition and
subtraction involving two algebraic expressions. Students are also exposed to problem-
solving strategies such as simplification, working backward and trial and error, and
representing unknowns in word problems that foster the development of algebraic thinking
habits.

There are three major components of algebraic thinking :

 Generalization
 Equality
 Unknown Quantities

Generalization in most definitions of algebra is the notion of “patterns.” The ability to

discover and replicate mathematical patterns is important throughout mathematics. The
authors of the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics talk extensively about the
important role that understanding patterns plays in algebraic thinking:
“ In grades 3–5, students should investigate numerical and geometric patterns and
express them mathematically in words or symbols. They should analyze the structure
of the pattern and how it grows or changes, organize this information systematically,
and use their analysis to develop generalizations about the mathematical
relationships
in the pattern.” (NCTM, 2000)

Young students can have meaningful experiences with generalizing about patterns, even
though they do not usually express their mathematical ideas using variables and standard
functions. For example, when exploring a pattern such as 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,…, young students
may make the following observations:
1. “If you add 1 to an even number, you always get an odd number”
2. “If you add 2 to an odd number, you always get another odd number”
3. “If you start at 1 and keep adding 2, you get all the odd numbers”
 4. “If you can separate a number into two equal groups, it’s an even number. If one’s
left over, it’s an odd number.”

All of these observations are ways of thinking about a simple pattern—the progression of
positive odd integers. However, they also provide evidence of algebraic reasoning, because
each description relies on some sort of generalization that can be applied to any number.
For example, notice how observation 1 contains the term “an even number.” The student
here is generalizing that no matter how large or small the even number, adding 1 will create
an odd number. Likewise, in observation 4, the student has identified the property that any
even number can be split into even groups, but odd numbers cannot. Both of these
observations are examples of generalization, since they are projecting a mathematical
property onto a whole category of numbers; in this case, “the even numbers.”

The equality is referring to the meaning of the ‘=’ sign. Elementary texts sometimes
hint at the relationships between arithmetic and algebra by noting that the problem “add 5 +
24” could just as well be stated “5 + 24 = ?” or “5 + 24 = ❏” or even “5 + 24 = x.” While these
notations create a connection between arithmetic and the “missing value” image of algebra,
students can also be misled by the implications of these expressions.

For example, consider the algebraic statement “5 + 24 = ? + 15.” On the face of it,
this expression is similar to the previous ones (e.g. 5 + 24 = ?) but there is one very
important difference: the number that replaces the ? is no longer 29, but a smaller number
that when added to 15, produces 29. However, when faced with a problem like this, research
has shown that many elementary students persist in saying the answer is either the sum of
the two addends to the left of the equals sign, or the sum of all the addends in the problem,
regardless of their placement relative to the equals sign (Falkner, Levi, & Carpenter, 1999).
Consequently, given the problem “5 + 24 = ? + 15,” most elementary students would
respond that the missing number was either 29 or 44. Understanding that the sign “=”
requires that one side of the expression be equivalent to the other is a basic tenet of
algebra. Students will be stretching their algebraic reasoning skills if they see a variety of
problems with unknowns in different positions.

Besides the word “variable,” “unknown” is one of the words most frequently
associated with algebra. Along with this concept comes the idea that the “unknown” will
eventually become “known;” this is what solving equations is usually about. But it’s possible
(and important) for students to work with expressions that include a variable that remains
unknown. Most number tricks of the form, “choose a number, multiply it by 3, add 6, divide
by 3, subtract 2 and tell me the number – and I’ll tell you your original number,” can be
expressed algebraically without the need to use an specific number. The algebraic
component is that the trick works for all numbers, not just a specific one for which we have to
solve.

Here’s an example of a problem with an unknown quantity that remains unknown.

This problem is appropriate for students in grades 3 through 5:
“Suppose Keisha has some number of pieces of candy in her bowl. Aman has 3
more
pieces of candy than Keisha has. Keisha’s mother gives her 5 more pieces of candy.
Now who has more? How many more? Then Keisha gives Aman one of her pieces of
candy. Now who has more? How many more?”

Students can solve this problem without creating algebraic expressions that contain
variables. They may draw a picture to represent the number of candies Keisha has (e.g. a
circle), and then represent Aman’s candies with a circle and three extra X’s. They could then
manipulate the pictures without ever specifying what is in the circle. In this problem, finding
the exact amount of candies Keisha has is not important, since the problem asks for a
comparison between two quantities.
However, some problems similar to the one above cannot be solved without figuring
out the value of an unknown number of candies. For example:
“ Suppose Keisha has some number of pieces of candy in her bowl. Aman has 3
more
pieces of candy than Keisha has. If Keisha gets more candies so that she has twice
as many as before, who has more candies now? How many more?

There isn’t a single answer to this problem; it depends on how many candies Keisha
had to begin with. So, if Keisha had 2 candies originally, Keisha will now have 4, and Aman
will have 5. On the other hand, if Keisha begins with 5 candies, then she will now have 10,
while Aman has 8. The difference between these two kinds of problems is subtle, but they
should be able to start making the distinction and solving them appropriately. These types of
problems help develop algebraic reasoning skills because they require students to think
flexibly about quantities, and to learn how to compare related quantities. They also promote
the idea that the relationship between two quantities (here, whether Keisha or Aman has
more candies) can change depending on how the original amount is acted upon.
 Many researches were conducted in Malaysia to find students’ algebraic thinking in
the early grades of middle schools, but These unsatisfactory findings indicate a need to
emphasize and develop students’ algebraic thinking in the early grades of middle schools.
Hence, (Siew, 2016) aimed to find out the extent to which the use of an android app,
DragonBox 12+ could help eighth grade students’ foster their algebraic thinking and attitudes
towards algebra. Algebraic thinking in this study refers to abstract letters representation and
manipulation and application of algebraic expressions to perform procedures in non-routine
and routine problems.

This involves problem-solving strategies such as simplification, working backward,

trial and error, and representing unknowns in word problems. The level of thinking required
to solve the algebra problems involved the Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
classifications of Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy. Attitudes toward algebra refers to
the extent to which students perceive their confidence in learning algebra and the usefulness
of algebra.

In non-technology learning environment sometimes students are unable to receive

feedbacks on time and to learn anywhere and anytime at their convenience. Moreover,
teachers frequently ask closed questions that lead the learning process to consist of only
algebraic procedures and unable to enhance students’ thinking in mathematics. In learning
of mathematics, the students faced difficulties in visualizing what they have learnt without
use of supporting tools. The tools, in the forms of multiple representations, namely graphing
symbolic manipulation and numerical computations, which may be provided by software
technology, play dual roles as both a visualization tool and a computational tool.

Nowadays, technology has been used intensively in the teaching and learning of
algebra. Various software are used to support the learning of algebraic thinking. One
technology application that is most popular in learning algebra is the spreadsheet, applicable
for learning of basic of generalization. Generalization is one of the characteristics of
algebraic thinking. It involves the growth of patterns and the sums of consecutive numbers.

The use of technology for learning algebra in enhancing algebraic thinking, despite
its benefits, causes some obstacles in the learning process of the students. They, notably,
showed a lack of symbol sense, failure to use variables for the same elements and a lack of
algebraic flexibility of pseudo-structural thinking. It is suggested that, GeoGebra, with its
many benefits, be used to explore the characteristics of algebraic thinking.
Algebra Topics in Mathematics KSSM

FORM 1
Title Content Standard
4.0 4.1 Ratios
Ratios, Rates And Proportions 4.2 Rates
4.3 Proportions
4.4 Ratios, rates and proportions
4.5 Relationship between ratios, rates and proportions
with percentages, fractions and decimals.
5.0 5.1 Variables and algebraic expressions
Algebraic Expressions 5.2 Algebraic expressions involving basic arithmetic
operations
6.0 6.1 Linear equations in one variable
Linear Equations 6.2 Linear equations in two variables
6.3 Simultaneous linear equations in two variables
7.0 7.1 Inequalities
Linear Inequalities 7.2 Linear inequalities in one variable
FORM 2
Title Content Standard
2.1 Expansion
2.0
2.2 Factorisation
Factorisation And Algebraic
2.3 Algebraic Expressions and Laws of Basic
Fractions
Arithmetic Operations.
3.0 3.1 Algebraic Formulae
 Algebraic Formulae
7.1 Distance in the Cartesian Coordinate System
7.0
7.2 Midpoint in the Cartesian Coordinate System
Coordinates
7.3 The Cartesian Coordinate System
8.0 8.1 Functions
Graphs Of Functions 8.2 Graphs of Functions
9.0 9.1 Speed
Speed And Acceleration 9.2 Acceleration
10.0
Gradient Of A Straight Line 10.1 Gradient

FORM 3
Title Content Standard
9.0
9.1 Straight Lines
Straight Lines
FORM 4
Title Content Standard
1.0
Quadratic Functions And 1.1 Quadratic Functions and Equations
Equations In One Variable
6.0
6.1 Linear Inequalities in Two Variables
Linear Inequalities In Two
6.2 Systems of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables
Variables
7.0 7.1 Distance-Time Graphs
Graphs Of Motion 7.2 Speed-Time Graphs
FORM 5
Title Content Standard
1.1 Direct Variation
1.0
1.2 Inverse Variation
Variations
Joint Variation
2.0 2.1 Matrices
Matrices 2.2 Basic Operations of Matrices
8.0
8.1 Mathematical Modelling
Mathematical Modelling
Algebra Topics in Additional Mathematics KSSM

FORM 4
Title Content Standard
1.1 Functions
1.0
1.2 Composite Functions
Functions
1.3 Inverse Functions
2.1 Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
2.0
2.2 Types of Roots of Quadratic Equations
Quadratic Functions
2.3 Quadratic Functions
3.1 Systems of Linear Equations in Three Variables
3.0
3.2 Simultaneous Equations involving One Linear
Systems Of Equations
Equation and One Non-Linear Equation
4.1 Laws of Indices
4.0 4.2 Laws of Surds
Indices, Surds And Logarithms 4.3 Laws of Logarithms
4.4 Applications of Indices, Surds and Logarithms
5.0 5.1 Arithmetic Progressions
Progressions 5.2 Geometric Progressions
6.1 Linear and Non-Linear Relations
6.0
6.2 Linear Law and Non-Linear Relations
Linear Law
6.3 Application of Linear Law
FORM 5
Title Content Standard
7.0 7.1 Linear Programming Modelling
Linear Programming 7.2 Linear Programming Application