AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – I

(AE8613)
( HEAVY WEIGHT CARGO AIRCRAFT )
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
MOHAN RAJ.J REG NO: 110517101020
UDHAYA KUMAR.L REG NO:110517101031
SAKTHI VEL.C REG NO: 110517101027
KARTHICK.S REG NO: 110517101014
In partial fulfillment for the requirement of the degree Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

GOJAN SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
MARCH 2020

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report titled “ AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT- 1 ( HEAVY WEIGHT CARGO AIRCRAFT )”
Is the bonafide work of

MOHAN RAJ.J REG NO: 110517101020

UDHAYA KUMAR.L REG NO:110517101031
SAKTHI VEL.C REG NO: 110517101027
KARTHICK.S REG NO: 110517101014

who carried out the work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Mr. A Shankar Mr. L Suresh raj

(Assistant Professor) ( Head of the department)
Department of aeronautical engineering, Aeronautical engineering,
Gojan school of business and technology, Gojan school of business&tech,
Chennai- 600 052. Chennai- 600 052.

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 CERTIFICATE FOR EVALUATION

College name: Gojan school of business and technology

Branch: Aeronautical engineering
Semester: 06

S.NO STUDENTS PROJECT PROJECT

NAME TITILE INCHARGE
1 MOHAN RAJ AIRCRAFT
J DESIGH
2 UDHAYA PROJECT- Mr. Shankar
KUMAR L 1( HEAVY (Assistant
3 SAKTHI VEL WEIGHT professor)
C CARGO
4 KARTHICK S AIRCRAFT)

The reports of the project work submitted by the above students in

partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering degree in
Aeronautical Engineering of Anna university were evaluated and to be
the reports of the work done by the above students and then evaluated.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this project is to design a cargo aircraft. The aircraft will
posses a high wing, Tri- cycle landing gear and a inverted Twin-Tail
arrangement. Such an aircraft must possess a wide body configuration to
provide sufficient capacity for loading. It must possess turbofan engines
to provide the required amount of speed, range and fuel economy for the
operator. The aircraft will possess four engines.

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LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN DESIGN PROCEDURE:
a Velocity of Sound, m/s
at Slope of tail curve
aw Slope of wing curve
Aileron Area of aileron, m2
Aflap Area of flap, m2
A.R Aspect Ratio
b Wing span, m
Cmean Mean chord, m
CL Lift Coefficient
CL req Required Lift Coefficient
CL av Available Lift Coefficient
CL max Maximum Lift Coefficient
CL cruise Cruise Lift Coefficient
CD Drag Coefficient
CDp Drag Coefficient of individual components
CDo wing Drag Coefficient of the Wing
CDo others Drag Coefficient of all other components except wing
CDt Total Drag Coefficient
Cm c.g. Pitching Moment Coefficient
Cm a.c. Pitching Moment Coefficient about the Aero Dynamic Centre
Cm fus,nac Pitching Moment Coefficient about fuselage, nacelle
Cn full rudder Yawing Moment Coefficient
Cr Root Chord m
Ct Tip Chord m
D Drag N
dfus Fuselage Diameter, m
dCm /dCL Slope of the curve
F Thrust Produced, N

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FS/L Thrust Produced at Sea Level,N
Fav Thrust Available, N
H Altitude, Km
it Orientation of the tail plane on the fuselage, deg
iw Orientation of wing on the fuselage deg
k (1 / p × e × A.R)
Lail Aileron Length, m
Lflap Flap Length, m
L Overall Length of the Fuselage, m
Le Distance between Centerline of Fuselage and Centerline of the
Engine, m
lt Distance between the Fuselage c.g and the tail c.g, m
M Mach Number
MCR Critical Mach Number
MCRD Drag Divergence Mach Number
Mcruise Cruise Mach Number
No Neutral Point
R Range of the aircraft, km
R/C Rate of Climb, m/min
Re Reynolds Number
S Wing Area, m2
St Horizontal Tail Area, m2
Sv Vertical tail area, m2
Sp Area of individual components contributing to Drag, m2
SFChr Specific Fuel Consumption N/N
T Temperature, K
To Sea Level Temperature, K
t/c Thickness to Chord Ratio
V Velocity of the aircraft, m/s
Vt Tail Volume Ratio
Vcruise Cruise Velocity, m/s

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 VL Landing Velocity, m/s
VS Stalling Velocity, m/s
WFE Weight of Fixed Equipments like seats, etc. N

Wfuel Weight of fuel, N

Wpayload Weight of the passengers, N
Wpilot Weight of the pilot, N
Wpowerplant Weight of the powerplant, N

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 LIST OF TABLES

I. COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET

II. ENGINE COMPARISON
III. ENGINE DATA
IV. AEROFOIL DATA
V. WEIGHT BREAKAGE
VI. DRAG ESTIMATION

LIST OF FIGURES

I. COMPARATIVE GRAPH
II. CAMBERED AEROFOIL
III. CL GRAPHS
IV. RUNWAY LOADING
V. 3-VIEW DIAGRAM
VI. C.G DIAGRAM
VII. ANTONOV AN-225 MRIYA
VIII. DOGHOUSE PLOT
IX. CG PLOT
X. ENGINE PARTS
XI. VELOCITY LOAD FACTOR CHART
XII. LIST OF CONTROL SURFACES
XIII. GROUND CLEARANCE CRITERION
XIV. KUSSENER EFFECT

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT 4
LIST OF SYMBOLS USED 5
IN AIRCRAFT DESIGN
LIST OF TABLES 8
LIST OF FIGURES

1. INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN 11

i) basic design process
a. introduction
b. purpose and scope
ii) phases of airplane design
iii) requirements and details

2. COMPARATIVE CONFIGURATION 16

3. SPECIFICATION STUDY 17

4. COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET 18

5. WORKSHEET LAYOUT 23

6. COMPARATIVE GRAPHS 24

7. WEIGHT ESTIMATION 28

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8. ENGINE,AEROFOIL AND WING 33

9. 3-VIEW DIAGRAMS AND CG 43

10. DRAG ESTIMATION 52

11. V-n DIAGARM 59

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 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN

BASIC DESIGN PROCESS

INTRODUCTION:
An airplane design is both an art and a science. Airplane design is an intellectual
engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine to

➢ meet specifications established by users

➢ pioneer innovative, kneel ideas and technology.

The design process is an intellectual activity developed via experience, by attention paid to
successful airplane designs that have been used in the past and by design procedures and
databases that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With this, it is often
possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories include combat aircraft,
passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined
into subcategories based on particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or
landing distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in identifying any
existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a proposed design. With modern
military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally comes from a military program office.
For example, the mission specifications for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977
request for proposals from the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they were
seeking a research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing concept and validate
studies that indicated such a design could provide better control and lift qualities in extreme
maneuvers. With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually comes as the
response to internal studies that aim to project future market needs. For example, the
specifications for the Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based on the interest of
commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range in between those of
the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft. Since it is not usually possible to optimize all of the
performance aspects in an aircraft, defining the purpose leads the way in setting which of these
aspects will be the “design drivers.” For example, with the B-777, two of the prominent design
drivers wereAn airplane is designed to meet the functional, operational and safety requirements
set by or acceptable to the ultimate user. The actual process of design is a complex and long
drawn out engineering task involving:

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• Selection of airplane type and shape
• Determination of geometric parameters
• Selection of power plant
• Structural design and analysis of various components and
• Determination of air plane flight and operational characteristics.

Over the year of this century, aircraft have evolved in many directions and the design of any
modern plane is a joint project for a large body of competent engineers and technicians, headed
by a chief designer. Different groups in the project specialize in the design of different
components of the airplane, such as the wing, fuselage etc.
A new experimental plane has to meet higher performance requirements than
similar planes already in service. Hence design laboratories involved in experimental and
research work are indispensable adjuncts to a design office.
These laboratories as well as allied specialized design offices and research institutions are
concerned in helping the designer to obtain the best possible solutions for all problems pertaining
to airplane design and construction and in the development of suitable components and
equipment.
Airplane design procedure is basically a method of trial and error for the design of
component units and their harmonization into a complete aircraft system. Thus each trial aims at
a closer approach to the final goal and is based on a more profound study of the various problems
involved. The three phases of aircraft design are
• Conceptual design
• Preliminary design
• detail

PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN:

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:
This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an aircraft. It is broken
down in to several elements, which are followed in order. These consist of:
1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition

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3. Estimation of aircraft weight a. Maximum take-off weight b. Empty weight of the aircraft c.
Weight of the fuel d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters a. Wing area b. Lift and drag coefficients c.
Wing loading d. Power loading e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3 View diagrams
Aircraft design can be broken into three major phases, as depicted in figure. Conceptual
design is the primary focus of this book. It is in conceptual design that the basic questions of
configuration arrangement, size and weight, and performance are answered.
The first question is “can an affordable aircraft be built that meets the requirements?” if
not, the customer may wish to relax the requirements. Conceptual design is a very fluid process.
New ideas and problems emerge as a design is investigated in increasing detail. Each time the
latest design is analyzed and sized, it must be redrawn to reflect the new gross weight, fuel
weight, wing size, and other changes. Early wind tunnel test often revels problems requiring
some changes to the configuration.

DESIGN MOTIVATION
Fundamentally, an aircraft is a structure. Aircraft designers design structures. The structures are
shaped to give them desired aerodynamic characteristics, and the materials and structures of their
engines are chosen and shaped so they can provide needed thrust. Even seats, control sticks, and
windows are structures, all of which must be designed for optimum performance. Designing
aircraft structures is particularly challenging, because their weight must be kept to a minimum.
There is always a tradeoff between structural strength and weight. A good aircraft structure is
one which provides all the strength and rigidity to allow the aircraft to meet all its design
requirements, but which weighs no more than necessary. Any excess structural weight often
makes the aircraft cost more to build and almost always makes it cost more to operate. As with
small excesses of aircraft drag, a small percentage of total aircraft weight used for structure
instead of payload can make the difference between a profitable airliner or successful tactical
fighter and a failure. Designing aircraft structures involves determining the loads on the
structure, planning the general shape and layout, choosing materials, and then shaping, sizing
and optimizing its many components to give every part just enough strength without excess
weight. Since aircraft structures have relatively low densities, much of their interiors are
typically empty space which in the complete aircraft is filled with equipment, payload, and fuel.
Careful layout of the aircraft structure ensures structural components are placed within the
interior of the structure so they carry the required loads efficiently and do not interfere with
placement of other components and payload within the space. Choice of materials for the
structure can profoundly influence weight, cost, and manufacturing difficulty. The extreme
complexity of modern aircraft structures makes optimal sizing of individual components

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particularly challenging. An understanding of basic structural concepts and techniques for
designing efficient structures is essential to every aircraft designer
The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test article consists of a
sequence of steps, as illustrated in the figure. It starts by identifying a need or capability for a
new aircraft that is brought about by (1) a perceived market potential and (2) technological
advances made through research and development. The former will include a market-share
forecast, which attempts to examine factors that might impact future sales of a new design. These
factors include the need for a new design of a specific size and performance, the number of
competing designs, and the commonality of features with existing aircraft. As a rule, a new
design with competitive performance and cost will have an equal share of new sales with
existing competitors. The needs and capabilities of a new aircraft that are determined in a market
survey go to define the mission requirements for a conceptual aircraft. These are compiled in the
form of a design proposal that includes (1) the motivation for initiating a new design and (2) the
“technology readiness” of new technology for incorporation into a new design. It is essential that
the mission requirements be defined before the design can be started. Based on these, the most
important performance aspects or “design drivers” can be identified andoptimized above all
others. Following the design proposal, the next step is to
produce a conceptual design. The conceptual design develops the first general size and
configuration for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of the weight and the choice of
aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the mission requirements stated in the
design proposal.

REQUIREMENTS
The first stage of aircraft design is conceptual design. This is the very beginning of the design
process in which rough sketches are created with respect to the aircraft’s configurations.
Designers seek to achieve a design that meets all of the aircraft’s requirements, including
aerodynamics, propulsion, performance, structural systems, control systems and more. Designers
must also consider elements such as the shape of the aircraft’s fuselage, wing location, engine
size and more. After completing the conceptual design, the next phase is preliminary design.
During this stage, the conceptual design is optimized to fit into the necessary parameters.
Engineers may use the existing designs to conduct wind tunnel testing and fluid dynamic
calculations. Furthermore, structural and control analyses are performed during this stage.
Engineers will also look for structural defects and flaws, correcting them before proceeding to
the third and final stage of the design process. Last but not least is the detail design phase.
During this phase, engineers must use the existing designs to fabricate the actual aircraft. It
specifically determines the design, location and quantity of elements such as rubs, spars, sections
and more. Furthermore, all aerodynamic, structural, control and performance aspects are
achieved and tested in full in the previous preliminary design stage. The detail design stage,
rather, is used to turn these designs into a working aircraft. It may also include flight simulations
to test the design and ensure it functions as intended.

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The aerospace manufacturing industry continues to grow with each passing year. In 2015,
statistics show that aerospace companies contributed more than $144 billion to the nation’s
economy in export sales. The industry even has a positive trade balance in excess of $82 billion,
making it the largest trade surplus of any manufacturing industry. But in order for the industry to
function as intended, companies must design new aircraft, typically using the three-stage process
described here.
Hopefully, this will give you a better understanding of aircraft design and its 3-stage process.

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN Will it work?

What does it look like?

What requirements drive

the design?

What trade-offs should be

considered?

What should it weigh and

cost?

PRELIMINARY DESIGN Freeze the configuration

Develop lofting

Develop test and

analytical base

Design major items

Develop actual cost

estimation

DETAIL DESIGN Design the actual piece to be built

Design the tooling and fabrication process

Test major items structure, landing gear

Finalize weight and performance estimate

FABRICATION
PRELIMINARY DESIGN:
Preliminary design can be said to begin when the major changes are over. The big
questions such as whether to use a canard or an aft tail have been resolved. The configuration
arrangement can be expected to remain about as shown on current drawing, although minor

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revisions may occur. At some point late in preliminary design, even minor changes are stopped
when a decision is made to freeze the configuration.
During preliminary design the specialists in area such as structure landing gear and control
systems will design and analyze their portion of the aircraft. Testing is initiated in areas such as
aerodynamics, propulsion, structures, and control. A mock up may be constructed at this point.
A key activity during preliminary design is “lofting”. Lifting is the mathematical modelling
of the outside skin of the aircraft with sufficient accuracy to ensure proper fit between its
different parts, even if they are designed by different designers and possibly fabricated in
different location. Lofting originated in shipyards and was originally done with long flexible
rulers called “splines”. This work was done in a loft over the shipyard; hence the name.
The ultimate objective during preliminary design is to ready the company for the detail
design stage, also called full-scale development. Thus, the end of preliminary design usually
involves a full- scale development proposal. In today’s environment, this can result in a situation
jokingly referred to as “you-bet-your-company”. The possible loss on an overrun contrast o from
lack of sales can exceed the net worth of the company! Preliminary design must establish
confidence that the airplane can be built in time and at the estimated cost. most of the engineers
who go to work

DETAIL DESIGN:
Assuming a favorable decision for entering full scale development, the detail design
phase begins in which the actual pieces to be fabricated are designed. For example, during
conceptual and preliminary design the wing box will be designed and analyzed as a whole.
During detail design, that whole will be broken down in to individual ribs, spars and skins, each
of which must be separately designed and analyzed.
Another important part of detailed is called production design. Specialist determine how
the airplane will be fabricated, starting with the smallest and simplest subassemblies and building
up to the final assembly process. Production designers frequently wish to modify the design for
ease of manufacture; that can have a major impact on performance or weight. Compromises are
inevitable, but the design must still meet the original requirements.
It is interesting to note that in the Soviet Union, the production design is done by a
completely different design bureau than the conceptual and preliminary design, resulting in
superior produce ability at some expense in performance and weight. During detail design,
the testing effort intensifies. Actual structure of the aircraft is fabricated and tested. Control laws
for the flight control system are tested on an “iron bird” simulator, a detailed working model of
the actuator and flight control surfaces. Flight simulator are developed and flown by both
company and customer test pilot.
Detail design ends with fabrication of the aircraft. Frequently the fabrication
Begins on part of the aircraft before the entire detail-design effort is completed.

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Hopefully, changes to already- fabricated pieces can be avoided. The further along a design
progresses, the more people are involved. In fact, for a major aerospace company will work in
preliminary on detail design.

THE SEVEN INTELLECTUAL PIVOT POINTS FOR CONCEPTUAL

DESIGN:
The overall conceptual design is anchored by seven intellectual “pivot points” – seven factors
that anchors the conceptual design thought process. They allow different, detailed thinking to
reach out in all directions, from each point.

REQUIREMENTS:
The requirements are given by the people who are going to buy – the customers. For other
aircrafts, these requirements are usually set by the manufacturer in full appreciation of needs of
owner. Requirements of one airplane are different from the other. There can be no stipulated
specific standard. There must be established requirements that serve as jumping off point for
design process. The requirements that are frequently stipulated are –

➢ Range

➢ Take off Distance

➢ Stalling velocity

➢ Endurance

➢ Maximum velocity

➢ Rate of climb

➢ For dog fighting combat, maximum turn rate and minimum turn radius

➢ Maximum load factor

➢ Service ceiling

➢ Cost

➢ Reliability and maintainability

➢ Maximum size

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 1. COMPARATIVE CONFIGURATION STUDY OF
DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIRPLANES

OBJECTIVES:
A brief study of different types of aircraft is studied and students are given one aircraft for
design. The aircraft are studied based on,
 Engine used
 Passenger or cargo ( use of aircraft )
 Fuselage and avionics arrangement
 Aerodynamic data.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRPLANE DESIGN:

The process of design in general involves use of knowledge in diverse fields to arrive at a
product. Airplane design involves synthesizing knowledge in areas like aerodynamics, structures,
propulsion, systems and manufacturing techniques, to arrive at the configuration of an airplane
that will satisfy requirements regarding functional aspects, operational safety and cost.
The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the following.
 Obtaining the specifications and determining the geometric parameters.
 Selection of power plant.
 Structural design and working out details of construction.
 Fabrication of prototype.
The aircraft design process is a loosely defined method used to balance many competing and
demanding requirements to produce an aircraft that is strong, lightweight, economical and can
carry an adequate payload while being sufficiently reliable to safely fly for the design life of the
aircraft. Similar to, but more exacting than, the usual engineering design process, the technique is
highly iterative, involving high level configuration tradeoffs, a mixture of analysis and testing
and the detailed examination of the adequacy of every part of the structure. For some types of
aircraft, the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities.
The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners are designed
for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel efficiency where as fighter
jets are designed to perform high speed maneuvers and provide close support to ground troops.
Some aircraft have specific missions, for instance, amphibious airplanes have a unique design
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that allows them to operate from both land and water, some fighters, like the harrier jump jet,
have VTOL (Vertical Take-off and Landing) ability, helicopters have the ability to hover over an
area for a period of time.
The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g. as in the historical case of a British air
ministry specification, or fill a perceived "gap in the market"; that is, a class or design of aircraft
which does not yet exist, but for which there would be significant demand.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
An increase in the number of aircraft also means greater carbon emissions. Environmental
scientists have voiced concern over the main kinds of pollution associated with aircraft, mainly
noise and emissions. Aircraft engines have been historically notorious for creating noise
pollution and the expansion of airways over already congested and polluted cities have drawn
heavy criticism, making it necessary to have environmental policies for aircraft noise. Noise also
arises from the airframe, where the airflow directions are changed. Improved noise regulations
have forced designers to create quieter engines and airframes. Emissions from aircraft include
particulates,(CO2), (SO2), (CO). To combat the pollution, ICAO set recommendations in 1981 to
control aircraft emissions. Newer, environmentally friendly fuels have been developed and the
use of recyclable materials in manufacturing have helped reduce the ecological impact due to
aircraft. Environmental limitations also affect airfield compatibility. Airports around the world
have been built to suit the topography of the particular region. Space limitations, pavement
design, runway end safety areas and the unique location of airport are some of the airport factors
that influence aircraft design. However changes in aircraft design also influence airfield design
as well, for instance, the recent introduction of new large aircraft (NLAs) such as the
superjumbo A380 have led to airports worldwide redesigning their facilities to accommodate its
large size and service requirements.
SAFETY
The high speeds, fuel tanks, atmospheric conditions at cruise altitudes, natural hazards
(thunderstorms, hail and bird strikes) and human error are some of the many hazards that pose a
threat to air travel.airworthiness is the standard by which aircraft are determined fit to fly The
responsibility for airworthiness lies with national aviation regulatory bodies as well as owners
and operators.The international civil aviation firm sets international standards and recommended
practices for national authorities to base their regulations on  The national regulatory authorities
set standards for airworthiness, issue certificates to manufacturers and operators and the
standards of personnel training. Every country has its own regulatory body such as the Federal
Aviation authority in USA, also firms in India, etc.The aircraft manufacturer makes sure that the
aircraft meets existing design standards, defines the operating limitations and maintenance
schedules and provides support and maintenance throughout the operational life of the aircraft.
The aviation operators include the passenger,cargo and owners of private aircraft. They agree to
comply with the regulations set by the regulatory bodies, understand the limitations of the
aircraft as specified by the manufacturer, report defects and assist the manufacturers in keeping
up the airworthiness standards

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 2.COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS AND
PERFORMANCE DETAILS OF AIRCRAFT

OBJETIVE:
To compare the existing airplanes that are of same type as that of our desired airplane.

PARAMETERS TO BE COMPARED:
 Aircraft name
 Country
 Length
 Height
 Maximum weight
 Empty weight
 S (span area)
 Maximum velocity
 Cruise velocity
 Range
 Powerplant used
 Type
 Thrust produced
 No of engines

DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE

Most airplanes are constructed by companies with the objective of producing them in quantity
for customers. The design and planning process, including safety tests, can last up to four years
for small turboprops or longer for larger planes.
During this process, the objectives and design specifications of the aircraft are established. First
the construction company uses drawings and equations, simulations, wind tunnel tests and
experience to predict the behavior of the aircraft. Computers are used by companies to draw,
plan and do initial simulations of the aircraft. Small models and mockups of all or certain parts of
the plane are then tested in wind tunnels to verify its aerodynamics.
When the design has passed through these processes, the company constructs a limited number
of prototypes for testing on the ground. Representatives from an aviation governing agency often
make a first flight. The flight tests continue until the aircraft has fulfilled all the requirements.

21
Then, the governing public agency of aviation of the country authorizes the company to begin
production.
In the United States, this agency is the (FAA), and in the European Union, (EASA). In Canada,
the public agency in charge and authorizing the mass production of aircraft is air Canada.
When a part or component needs to be joined together by welding for virtually any aerospace or
defense application, it must meet the most stringent and specific safety regulations and standards.
the National Aerospace and Defense Contractors Accreditation Program sets global requirements
for quality, quality management and quality assurance of for aerospace engineering.
In the case of international sales, a license from the public agency of aviation or transport of the
country where the aircraft is to be used is also necessary. For example, airplanes made by the
European company, airbus, need to be certified by the FAA to be flown in the United States, and
airplanes made by U.S.-based boeing need to be approved by the EASA to be flown in the
European Union

An A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus plant at hamburg airport

Regulations have resulted in reduced noise from aircraft engines in response to
increased pollution from growth in air traffic over urban areas near airports
Small planes can be designed and constructed by amateurs as homebuilts. Other homebuilt
aircraft can be assembled using pre-manufactured kits of parts that can be assembled into a basic
plane and must then be completed by the builder.
There are few companies that produce planes on a large scale. However, the production of a
plane for one company is a process that actually involves dozens, or even hundreds, of other
companies and plants, that produce the parts that go into the plane. For example, one company
can be responsible for the production of the landing gear, while another one is responsible for the
radar. The production of such parts is not limited to the same city or country; in the case of large
plane manufacturing companies, such parts can come from all over the world
The parts are sent to the main plant of the plane company, where the production line is located.
In the case of large planes, production lines dedicated to the assembly of certain parts of the
plane can exist, especially the wings and the fuselage
When complete, a plane is rigorously inspected to search for imperfections and defects. After
approval by inspectors, the plane is put through a series of flight test to assure that all systems
are working correctly and that the plane handles properly. Upon passing these tests, the plane is
ready to receive the "final touchups" (internal configuration, painting, etc.), and is then ready for
the customer

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CHARACTERISTICS

AIRFRAME
The structural parts of a fixed-wing aircraft are called the airframe. The parts present can vary
according to the aircraft's type and purpose. Early types were usually made of wood with fabric
wing surfaces, When engines became available for powered flight around a hundred years ago,
their mounts were made of metal. Then as speeds increased more and more parts became metal
until by the end of WWII all-metal aircraft were common. In modern times, increasing use
of composite materials has been made.
Typical structural parts include:

 One or more large horizontal wings, often with an airfoil cross-section shape. The wing
deflects air downward as the aircraft moves forward, generating lift to support it in flight.
The wing also provides stability in roll to stop the aircraft from rolling to the left or right in
steady flight.

The An-225, which can carry a 250-tonne payload, has two vertical stabilizers.

 A fuselage, a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its
shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage joins the other parts of the airframe and usually
contains important things such as the pilot, payload and flight systems.
 A vertical stabilizer or fin is a vertical wing-like surface mounted at the rear of the plane
and typically protruding above it. The fin stabilizes the plane's yaw (turn left or right) and
mounts the rudder, which controls its rotation along that axis.
 A horizontal stabilizer or tailplane, usually mounted at the tail near the vertical stabilizer.
The horizontal stabilizer is used to stabilize the plane's pitch (tilt up or down) and mounts
the elevators, which provide pitch control.
 Landing gears, a set of wheels, skids, or floats that support the plane while it is on the
surface. On seaplanes, the bottom of the fuselage or floats (pontoons) support it while on the
water. On some planes the landing gear retracts during flight to reduce drag.

SAFETY

When risk is measured by deaths per passenger kilometer, air travel is approximately 10 times
safer than travel by bus or rail. However, when using the deaths per journey statistic, air travel is
significantly more dangerous than car, rail, or bus travel. Air travel insurance is relatively
expensive for this reason—insurers generally use the deaths per journey statistic. There is a
significant difference between the safety of airliners and that of smaller private planes, with the
per-mile statistic indicating that airliners are 8.3 times safer than smaller planes.

23
 3.PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET

OBJECTIVE:
To prepare a comparative data sheet for our desired airplane specifications.

COMPARISON SHEET:
DATA SHEET
NAME OF
THE
S.N AIRCRAF CRE LENGTH( HEIGHT(
O T PAYLOAD(Tons) W m) m)

ANTONOV
1 An-225 Mriya 250 6 84 18.1
DOUGLAS
2 DC-3 2.72 2 19.7 5.16
FAIRCHILD
3 C-82 Packet 13.607 3 23.5 8.03
AIRBUS
4 A330 MRTT 45 3 58.8 17.4
AIRBUS
5 A300-600ST 154.99 2 56.15 17.24
BOEING 747-
6 8 442.252 2 76.3 19.4

BOEING KC-
135
7 Stratotanker 17.055 3 41.53 12.7

24
 BOEING
8 DREAMLIFTER 113.39 2 71.68 21.54

ANTONOV An-
9 124 Ruslan 54.431 6 69.1 21.08

AIRBUS A400M
10 Atlas 37.013 4 45.1 14.7

NAME OF
THE WINGSPAN(m ASPEC EMPTY
S.NO AIRCRAFT ) T RATIO WEIGHT(kg) POWERPLANT

ANTONOV 6* progress D-
1 An-225 Mriya 88.4 8.6 285000 18T turbofans

2* pratt and
DOUGLAS whitney R-1830-
2 DC-3 29 9.17 7650 S1C3G twin wasp
2* pratt and
FAIRCHILD whitney R-2800-
3 C-82 Packet 32.46 8.09 14773 85 Radials
AIRBUS 2* rolls-royce
4 A330 MRTT 60.3 10.04 125000 trent 772B

2* general
AIRBUS electric CF6-
5 A300-600ST 44.84 16.42 86500 80C2A8 turbofan
BOEING 747-
6 8 68.4 9.6 197131 Genx-2B67

BOEING KC- CFM

135 international
7 Stratotanker 39.88 8.56 44663 CFM56 turbofan

25
 BOEING
8 DREAMLIFTER 64.4 9.34 140000 PW 4062
4* progress D-
18T high-
bypass
ANTONOV An- turbofan
9 124 Ruslan 73.3 8.6 181000 engines
4* europrop
AIRBUS A400M TP400-D6
10 Atlas 42.4 7.98 76500 TURBOPROP

NAME OF CRUISE
THE MAXIMUM RANGE(k WING SPEED
S.NO AIRCRAFT SPEED(km/h) m) LOADING(kg/m^2) (km/hr)

ANTONOV
An-225
1 Mriya 850 15400 662.9 800

DOUGLAS
2 DC-3 370 2400 125 333

FAIRCHILD
3 C-82 Packet 399 6239 146 351

AIRBUS
4 A330 MRTT 880 14800 35.183 860

AIRBUS
5 A300-600ST 857 2779 72.009 830

BOEING
6 747-8 914 7630 41.233 903

26
 MAXIMUM CRUISE
BOEING KC- SPEED(km/h RANGE(k WING SPEED
7 135 Stratotanker ) m) LOADING(kg/m^2) (km/hr)

BOEING
8 DREAMLIFTER 850 15400 662.9 800

ANTONOV An-
9 124 Ruslan 370 2400 125 333

AIRBUS A400M
10 Atlas 399 6239 146 351

NAME OF THE
S.NO AIRCRAFT THURST/WEIGHT THRUST(KN)

ANTONOV An-
1 225 Mriya 0.234 229.5

2 DOUGLAS DC-3 1.11 85

FAIRCHILD C-82
3 Packet 0.609 90.3
AIRBUS A330
4 MRTT 0.256 320

AIRBUS A300-
5 600ST 0.297 257

6 BOEING 747-8 0.15 296

27
 BOEING KC-135
7 Stratotanker 0.215 96.2

BOEING
8 DREAMLIFTER 0.201 282

ANTONOV An-124
9 Ruslan 0.23 229

AIRBUS A400M
10 Atlas 0.294 225

4. WORKSHEET LAYOUT PROCEDURES

28
OBJECTIVE:
An imaginary profile of the aircraft is prepared and the values like span, length and surface
area are calculated from next step.

The Antonov An-225 Mriya  is a cargo aircraft that was designed by the Antonov design bureau
in the ukranian SSR within the soviet union during the 1980s. It is powered by
six turbofan engines and is the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum takeoff weight of
640 tonnes (710 short tons; 630 long tons). It also has the largest wingspan of any aircraft in
operational service. The single example built has the ukranian civil registration UR-82060. A
second airframe with a slightly different configuration was partially built. Its construction was
halted in 1994 because of lack of funding and interest, but revived briefly in 2009, bringing it to
60–70% completion. On 30 August 2016, Antonov agreed to complete the second airframe
for airspace industry corporation of china  as a prelude to commencing series production
The Antonov An-225 was an enlargement of the successful Antonov an-124 that was initially
developed for transporting the buran spaceplane. The only An-225 airplane was completed in
1988. After successfully fulfilling its Soviet military missions, it was mothballed for eight years.
It was then refurbished and re-introduced, and is in commercial operation with Antonov
airlines carrying oversized payloads. The airlifter holds the absolute world records for an airlifted
single-item payload of 189,980 kilograms (418,830 pounds), and an airlifted total payload of
253,820 kg (559,580 lb). It has also transported a payload of 247,000 kg (545,000 lb) on a
commercial flight.

DEVELOPMENT

An-225 carrying Buran in 1989

The Antonov An-225 was designed to airlift the energia rocket's boosters  and the buran orbiter
for the soviet space program. It was developed as a replacement for the VM-T. The An-225's
original mission and objectives are almost identical to that of the United States' shuttle carrier
aircraft
The An-225 first flew on 21 December 1988 with a 74-minute flight from Kiev The aircraft was
on static display at the paris air show  in 1989 and it flew during the public days at
the Farnborough air show in 1990. Two aircraft were ordered, but only one An-225 was finished.
It can carry ultra-heavy and oversize freight, up to 250,000 kg (550,000 lb) internally, or

29
200,000 kg (440,000 lb) on the upper fuselage. Cargo on the upper fuselage can be 70 m (230 ft)
long.
The second An-225 was partially built during the late 1980s for the Soviet space program.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the cancellation of the Buran space
program, the lone operational An-225 was placed in storage in 1994. The six iychenko-
progress engines were removed for use on An-124s, and the second uncompleted An-225
airframe was also stored. When it became clear that a cargoliner bigger than the An-124 was
needed, the first An-225 was re-engined and put back into service.

An-225 at Farnborough in 1990

By 2000, the need for additional An-225 capacity had become apparent, so the decision was
made in September 2006 to complete the second An-225. The second airframe was scheduled for
completion around 2008, then delayed. By August 2009, the aircraft had not been completed and
work had been abandoned. In May 2011, the Antonov CEO is reported to have said that the
completion of a second An-225 Mriya transport aircraft with a carrying capacity of 250 tons
requires at least $300 million, but if the financing is provided, its completion could be achieved
in three years. According to different sources, the second aircraft is 60–70% complete.
Airspace industry corporation of china (AICC)'s president, Zhang You-Sheng, told a BBC
reporter that AICC first contemplated cooperation with Antonov in 2009 and contacted them in
2011. AICC intends to modernize the second unfinished An-225 and develop it into an air launch
to orbit platform for commercial space vehicle at altitudes up to 12,000 m (39,000 ft).

IMAGINARY PROFILE

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Crew: 6
 Length: 84 m (275 ft 7 in)

30
 Wingspan: 88.4 m (290 ft 0 in)
 Height: 18.1 m (59 ft 5 in)
 Wing area: 905 m2 (9,740 sq ft)
 Aspect ratio: 8.6
 Empty weight: 285,000 kg (628,317 lb)
 Max takeoff weight: 640,000 kg (1,410,958 lb)
 Fuel capacity: more than 300,000 kg (661,000 lb)
 Cargo hold – volume 1,300 m3 (46,000 cu ft), 43.35 m (142.2 ft) long × 6.4 m (21 ft)
wide × 4.4 m (14 ft) tall
 Powerplant: 6 × progress D-18T turbofans, 229.5 kN (51,600 lbf) thrust each
PERFORMANCE

 Maximum speed: 850 km/h (530 mph, 460 kn)

 Cruise speed: 800 km/h (500 mph, 430 kn)
 Range: 15,400 km (9,600 mi, 8,300 nmi) with maximum fuel; range with 200 tonnes
payload: 4,000 km (2,500 mi)
 Service ceiling: 11,000 m (36,000 ft)
 Wing loading: 662.9 kg/m2 (135.8 lb/sq ft)
 Thrust\weight: 0.234

31
 5. COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND
SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN

OBJECTIVE:
To draw the comparative graphs from the aircrafts collected for reference.

COMPARATIVE GRAPHS:
Based on the data collected, graphs are plotted for significant parameters such as wing
loading, aspect ratio, span to length ratio, etc for determining the range of values for the design
of fighter.

RANGE VS VELOCITY

RANGE(km)
18000
16000
14000
12000
RANGE KM

10000
RANGE(km)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
VELOCITY

32
 WING LOADING VS VELOCITY

WING LOADING(kg/m^2)
700

600

500
WING LOADING

400

300

200

100

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
VELOCITY

(T/W) VS VELOCITY

THURST/WEIGHT
1.2

0.8
THRUST/WEIGHT

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
VELOCITY

33
 THRUST VS VELOCITY

THRUST(KN)
350

300

250

200
THRUST

150

100

50

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
VELOCITY

CRUISE SPEED VS ASPECT RATIO

34
 CRUISE SPEED (km/hr)
1000

900

800

700

600
CRUISE SPEED

500

400

300

200

100

0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

ASPECT RATIO

SELECTION OF PARAMETERS:
The comparative data for different aircrafts were studied and
the following fundamental design parameters were selected. ( graphs for comparative data are
enclosed )
Flight dynamics is the science of air-vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The
critical flight dynamics parameters are theangle of rotation with respect to the three principal
axex about its CG, known as roll, pitch and yaw.
Aircraft engineers develop control systems for a vehicle's orientation (attitude) about it CG. The
control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate
rotational forces or moments about the center of gravity of the aircraft, and thus rotate the
aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For example, a pitching moment is a vertical force applied at a
distance forward or aft from the center of gravity of the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up
or down.
Roll, pitch and yaw refer, in this context, to rotations about the respective axes starting from a
defined equilibrium state. The equilibrium roll angle is known as wings level or zero bank angle,
equivalent to a level heeling angle on a ship. Yaw is known as "heading".
A fixed wing aircraft increases or decreases the lift generated by the wings when it pitches nose
up or down by increasing or decreasing the  (AOA). The roll angle is also known as bank angle
on a fixed-wing aircraft, which usually "banks" to change the horizontal direction of flight. An
aircraft is streamlined from nose to tail to reduce drag making it advantageous to keep the

35
sideslip angle near zero, though aircraft are deliberately "side-slipped" when landing in a cross-
wind, as explained in slip(aerodynamics).

MAIN PARAMETERS
S.NO PARAMETERS VALUES
1 CRUISING VELOCITY 800 km/hr
2 ASPECT RATIO 8.5
3 WING LOADING 125 kg/m2
4 RANGE 4000 km
5 SPAN TO LENGTH RATIO 5.11

6. PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

OBJECTIVE:
To calculate the weight of the aircraft. We will be separating the weight estimation as 1st
weight estimation and final weight estimation.

DESIGN WEIGHT LIMITS (STRUCTURAL DESIGN WEIGHTS)

An aircraft's gross weight is limited by several weight restrictions in order to avoid overloading
its structure or to avoid unacceptable performance or handling qualities while in operation.
Aircraft gross weight limits are established during an aircraft's design and certification period
and are laid down in the aircraft's type certificate and manufacturer specification documents.
The absolute maximum weight capabilities of a given aircraft are referred to as the structural
weight limits. The structural weight limits are based on aircraft maximum structural capability
and define the envelope for the CG charts (both maximum weight and CG limits).

36
An aircraft's structural weight capability is typically a function of when the aircraft was
manufactured, and in some cases, old aircraft can have their structural weight capability
increased by structural modifications.
MAXIMUM DESIGN TAXI WEIGHT (MDTW)
The maximum design taxi weight (also known as the maximum design ramp weight (MDRW)) is
the maximum weight certificated for aircraft manoeuvring on the ground (taxiing or towing) as
limited by aircraft strength and airworthiness requirements.
MAXIMUM DESIGN TAKEOFF WEIGHT (MDTOW)
Is the maximum certificated design weight when the brakes are released for takeoff and is the
greatest weight for which compliance with the relevant structural and engineering requirements
has been demonstrated by the manufacturer.
MAXIMUM DESIGN LANDING WEIGHT (MDLW)
The maximum certificated design weight at which the aircraft meets the appropriate landing
certification requirements. It generally depends on the landing gear strength or the landing
impact loads on certain parts of the wing structure.
THE MDLW MUST NOT EXCEED THE MDTOW.
The maximum landing weight is typically designed for 10 feet per second (600 feet per minute)
sink rate at touch down with no structural damage.
MAXIMUM DESIGN ZERO-FUEL WEIGHT (MDZFW)
The maximum certificated design weight of the aircraft less all usable fuel and other specified
usable agents (engine injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion agents). It is the
maximum weight permitted before usable fuel and other specified usable fluids are loaded in
specified sections of the airplane. The MDZFW is limited by strength and airworthiness
requirements. At this weight, the subsequent addition of fuel will not result in the aircraft design
strength being exceeded. The weight difference between the MDTOW and the MDZFW may be
utilised only for the addition of fuel.
MINIMUM FLIGHT WEIGHT (MFW)
Minimum certificated weight for flight as limited by aircraft strength and airworthiness
requirements.

AUTHORISED WEIGHT LIMITS

Aircraft authorised gross weight limits (also referred to as certified weight limits) are laid down
in the aircraft flight manuals (AFM) and/or associated certificate of airworthiness (C of A). The
authorised or permitted limits may be equal to or lower than the structural design weight limits
The authorised weight limits that can legally be used by an operator or airline are those listed in
the AFM and the weight and balance manual.
The authorised (or certified) weight limits are chosen by the customer/airline and they are
referred to as the "purchased weights". An operator may purchase a certified weight below the
maximum design weights because many of the airport operating fees are based on the aircraft

37
AFM maximum allowable weight values. An aircraft purchase price is, typically, a function of
the certified weight purchased.
Maximum weights established, for each aircraft, by design and certification must not be
exceeded during aircraft operation (ramp or taxying, takeoff, en-route flight, approach, and
landing) and during aircraft loading (zero fuel conditions, centre of gravity position, and weight
distribution).
Weights could be restricted on some type of aircraft depending on the aircraft handling
requirements; for example aerobatic aircraft, where certain aerobatic manoeuvres can only be
executed with a limited gross weight.
In addition, the authorised maximum weight limits may be less as limited by centre of gravity,
fuel density, and fuel loading limits.
MAXIMUM TAXI WEIGHT (MTW)
The maximum taxi weight (MTW) (also known as the maximum ramp weight (MRW) is the
maximum weight authorized for maneuvering (taxiing or towing) an aircraft on the ground as
limited by aircraft strength and airworthiness requirements. It includes the weight of taxi and
run-up fuel for the engines and the APU.
It is greater than the maximum takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi
and runup operations.
The difference between the maximum taxi/ramp weight and the maximum take-off weight
(maximum taxi fuel allowance) depends on the size of the aircraft, the number of engines, APU
operation, and engines/APU fuel consumption, and is typically assumed for 10 to 15 minutes
allowance of taxi and run-up operations.
MAXIMUM TAKEOFF WEIGHT (MTOW)
The maximum takeoff weight (also known as the maximum brake-release weight) is the
maximum weight authorised at brake release for takeoff, or at the start of the takeoff roll.
The maximum takeoff weight is always less than the maximum taxi/ramp weight to allow for
fuel burned during taxi by the engines and the APU.
In operation, the maximum weight for takeoff may be limited to values less than the maximum
takeoff weight due to aircraft performance, environmental conditions, airfield characteristics
(takeoff field length, altitude), maximum tire speed and brake energy, obstacle clearances, and/or
en route and landing weight requirements.
MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT (MLW)
The maximum weight authorised for normal landing of an aircraft.
The MLW must not exceed the MTOW.
The operation landing weight may be limited to a weight lower than the Maximum Landing
Weight by the most restrictive of the following requirements:

 Aircraft performance requirements for a given altitude and temperature:

landing field length requirements,

38
 approach and landing climb requirements

 Noise requirements
If the flight has been of short duration, fuel may have to be jettisoned to reduce the landing
weight.
Overweight landings require a structural inspection or evaluation of the touch-down loads
before the next aircraft operation
.
MAXIMUM ZERO-FUEL WEIGHT (MZFW)
The maximum permissible weight of the aircraft less all usable fuel and other specified
usable agents (engine injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion agents). It is the
maximum weight permitted before usable fuel and other specified usable fluids are loaded in
specified sections of the airplane.

FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

The weight breakage of various components that contributes
its major role in the weight of the aircraft that has been listed down and the preliminary weight of
the aircraft has been calculated. The aircraft is sub divided into six segments as written below.

WTOTAL= WSTRUC+WP/L+WCREW+WFUEL+WP/P+WFE
where,
Wtotal= total takeoff weight of the aircraft
Wstruc= aircraft structural weight
Wp/l= weight of the payload
Wcrew= weight of the crew members
WFUEL= Weight of fuel
WP/P= weight of powerplant
WFE= fixed equipment weight
Note:
The unit for weight can either be in N or kg, better to have it in N.

39
We practice the weight breakage method to calculate the weight initially. The six weight
breakage for aircraft is given below.

Wstrc = 0.30wo = 374.634 KN

Wp/l = 250 KN (1000* payload in tons)
Wcrew = 6 KN (1000*number of crew members)
Wfuel = 0.30wo = 374.634 KN
Wp/p = 0.15wo = 187.317 KN
Wfe = 0.045wo = 56.1951 KN
Using the weight breakage the approximate weight of the aircraft is calculated.
Wo = 0.30wo + 250000 + 6000 + 0.30wo + 0.15wo + 0.045wo
Wo = 1248780.1 N

ENGINE SELECTION:

Jet engines move the airplane forward with a great force that is produced by a tremendous thrust
and causes the plane to fly very fast.

All jet engines, which are also called gas turbines, work on the same principle. The engine sucks
air in at the front with a fan. A compressor raises the pressure of the air. The compressor is made
with many blades attached to a shaft. The blades spin at high speed and compress or squeeze the
air. The compressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an electric spark lights the mixture. The
burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle, at the back of the engine. As the jets of
gas shoot backward, the engine and the aircraft are thrust forward. As the hot air is going to the
nozzle, it passes through another group of blades called the turbine. The turbine is attached to the
same shaft as the compressor. Spinning the turbine causes the compressor to spin.

The image below shows how the air flows through the engine. The air goes through the core of
the engine as well as around the core. This causes some of the air to be very hot and some to be
cooler. The cooler air then mixes with the hot air at the engine exit area.

PARTS OF A JET ENGINE

40
Fan-The fan is the first component in a turbofan. The large spinning fan sucks in large quantities
of air. Most blades of the fan are made of titanium. It then speeds this air up and splits it into two
parts. One part continues through the "core" or center of the engine, where it is acted upon by the
other engine components.

The second part "bypasses" the core of the engine. It goes through a duct that surrounds the core
to the back of the engine where it produces much of the force that propels the airplane forward.
This cooler air helps to quiet the engine as well as adding thrust to the engine.

Compressor-The compressor is the first component in the engine core. The compressor is made
up of fans with many blades and attached to a shaft. The compressor squeezes the air that enters
it into progressively smaller areas, resulting in an increase in the air pressure. This results in an
increase in the energy potential of the air. The squashed air is forced into the combustion
chamber.

Combustor- In the combustor the air is mixed with fuel and then ignited. There are as many as 20
nozzles to spray fuel into the airstream. The mixture of air and fuel catches fire. This provides a
high temperature, high-energy airflow. The fuel burns with the oxygen in the compressed air,
producing hot expanding gases. The inside of the combustor is often made of ceramic materials
to provide a heat-resistant chamber. The heat can reach 2700°.

Turbine- The high-energy airflow coming out of the combustor goes into the turbine, causing the
turbine blades to rotate. The turbines are linked by a shaft to turn the blades in the compressor
and to spin the intake fan at the front. This rotation takes some energy from the high-energy flow
that is used to drive the fan and the compressor. The gases produced in the combustion chamber
move through the turbine and spin its blades. The turbines of the jet spin around thousands of
times. They are fixed on shafts which have several sets of ball-bearing in between them.

Nozzle-The nozzle is the exhaust duct of the engine. This is the engine part which actually
produces the thrust for the plane. The energy depleted airflow that passed the turbine, in addition
to the colder air that bypassed the engine core, produces a force when exiting the nozzle that acts
to propel the engine, and therefore the airplane, forward. The combination of the hot air and cold
air are expelled and produce an exhaust, which causes a forward thrust. The nozzle may be
preceded by a mixer, which combines the high temperature air coming from the engine core with
the lower temperature air that was bypassed in the fan. The mixer helps to make the engine
quieter.

41
 The type of engine to be used is decided based on the
comparative study of different aircraft. From the graph-5, the (f/w) ratio corresponding to the
preliminary weight has been taken and the thrust that has to be produced corresponding to the
preliminary weight of the aircraft has been determined. For this thrust produced, a suitable
engine is selected. The SFC and weight of the engine is noted. Also the diameter and length of
the engine is noted.
From the graph, we have
F/W = 0.234
F = 0.234 * 1248780 N
F = 292214.52 N

Table for comparing the engine is prepared,

TABLE:3 COMPARISON OF ENGINE

THRUST PER ENGINE SFC (mg/N-

S.NO ENGINE ENGINE(KN) WEIGHT s) OR
(KN) PER (Lb/Lb-hr)
ENGINE
1 GECF6-80E1 293 49.95 9.8
2 PW4170 311.4 57.39 11.8
3 GEnx-2B67 296 60.30 12.4
4 PW4000 370 63.86 10.2
5 GE-GE90 400 74.06 15.4

ENGINE SELECTED:

42
CF6-80E1
The CF6-80E1 is the highest thrust power of CF6-80 Series family, the fan tip diameters
increased more to 96.2 in (2.443m), with an overall pressure ratio of 32.6 and a bypass ratio of
5.3. The 68,000 to 72,000 lbf (300 to 320 kN) variant competes with therolls Royce trent-700
and the Pratt and whitteny to power the A330
As express delivery spurs an air cargo resurgence, boeing plans to increase the CF6-80C2-
powered 767 delivery rate from 2.5 to 3 per month in 2020, a type introduced in 1982. As CF6-
80E1s are still delivered for the A330 and a330 MRTT, CF6 production will grow from 50 to 60-
80 per year by 2020. GE also studies  the progress D-18T powered an-124 freighters with 
a Volga-dnepr subsidiary. This would likely provide a range increase, and Volga-Dnepr Group
operates 12 aircraft, implying a 50-60 engines with spares  program
By 2018, GE has delivered more than 8,300 CF6s: 480 -6s, 2,200 -50s, 4,400 -80C2s, more than
730 -80E; plus 3,000 LM6000 industrial and marine derivatives. The in-service fleet include
3,400 engines, more than all the GE90s and GEnx, generating over than 600 shop visits per year.
GE will be delivering engines well into the 2020s and they will fly for 20 to 25 years, until 2045-
50: more than 75 years since the first CF6.

The engine data is tabulated.

TABLE 4: ENGINE DATA

PROPERTIES DATA UNIT

Take off thrust 293 KN

Weight of the engine 49.95 KN

SFC 9.8 (mg/N-s)

Weight of the fuel 374.63 KN

43
FUEL WEIGHT CALCULATION:
Therefore from simple range formula we have,

WFUEL= SFC*F*NO OF ENGINES*(RANGE/VELOCITY)

WFUEL= 0.03528*292214.52*1*(3300/800)
WFUEL = 42525.97 kg
2ND WEIGHT ESTIMATION:
Using the engine weight and SFC, the weight of the fuel is
determined. Now in the weight breakage, the weight of the fuel, the weight of the engine are
known and they are directly used in the weight breakage equation and the second weight of the
aircraft and the design process is proceeded.

W2 = WSTRC+WP/L+WP/P+WFUEL+WFE+WCREW,
W2 = 1297808.866 N

Thus the actual weight of the aircraft is calculated.

CALCULATION OF MAIN PARAMETERS S,b,l:

From graph, we have,

From the graph WO/S Vs V, the average value of Wo/S is taken and by substituting the value
of take-off weight calculated, the area of the wing S is found out.

W/S = 125 kg/m2

S = 1058.355 m2
From graph, we have,

44
From the graph AR Vs V, the average value of AR is taken and by substituting the value of S
which has been found above, we get the span as b2/S=4 b=17.21m

B2/S = 8.5
B = 94.84 m
From graph, we have,

From the graph b/l Vs V, the average value of l is taken and by the substituting the value of b
which has been found above, we get the length as b/l=0.66

B/l = 1.129, L = 84 m

7. POWER PLANT SELECTION, AIRFOIL

SELECTION, WING TAIL AND CONTROL
SURFACES.

OBJECTIVE:
To select a favorable airfoil for the aircraft assuming that the fuel is placed in the wing ,
the type of horizontal surface and vertical surface is also calculated.

THEORY:

45
The aerofoil is a cut section of wing, which is an stream lined body. It produces lift and drag
when moved in air. There are different types of aerofoil.
An airfoil-shaped body moving through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component
of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the
direction of motion is called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a
rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with a symmetric curvature of
upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the working fluid are
called hydrofoils.
The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack. When oriented at a suitable
angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air (for fixed-wing aircraft, a downward force), resulting
in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known
as aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two components: lift and drag. Most foil shapes
require a positive angle of attack to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can generate lift at zero
angle of attack. This "turning" of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved streamlines,
resulting in lower pressure on one side and higher pressure on the other. This pressure difference
is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting flowfield
about the airfoil has a higher average velocity on the upper surface than on the lower surface.
The lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without
computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation and the Kutta–Joukowski theorem.

TYPES OF AEROFOIL:

 Symmetrical aerofoil
 Cambered aerofoil

46
SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL:

Used for supersonic flight and does not have camber. There are different types of profile like
Wedge shape, conical shape, etc.

CAMBERED AEROFOIL:

Used for subsonic flight and have upper and lower camber. The camber is directly proportional
to the L/D ratio.

The geometry of the airfoil is described with a variety of terms :

 The leading edge is the point at the front of the airfoil that has minimum curvature
(maximum radius).
 The trailing edge is defined similarly as the point of maximum curvature at the rear of the
airfoil.
 The chord line is the straight line connecting leading and trailing edges. The chord length,
or simply chord, , is the length of the chord line. That is the reference dimension of the
airfoil section.

NACA SERIES:

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. The shape of the NACA aerofoils is described
using a series of digits following the word “NACA”. The series of aerofoils are listed below,

 Five-digit series
 One-digit series
 Four-digit series
 Six-digit series
 Seven-digit series
 Eight-digit series

47
PROCEDURE:

Calculation of t/c (thickness to chord ratio):

The volume available in the wing is calculated using the taper wing volume
formula. The unknown t/c ratio is calculated using,

Volume = (Wt. of the fuel)/(Specific gravity)

= 42525.97 / 0.8 * 1000

Volume = 53.157 m3

Volume = 2[(2/3) * (t/c) * (b/4) * Ĉ * Ĉ] * 0.75

= 0.0141

(t/c) = 1.41 %
SWEEPBACK:

A swept wing is a wing that angles either backward or occasionally forward from its root rather
than in a straight sideways direction.Swept wings have been flown since the pioneer days of
aviation. Wing sweep at high speeds was first investigated in Germany as early as 1935, finding
application just before the end of the Second World War. It has the effect of delaying the shock
waves and accompanying aerodynamic drag rise caused by fluid compressibility near the speed
of sound, improving performance. Swept wings are therefore almost always used on jet
aircraft designed to fly at these speeds. Swept wings are also sometimes used for other reasons,
such as low drag, low observability, structural convenience or pilot visibility.The term "swept
wing" is normally used to mean "swept back", but variants include forward sweep, variable
sweep wings and oblique wings in which one side sweeps forward and the other back. The delta
wing is also aerodynamically a form of swept wing.
For a wing of given span, sweeping it increases the length of the spars running along it from root
to tip. This tends to increase weight and reduce stiffness. If the fore-aft chord of the wing also
remains the same, the distance between leading and trailing edges reduces, reducing its ability to
resist twisting (torsion) forces. A swept wing of given span and chord must therefore be
strengthened and will be heavier than the equivalent unswept wing.A swept wing typically
angles backward from its root rather than forwards. Because wings are made as light as possible,
they tend to flex under load. This aeroelasticity under aerodynamic load causes the tips to bend

48
upwards in normal flight. Backwards sweep causes the tips to reduce their angle of attack as they
bend, reducing their lift and limiting the effect. Forward sweep causes the tips to increase their
angle of attack as they bend. This increases their lift causing further bending and hence yet more
lift in a cycle which can cause a runaway structural failure. For this reason forward sweep is rare
and the wing must be unusually rigid.The characteristic "sweep angle" is normally measured by
drawing a line from root to tip, typically 25% of the way back from the leading edge, and
comparing that with the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Typical sweep
angles vary from 0 for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for fighters and other high-
speed designs.The (t/c) ratio of the airfoil is calculated using the weight of the fuel and the mean
chord from the tip chord and root chord taken from the comparative data. The sweepback to the
wing is determined from the graph plotted between M CRD along y - axis and (t/c) along x- axis.

From the graph plotted between MCR vs. (t/c) “Ref 4” we can calculate
the sweepback that has to be given to the wings.
For MCRD = and (t/c) = %, the sweepback is given as,

Quarter chord sweep = 30.81 degree

Leading edge sweep = 47.162 degree

AIRFOIL SELECTION:

The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by:

1. First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord.

2. Second digit describing the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil leading edge in
tenths of the chord.
3. Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of the chord.
For example, the NACA 2412 airfoil has a maximum camber of 2% located 40% (0.4 chords)
from the leading edge with a maximum thickness of 12% of the chord.
The NACA 0015 airfoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no camber. The 15 indicates
that the airfoil has a 15% thickness to chord length ratio: it is 15% as thick as it is long.

From the (t/c) determined, the airfoil is selected from the NACA series of the airfoils coming
under the category from “Ref 5”. The airfoil which best suits the aircraft’s category is chosen
and the necessary graphs are plotted.

(μ/μ₀) = (T/T₀)3/4
T = T₀ – λh

At cruise altitude 10000m,

49
 μ =1.6959*10^-5 Pa-s

At a mach number of 0.6767,

V=M*a

= 222.22m/s
At altitude 10000m,

Density,

ρ = 0.4135 kg/m3
Reynolds number,

Re = (ρ V Ĉ/ μ)

Reynolds number = 68.291* 10^6

From the “Ref 5”, the airfoil is selected. From the book for (t/c) =1.41% the airfoils found are
listed below:

EQUATION FOR A SYMMETRICAL 4-DIGIT NACA AIRFOIl

Plot of a NACA 0015 foil generated from formula

The formula for the shape of a NACA 00xx foil, with "x" being replaced by the percentage of
thickness to chord, is
where:
x is the position along the chord from 0 to 1.00 (0 to 100%),
 is the half thickness at a given value of x (centerline to surface),
t is the maximum thickness as a fraction of the chord (so t gives the last two digits in the
NACA 4-digit denomination divided by 100).
Note that in this equation, at x/c = 1 (the trailing edge of the airfoil), the thickness is not quite
zero. If a zero-thickness trailing edge is required, for example for computational work, one of the
coefficients should be modified such that they sum to zero. Modifying the last coefficient (i.e. to

50
−0.1036) will result in the smallest change to the overall shape of the airfoil. The leading edge
approximates a cylinder with a radius of Now the coordinates of the upper airfoil surface and  of
the lower airfoil surface are Symmetrical 4-digit series airfoils by default have maximum
thickness at 30% of the chord from the leading edge.
EQUATION FOR A CAMBERED 4-DIGIT NACA AIRFOIL

Plot of a NACA 2412 foil. The camber line is shown in red, and the thickness – or the
symmetrical airfoil 0012 – is shown in purple.
The simplest asymmetric foils are the NACA 4-digit series foils, which use the same formula as
that used to generate the 00xx symmetric foils, but with the line of mean camber bent. The
formula used to calculate the mean camber line is
where
m is the maximum camber (100 m is the first of the four digits),
p is the location of maximum camber (10 p is the second digit in the NACA xxxx
description).
For this cambered airfoil, because the thickness needs to be applied perpendicular to the camber
line, the coordinates and  of respectively the upper and lower airfoil surface.
Table 5 Aerofoil comparison

NACA SERIES CL CD
0006 0.4972 0.00878
0008 0.7442 0.01089
0010 1.0509 0.01498
0012 0.8686 0.01149
0018 1.0998 0.01412

For the above selected airfoil the details obtained from the book are
tabulated as below:

Table 6 Airfoil data

ALPHAinfinity CL CD ALPHA(AR)

51
 -4.000 -0.4446 0.00812 -4.7047
-3.000 -0.3401 0.00737 -3.3796
-2.000 -0.2394 0.00570 -2.1619
-1.000 -0.1251 0.00426 -1.0389
0.000 0.000 0.00338 0.0000
1.000 0.1251 0.00426 0.9639
2.000 0.2394 0.00570 1.8606
3.000 0.3401 0.00737 2.6970
4.000 0.4446 0.00812 3.4788
4.500 0.4972 0.00878 3.8510

Graphs are draw to show the characteristic of particular airfoil, example graphs are given,

LIFT COEFFICIENT

The lift coefficient (CL) is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by a lifting

body to the fluid density around the body, the fluid velocity and an associated reference area. A
lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body such as a fixed-wing aircraft. CL is a
function of the angle of the body to the flow, its Reynolds number and its Mach number. The
section lift coefficient cl refers to the dynamic lift characteristics of a two-dimensional foil
section, with the reference area replaced by the foil chord.
Lift coefficient may also be used as a characteristic of a particular shape (or cross-section) of
an airfoil. In this application it is called the section lift coefficient It is common to show, for a
particular airfoil section, the relationship between section lift coefficient and angle of attack. It is
also useful to show the relationship between section lift coefficient and drag coefficient.

CL VS ALPHA

52
 Cl vs ALPHA

0
-0. -0. -0. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

-2

-4

ALPHA(AR)
-6 ALPHAinfinity

CL VS CD
Cl VS Cd

12

10

0 CL CD
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

FLAP SELECTION:

53
Flaps are a kind of high-lift device used to reduce the stalling speed of an aircraft wing at a
given weight. Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft.
Flaps are used to reduce the take-off distance and the landing distance. Flaps also cause an
increase in drag so they are retracted when not needed.
The flaps installed on most aircraft are partial-span flaps; spanwise from near the wing root to
the inboard end of the ailerons. When partial-span flaps are extended they alter the spanwise lift
loading on the wing by causing the inboard half of the wing to supply an increased proportion of
the lift, and the outboard half to supply a reduced proportion of the lift. Reducing the proportion
of the lift supplied by the outboard half of the wing is accompanied by a reduction in the angle of
attack on the outboard half. This is beneficial because it increases the margin above the stall of
the outboard half, maintaining aileron effectiveness and reducing the likelihood of asymmetric
stall, and spinning.
For the aircraft selection, the total runway distance is decided and the required lift coefficient is
determined. Then the change in lift coefficient is calculated. This change in CL has to be
compensated by the flaps. Thus the flaps are selected so as to compensate this change in CL.

CHANGE IN LIFT COEFFICIENT:

CL CRUISE = [(2W/S)/ρV2]

= [ (2*125*9.81)/0.4135*222.222]

= 0.120

Total runway distance = 3500m

LANDING VELOCITY:

VL2 = 2αs

= (2*0.25*9.81*2100*0.6)1/2

= 78.61 m/s
STALLING SPEED:

VS = VL / 1.15

VS = 68.35 m/s
REQUIRED LIFT CO-EFFICIENT:

CL req = [(2W/S)/ρ₀V2]

54
 = [(2*125*9.81)/1.225*68.352]

= 0.428

CHANGE IN LIFT CO-EFFICIENT:

ΔCL = CL req – CL av

ΔCL = 0.428 – 0.120

ΔCL = 0.308

Flaps are located at 0.3Ĉ of the wing. From the “Ref 5”, the below details are tabulated:

Table 7 ΔCL values for different flap angles:

For (t/c) = 1.4%, at maximum flap deflection (Δf) = 35degrees ,

ΔCL = 1.05

ΔCLpart span = 1.05*0.35

= 0.3675

Total cl average = 0.120 + 0.3675

= 0.4875
TYRE SELECTION:

An aircraft tire or tyre is designed to withstand extremely heavy loads for short durations. The
number of tires required for aircraft increases with the weight of the aircraft, as the weight of the
airplane needs to be distributed more evenly. Aircraft tire tread patterns are designed to facilitate
stability in high crosswind conditions, to channel water away to prevent hydroplaning, and for
braking effect.
Aircraft tires also include fusible plugs (which are assembled on the inside of the wheels),
designed to melt at a certain temperature. Tires often overheat if maximum braking is applied
during an aborted takeoff or an emergency landing. The fuses provide a safer failure mode that
prevents tire explosions by deflating in a controlled manner, thus minimizing damage to aircraft
and objects in the surrounding environment.

The entire weight of the aircraft is split up among the nose and main landing gears. Of these, the
nose landing gear will take 10% of the weight and the main landing gear will take 90% of the
aircraft’s weight. The number of wheels for each landing gears are determined based on the
weight the landing gear has to carry. Based on the weight carried, the tyres for the wheels are
selected from the “Ref 6”.

55
 Total weight (W) = 132294.4818 kg

Nose landing gear = 0.1W

= 0.1*132294.4818 kg

=13229.44818 kg

Main landing gear = 0.9W

= 119065.0336 kg

No. of nose wheels = 4

Weight taken by each wheel = 3307.362045 kg

No. of main wheels = 28

Weight taken by each wheel = 4252.322629 kg

For the above values of loads for each landing gear, the details are taken from the “Ref 6” and
are noted.

i) Nose Wheel:
Diameter = 1.12m ; radius = 0.56m
Width = 0.45m
Wheel rim diameter = 0.4826m
Wheel rim width = 0.4572 (1 inch wider)
Radius at maximum deflection = 32.66m (70 degree)

ii) Main Wheel:

Diameter = 1.27m ; radius = 0.635m
Width = 0.51m
Wheel rim diameter = 0.5588m
Wheel rim width = 0.4845812m ( 1 inch wider)
Radius at maximum deflection = 53.76m (70 degree)

RUNWAY LOADING:

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a "defined

rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways
56
may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface
(grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand or salt). Runways, as well as taxiways and ramps, are sometimes
referred to as “tarmac,” though very few runways are built using tarmac. Runway lengths are
now commonly given in meters worldwide, except in North America where feet are commonly
used. Until the introduction of heavy monoplane aircraft in the latter part of the 1930s, civil air
transport aircraft were able to operate from grass runways with takeoff distances of less than 600
metres (2,000 feet). The advent of heavy aircraft such as the DC-3 required the provision of
paved runways; at the same time, takeoff distances increased to more than 900 metres (3,000
feet). The length requirements for runways continued to increase into the mid-1970s, when large
civilian aircraft such as the Douglas DC-8 and some models of the Boeing 747 required almost
3,600 metres (12,000 feet) of runway at sea level. (Even longer runways were necessary at
higher elevations or where high ambient air temperatures occurred during operations.) The trend
toward increasing runway lengths caused many problems at existing civilian airports, where
runways had to be extended in order to accommodate the new aircraft. Ultimately, pressure by
airport operators and the development of turbofan jet engines arrested and finally reversed the
trend. Since the 1970s, runway length requirements have actually decreased, and the takeoff and
climb performance of civilian aircraft has improved substantially. This has brought a dual benefit
in reducing the area of land required by an airport and also in reducing the area around the
airport that is adversely affected by noise on takeoff.

Fig : 2Tyre dimension diagram

AIRCRAFT TIRE CONSTRUCTION

Dissect an aircraft tyre and you'll find that it's one of the strongest and toughest pneumatic tyres
made. It must withstand high speeds and very heavy static and dynamic loads. For example, the
main gear tyres of a four-engine jet transport are required to withstand landing speeds up to 250
mph, as well as static and dynamic loads as high as 22 and 33 tons respectively..

57
TREAD

The tread is made of rubber compound for toughness and durability, the tread is patterned in
accordance with aircraft operational requirements. The circumferential ribbed pattern is widely
used today because it provides good traction under widely varying runway conditions.

TREAD REINFORCEMENT

One or more layers of reinforced nylon cord fabric strengthens the tread for high speed
operation. These are used mainly in case of high speed tyres.

BREAKERS

These extra layers of reinforcing nylon cord fabric are placed under the tread rubber to protect
casing plies and strengthen tread area. They are considered an integral part of the carcass
construction.

CASING PLIES/CORD BODY

Diagonal layers of rubber-coated nylon cord fabric (running at opposite angles to one another)
provide the strength of a tyre. Completely encompassing the tire body, the carcass plies are
folded around the wire beads and back against the tyre sidewalls (the "ply turnups").

BEADS

The beads are made of steel wires embedded in rubber and wrapped in fabric, the beads anchor
the carcass plies and provide firm mounting surfaces on the wheel.

FLIPPERS

These layers of fabric and rubber insulate the carcass from the bead wires and improve the
durability of the tyre.

CHAFERS

The chafers are layers of fabric and rubber that protect the carcass from damage during mounting
and demounting. They insulate the carcass from brake heat and provide a good seal against
movement during dynamic operations.

BEAD TOE

The inner bead edge closest to the tyre center line.

BEAD HEEL

58
The outer bead edge which fits against the wheel flange.

INNER LINER

On tubeless tyres, this inner layer of less permeable rubber acts as a built-in tube; it prevents air
from seeping through casing plies. For tube type tyres, a thinner rubber liner is used to prevent
tube chafing against the inside ply.

TREAD REINFORCING PLY

This is a rubber compound cushion between tread and casing plies, provides toughness and
durability. It adds protection against cutting and bruising throughout the life of the tread.

SIDEWALL

Sidewalls are primarily the covers over the sides of the cord body to protect the cords from
injury and exposure. Little strength is imparted to the cord body by the sidewalls. A special
sidewall construction, the "chine tyre," is a nose wheel tyre designed with built-in deflector to
divert runway water to the side, thus reducing water spray in the area of rear mounted jet
engines.

APEX STRIP

The apex strip is additional rubber formed around the bead to give a conture for anchoring the
ply turn ups.

a2 = R2 – r2
a = 22.457 in

Runway loading = 129.55492/(0.263756944*32)

= 15.3497 tons/ft2

59
8. PREPARATION OF LAYOUTS OF BALANCE DIAGRAM
AND THREE VIEW DRAWINGS

OBJECTIVE:
To draw the balance diagram and to calculate the c.g positions of the Aircraft for
different flight conditions of Aircraft.

THEORY:
An aircraft is a rigid (assumed) system comprising of many more
components with all these components to be in the air medium. To have
a stable aircraft system and easily controllable, its center of gravity Should be positioned in an
appropriate manner. So the weights in the aircraft should be distributed such that it has a defined
c.g position,
which is critical. Also the weight distribution should be such that on certain situations where
some components may be consumed or even removed, its c.g. movement should be in a
controllable manner so that is not compromised. One important condition is that when fully
loaded, the c.g. is at 30 % of mean aerodynamic chord and in different situations such as landing,
with or without payload, the c.g. movement should be restricted within 25% of mean
aerodynamic chord and 35% of mean aerodynamic chord.

BALANCED DIAGRAM:

The standard specifications implemented by the FAA for the entire

fuselage layout was referred and abided and then the balanced diagram is drawn based on it.

60
CG CALCULATION:

The center of gravity (CG) of an aircraft is the point over which the aircraft would balance. Its
position is calculated after supporting the aircraft on at least two sets of weighing scales or load
cells and noting the weight shown on each set of scales or load cells. The center of gravity
affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the center of gravity must
fall within specified limits established by the aircraft manufacturer.

The CG calculation for the fuselage and the wing are performed
separately. From the balanced diagram, the CG position for each and every component is
determined and finally the entire CG of the fuselage has been located. Now the wing section has
been taken and various components are placed on the wing. The CG positions of various
components placed on the wing are calculated individually and the CG for the entire wing
section is located.

Procedure:

The example drawings are given in Fig: 2, 3, 4 and 5.

FRONT VIEW

61
TOP VIEW

62
 SIDE VIEW

Center of gravity (CG) is calculated as follows:

 Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft.
 Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments.
 Add the moments of all mass together.
 Divide the total moment by the total mass of the aircraft to give an overall arm.
The arm that results from this calculation must be within the center of gravity limits dictated by
the aircraft manufacturer. If it is not, weight in the aircraft must be removed, added (rarely), or
redistributed until the center of gravity falls within the prescribed limits.
Aircraft center of gravity calculations are only performed along a single axis from the zero point
of the reference datum that represents the longitudinal axis of the aircraft (to calculate fore-to-aft
balance). Some helicopter types utilize lateral CG limits as well as longitudinal limits. Operation
of such helicopters requires calculating CG along two axes: one calculation for longitudinal CG
(fore-to-aft balance) and another calculation for lateral CG (left-to-right balance).
The weight, moment and arm values of fixed items on the aircraft (i.e. engines, wings, electronic
components) do not change and are provided by the manufacturer on the Aircraft Equipment
List. The manufacturer also provides information facilitating the calculation of moments for fuel
loads. Removable weight items (i.e. crew members, passengers, baggage) must be properly
accounted for in the weight and CG calculation by the aircraft operator.

INCORRECT WEIGHT AND BALANCE IN FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT

The center of gravity of this British Aerospace 146 shifted rearward when its engines were
removed. As a result, it tipped back onto its rear fuselage in windy conditions.
When the center of gravity or weight of an aircraft is outside the acceptable range, the aircraft
may not be able to sustain flight, or it may be impossible to maintain the aircraft in level flight in
some or all circumstances, in some events resulting in load shifting. Placing the CG or weight of
an aircraft outside the allowed range can lead to an unavoidable crash of the aircraft.

63
CENTER OF GRAVITY OUT OF RANGE
When the fore-aft center of gravity (CG) is out of range, serious aircraft control problems occur.
The fore-aft CG affects longitudinal stability of the aircraft, with the stability increasing as the
CG moves forward, and stability decreasing as the CG moves aft. With a forward CG position,
although the stability of the aircraft increases, the elevator control authority is reduced in the
capability of raising the nose of the aircraft. This can cause a serious condition during the
landing flare when the nose cannot be raised sufficiently to slow the aircraft. An aft CG position
creates severe handling problems due to the reduced pitch stability and increased elevator control
sensitivity, with potential loss of aircraft control. Because the burning of fuel gradually produces
a loss of weight and possibly a shift in the CG, it is possible for an aircraft to take off with the
CG within normal operating range, and yet later develop an imbalance that results in control
problems. Calculations of CG must take this into account (often part of this is calculated in
advance by the manufacturer and incorporated into CG limits).
Here's an example of a Piper Mirage with too much weight in the back of the aircraft that results
in the Takeoff CG within limits (the green reference point) but the Landing CG is aft of the CG
Envelope limits (the blue reference point).
i) WEIGHT BREAKAGE IN FUSELAGE:

Table: 8 fuselage components weight breakage

TYPE X(m) W(kg) W*X(m*kg)

pilot 4.2 6000 25200

Nose wheel 8.4 13229.448 111127.3632

Main wheel 29.4 119065.0336 3500511.988

Fuselage structure 17.64 38188.99083 673653.7982

Horizontal tail 75.6 13229.448 1000146.269

Vertical tail 79.8 66147.24 5278549.752

64
 Xfus = (ΣWx/ΣW)

Xfus = 41.38662757 m

ii) CG POSITIONS:

Table: 9 Wing components c.g location

Components X (m) Y (m)

Fuel 21 4.82

Engine 18.5 4.90

Wing structure 18 5

iii) Weight breakage in wing:

Table: 10 Wing components weight breakage

COMPONENTS X(m) W(kg) W*X(m*kg)

POWERPLANT 18.5 49950 924075

FUEL 21 42525.97 893045.37

WING STRUCTURE 18 38188.99083 687401.8349

Xwing = (ΣWx/ΣW)

Xwing = 19.167512 m

65
 iv) CG SHIFT:

Assume Xfinal as 0.30Ĉ = 0.30 * 12.604

Xfinal = 3.7812 m

(After projecting on the root chord)

Fig: 9 c.g calculation

66
 (Wfus* Xfus) + Wwing(X + Xwing) = (Wfus+ Wwing) * (X + Xfinal)

X = 12.60619573 m

a) 0.1W AND FULL PASSENGER:

Table: 11 c.g shift because of fuel weight decrease

COMPONENTS X(m) W(kg) W*X(m*kg)

POWERPLANT 18.5 49950 924075

FUEL 21 4252.597 89304.537

67
WING STRUCTURE 18 38188.99083 687401.8349

Xwing = (ΣWx/ΣW)

Xwing = 18.40840072 m

(Wfus* Xfus) + Wwing(X + Xwing) = (Wfus+ Wwing) * (X + Xfinal)

Xfinal = 6.803288724 m

b) FULL FUEL AND LIMITED PASSENGERS OR PAYLOAD:

Table: 12 Fuselage c.g shift due to reduction in Payload

TYPE X(m) W(kg) W*X(m*kg)

pilot 4.2 6000 25200

Nose wheel 8.4 13229.448 111127.3632

Main wheel 29.4 119065.0336 3500511.988

Fuselage structure 17.64 38188.99083 673653.7982

Horizontal tail 75.6 13229.448 1000146.269

Vertical tail 79.8 66147.24 5278549.752

Fuel 21 42525.97 893045.37

68
 Payload 17.64 125000 2205000

ΣWfus = (ΣWx/ΣW)

ΣWfus = 32.32801822 m

(Wfus* Xfus) + Wwing(X + Xwing) = (Wfus+ Wwing) * (X + Xfinal)

Xfinal = 19.44466725 m

c) 0.1W AND LIMITED PASSENGERS OR PAYLOAD:

Table: 13 Fuselage c.g shift due to reduction in Payload and fuel

TYPE X(m) W(kg) W*X(m*kg)

pilot 4.2 6000 25200

Nose wheel 8.4 13229.448 111127.3632

Main wheel 29.4 119065.0336 3500511.988

Fuselage structure 17.64 38188.99083 673653.7982

Horizontal tail 75.6 13229.448 1000146.269

Vertical tail 79.8 66147.24 5278549.752

Fuel 21 4252.597 89304.537

Payload 17.64 125000 2205000

ΣWfus = (ΣWx/ΣW)

ΣWfus = 33.45382218 m

(Wfus* Xfus) + Wwing(X + Xwing) = (Wfus+ Wwing) * (X + Xfinal)

XFinal = 20.00756923 m

69
Desired output:

Table: 14 various c.g locations

S.NO CONFIGURATION CG POSITION

1 Fully loaded 3.7812

2 0.1w and full passenger or payload 6.803288724 m

3 Full fuel and limited passengers or 19.44466725 m

payload

70
 4 0.1w and limited passengers or 20.00756923 m
payload

9. DRAG ESTIMATION

OBJECTIVE:
To calculate the drag produced in various stages of flight and to give the Drag polar for
the aircraft.

THEORY:
The pressure distribution acting on a body's surface exerts normal forces on the body. Those
forces can be summed and the component of that force that acts downstream represents the drag
force, , due to pressure distribution acting on the body. The nature of these normal forces
combines shock wave effects, vortex system generation effects, and wake viscous mechanisms.
The viscosity of the fluid has a major effect on drag. In the absence of viscosity, the pressure
forces acting to retard the vehicle are canceled by a pressure force further aft that acts to push the
vehicle forward; this is called pressure recovery and the result is that the drag is zero. That is to
say, the work the body does on the airflow, is reversible and is recovered as there are no
frictional effects to convert the flow energy into heat. Pressure recovery acts even in the case of
viscous flow. Viscosity, however results in pressure drag and it is the dominant component of
drag in the case of vehicles with regions of separated flow, in which the pressure recovery is
fairly ineffective.
The friction drag force, which is a tangential force on the aircraft surface, depends substantially
on boundary layer configuration and viscosity. The net friction drag, , is calculated as the
downstream projection of the viscous forces evaluated over the body's surface.
The sum of friction drag and pressure (form) drag is called viscous drag. This drag component is
due to viscosity. In a thermodynamic perspective, viscous effects represent irreversible
phenomena and, therefore, they create entropy. The calculated viscous drag  use entropy changes
to accurately predict the drag force.

71
When the airplane produces lift, another drag component results. Induced drag, symbolized , is
due to a modification of the pressure distribution due to the trailing vortex system that
accompanies the lift production. An alternative perspective on lift and drag is gained from
considering the change of momentum of the airflow. The wing intercepts the airflow and forces
the flow to move downward. This results in an equal and opposite force acting upward on the
wing which is the lift force. The change of momentum of the airflow downward results in a
reduction of the rearward momentum of the flow which is the result of a force acting forward on
the airflow and applied by the wing to the air flow; an equal but opposite force acts on the wing
rearward which is the induced drag. Induced drag tends to be the most important component for
airplanes during take-off or landing flight. Another drag component, namely wave drag, , results
from shock waves in transonic and supersonic flight speeds. The shock waves induce changes in
the boundary layer and pressure distribution over the body surface.

In the design of an aircraft, it is a crucial step to determine the drag of the aircraft
since it directly affects the power required and the performance is sensitive to the drag of the
aircraft. Drag due to all components is to be considered. All parts of the aircraft contribute
towards drag, which should be carefully reduced by proper selection and design. From
experience and experimental work some approximation has been done for the calculation of
fuselage drag and other parts.

The various components of drag are

1. Parasite drag
2. Induced drag
3. Interference drag
4. Drag due to compressibility correction
In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient  is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify
the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water. It is used in
the drag equation in which a lower drag coefficient indicates the object will have
less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The drag coefficient is always associated with a
particular surface area.
The drag coefficient of any object comprises the effects of the two basic contributors to fluid
dynamic drag: skin friction and form drag. The drag coefficient of a
lifting airfoil or hydrofoil also includes the effects of lift-induced drag. The drag coefficient of a
complete structure such as an aircraft also includes the effects of interference drag
The drag coefficient  is defined as
Cd = 2Fd\ϱu2A
where:
Fd is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of
the flow velocity,[6]
ϱ is the mass density of the fluid,[7]
u is the flow speed of the object relative to the fluid,

72
 A is the reference area.
The reference area depends on what type of drag coefficient is being measured. For automobiles
and many other objects, the reference area is the projected frontal area of the vehicle. This may
not necessarily be the cross-sectional area of the vehicle, depending on where the cross-section is
taken. For example, for a sphere  (note this is not the surface area = 4πr2).
For airfoils, the reference area is the nominal wing area. Since this tends to be large compared to
the frontal area, the resulting drag coefficients tend to be low, much lower than for a car with the
same drag, frontal area, and speed.
Airships and some bodies of revolution use the volumetric drag coefficient, in which the
reference area is the square of the cube root of the airship volume (volume to the two-thirds
power). Submerged streamlined bodies use the wetted surface area.
Two objects having the same reference area moving at the same speed through a fluid will
experience a drag force proportional to their respective drag coefficients. Coefficients for
unstreamlined objects can be 1 or more, for streamlined objects much less.
CDt = CD₀ wing +CD₀ others + k CL 2
The coefficient of drag for each component of

Fuselage diameter : 6.4 m

Engine diameter : 3.3m
Nose wheel diameter : 1.12m
Main wheel diameter : 1.27 m
Nose wheel width : 0.45 m
Main wheel width : 0.51 m

FLAP AREA:

Area of aileron = 6% of wing area

Area of aileron = 63.5013 m2
w = 0.3Ĉ
w = 3.7812 m
Aileron = w *L aileron
L aileron = 16.795 m
b/2 = L aileron + L flap + D fuselage/2
L flap = 27.425 m
A flap = w * L flap
A flap = 103.67 m2

i) TAKE-OFF CONDITION:

73
 Table: 15 Calculation of CD₀ others for Take-off condition

COMPONENT Sπ CDπ CDπ Sπ

FUSELAGE 32.167 0.0300 0.96501

HORIZONTAL TAIL 157.89 0.0052 0.821028

VERTICAL TAIL 58.9698 0.0052 0.30664296

NOSE WHEEL 2.016 0.1200 0.24192

MAIN WHEEL 18.1356 0.1200 2.176272

POWERPLANT 34.2119 0.0300 1.026357

FLAPS-HALF 103.67 0.0090 0.93303

C D₀ Others = (ΣC Dπ Sπ)/Swing

= 0.00611

Due to Interference Drag, this value is multiplied by “1.05”.

CD₀ others = 0.00611* 1.05

= 0.0064155

Let e = 0.88 (for taper wing)

Where, k = 1/ pie*e*AR

K = 0.04257
CRUSIE:

74
The same procedure is practiced for cruise as that of Take-off, there is some difference in drag
because of retraction of landing gears and zero flap deflection.

Table: 17 Calculation of CD₀ others for Cruise condition

COMPONENT Sπ CDπ CDπ Sπ

FUSELAGE 32.167 0.0063 0.202

HORIZONTAL TAIL 157.89 0.0038 0.599

VERTICAL TAIL 58.9698 0.0065 0.383

POWERPLANT 34.2119 0.0046 0.157

WING 1058.355 0.00557 5.895

C D₀ Others = (ΣC Dπ Sπ)/Swing

= 0.00683

Due to Interference Drag, this value is multiplied by “1.05”.

CD₀ others = 0.00683* 1.05

=0.0071715
LANDING:

Landing condition will have maximum drag due deflection of full flap,
The final drag polar is draw after calculating the landing drag.

Table: 19 Calculation of CD₀ others for Landing condition

COMPONENT Sπ CDπ CDπ Sπ

FUSELAGE 32.167 0.0300 0.96501
HORIZONTAL TAIL 157.89 0.0052 0.821028

75
 VERTICAL TAIL 58.9698 0.0052 0.30664296
NOSE WHEEL 2.016 0.1200 0.24192
MAIN WHEEL 18.1356 0.1200 2.176272
POWERPLANT 34.2119 0.0300 1.026357
FLAPS-HALF 103.67 0.0090 0.93303
WING 1058.355 0.00557 5.895

C D₀ Others = (ΣC Dπ Sπ)/Swing

= 0.01168

Due to Interference Drag, this value is multiplied by “1.05”.

CD₀ others = 0.01168* 1.05

= 0.012264

DRAG POLAR:
After finding the drag produced by the various components, the next step is to
draw a “DRAG POLAR” curve. It is a plot of Cl vs Cd for different conditions.

TAKE OFF: (K = 0.04257)

CL KCL2 CDO CDT

0.1 0.0004257 0.00611 0.106537

0.25 0.00266 0.00611 0.25877

0.5 0.0106 0.00611 0.51671

0.75 0.0239 0.00611 0.78001

1 0.04257 0.00611 0.00611

1.25 0.0665 0.00611 0.0665

1.5 0.0958 0.00611 0.0958

CRUISE: (K=0.04257)

CL KCL2 CDO CDT

76
 0.1 0.0004257 0.0071715 0.1075972

0.25 0.00266 0.0071715 0.2598

0.5 0.0106 0.0071715 0.5177

0.75 0.0239 0.0071715 0.7810

1 0.04257 0.0071715 1.0497

1.25 0.0665 0.0071715 1.3236

1.5 0.0958 0.0071715 1.6029

LANDING: (K=0.04257)

CL KCL2 CDO CDT

0.1 0.0004257 0.01168 0.01121

0.25 0.00266 0.01168 0.2643

0.5 0.0106 0.01168 0.5222

0.75 0.0239 0.01168 0.7855

1 0.04257 0.01168 1.0542

1.25 0.0665 0.011680 1.3281

1.5 0.0958 0.01168 1.6074

77
 DRAG POLAR
1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
CL

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

CD

The drag polar is draw for the obtained drag values for various condition.

78
 10. V-n DIAGRAM

DATE:

OBJECTIVE:
To plot a graph between load factor and velocity.

V-N DIAGRAM:
In aerodynamics, the flight envelope, service envelope, or performance envelope of an aircraft or
interplanetary spacecraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of airspeed and load
factor or atmospheric density, often simplified to altitude for Earth-borne aircraft. The term is
somewhat loosely applied, and can also refer to other measurements such as manoeuvrability.
When a plane is pushed, for instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown "outside
the envelope", something considered rather dangerous.
Flight envelope is one of a number of related terms that are all used in a similar fashion. It is
perhaps the most common term because it is the oldest, first being used in the early days of test
flying. It is closely related to more modern terms known as extra power and a doghouse
plot which are different ways of describing a flight envelope. In addition, the term has been
widened in scope outside the field of engineering, to refer to the strict limits in which an event
will take place or more generally to the predictable behaviour of a given phenomenon or
situation, and hence, its "flight envelope".
The v-n Diagram limits the various external loads that any airplane can
withstand at any particular velocity. i.e the graph plotted between the load factor versus velocity
is known as v-n diagram. Generally the airplane experiences much higher loads than the design
values. Hence a safety factor is used in the structural design.

Cruising Velocity, Vcr = 222.22 m/s

Stalling Velocity, VS = 68.35 m/s

Dive Velocity, VD = 322.22 m/s

Vs+ = (2*125*9.81/0.4135*0.4972)^1/2
Vs+ = 109.21 m/s
Vs = (2*125*9.81/0.4135*0.75*0.4972)^1/2
-

Vs- = 126.11 m/s

79
VELOCITY VS. LOAD FACTOR CHART

A V-n diagram showing VS (stall speed at 1G), VC (corner/manoeuvre speed) and VD (dive
speed)
A chart of velocity versus load factor (or V-n diagram) is another way of showing limits of
aircraft performance. It shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different
airspeeds.
At higher temperatures, air is less dense and planes must fly faster to generate the same amount
of lift. High heat may reduce the amount of cargo a plane can carry, increase the length of
runway a plane needs to take off, and make it more difficult to avoid obstacles such as
mountains. In unusual weather conditions this may make it unsafe or uneconomical to fly,
occasionally resulting in the cancellation of commercial flights

CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND FINAL V-N GRAPH

CALCULATION:

Load factor is the ratio of the lift on an aircraft to the weight of the aircraft. The load factor is
expressed in multiples of g where one g represents conditions in straight and level flight. In
straight and level flight the lift is equal to the weight so the ratio of lift to weight is one, and the
load factor is one g. Load factors greater than one, and less than one, are achieved by
maneuvering of the aircraft by the pilot, and by atmospheric gusts.

Excessive load factor must be avoided because of the possibility of exceeding the structural
strength of the aircraft. The maximum load factors for different classes of airplane are typically:

 In airline airplanes, from -1g to +2.5g

 In light airplanes, from -1.5g to +3.8g

 In aerobatic airplanes, from -3g to +6g

80
When the load factor is +1g, all occupants of the aircraft feel that their weight is normal. When
the load factor is greater than +1g all occupants feel heavier than usual. For example, in a +2g
maneuver all occupants feel that their weight is twice normal. When the load factor is zero, or
very small, all occupants feel weightless. When the load factor is negative, all occupants feel
they are upside down.

TYPE LOAD FACTOR MAX MIN

N
Semi- aerobatic n +4 -2
normal n +2.5 -1
acrobatic n +6 -3
Human beings have limited ability to withstand a load factor significantly greater than 1g, both
positive and negative. For our aircraft we take normal load factor ranging from +2.5 to -1.

81
GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES:

For level flight at unit load factor the value of V corresponding to CLmax would be stalling
speed of airplane.
When the airplane is in level flight the load factor is unity before striking the gust. The change in
load factor delta n must be considered with the unit load factor to obtain the total gust load
factor. Aviation specification recommend gust effectiveness K between 0.6 -1.2
Δn = K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)

Where,

K = Gust effectiveness = 1.0

aw = Slope of the wing curve = 56.62

W = 132294.4818 Kg

S = 1058.355 m2

ρcr = 0.4135 Kg/m3

CALCULATION:

The gust V-n diagram is given by the following formula,

nlim = 1 ± K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)

where, Ue = equivalent gust velocity (m/s)

Ve = equivalent air speed (m/s)

Gust alleviation factor, KG = 0.88ʯg / (5.3 + ʯg) for cargo aircrafts

Mass ratio, ʯg = 2*(w/s) / density*g*Cl*c

µg = 7.57

Lift curve slope, = 3.96

Mean Chord, C = 11.39 m

Thus, Kg= 0.518

At high angle of attack, point B, ub = 10.39 ms -1

82
 At level flight, point C, uc = 7.89ms -1

At dive condition, point D, ud = 3.94 ms -1 And,

VB = VS√nc

VB = 227.34 ms-1

The incremental Gust Load Factor is given as,

Δn = K*(0.5/2) ∗ 57.3* 𝜌 𝑈 𝑉 𝑎/(𝑤/𝑠)

Ude for VB gust lines = 75.34

Ude for VC gust lines = 58.34
Ude for VD gust lines = 29.17

Point B = 2.7+2.7
B= 5.4
Point C = 2.5+8.01
C= 10.51
Point D΄ = 2.6+6.02
D= 8.62
Point E = -1.52-6.02
E= -7.54
Point F = -1.52-8.01
F= -9.53
Point G = -1.52-2.7
G= --4.22

Wing loading also affects gust response, the degree to which the aircraft is affected by turbulence
and variations in air density. A small wing has less area on which a gust can act, both of which
serve to smooth the ride.

83
DOGHOUSE PLOT

Altitude envelope

Turn rate envelope

A doghouse plot generally shows the relation between speed at level flight and altitude, although
other variables are also possible. It takes more effort to make than an extra power calculation, but
in turn provides much more information such as ideal flight altitude. The plot typically looks
something like an upside-down U and is commonly referred to as a doghouse plot due to its
resemblance to a kennel (sometimes known as a 'doghouse' in American English). The diagram
on the right shows a very simplified plot which shall be used to explain the general shape of the
plot.
The outer edges of the diagram, the envelope, show the possible conditions that the aircraft can
reach in straight and level flight. For instance, the aircraft described by the black altitude
envelope on the right can fly at altitudes up to about 52,000 feet (16,000 m), at which point the
thinner air means it can no longer climb. The aircraft can also fly at up to Mach 1.1 at sea level,
but no faster. This outer surface of the curve represents the zero-extra-power condition. All of
the area under the curve represents conditions that the plane can fly at with power to spare, for
instance, this aircraft can fly at Mach 0.5 at 30,000 feet (9,100 m) while using less than full
power.
In the case of high-performance aircraft, including fighters, this "1-g" line showing straight-and-
level flight is augmented with additional lines showing the maximum performance at various g
loadings. In the diagram at right, the green line represents, 2-g, the blue line 3-g, and so on.

84
The F-16 Fighting Falcon has a very small area just below Mach 1 and close to sea level where it
can maintain a 9-g turn.
Flying outside the envelope is possible, since it represents the straight-and-level condition only.
For instance diving the aircraft allows higher speeds, using gravity as a source of additional
power. Likewise higher altitude can be reached by first speeding up and then going ballistic, a
manoeuvre known as a zoom climb.
Flight envelope protection is a human machine interface extension of an aircraft's
control system that prevents the pilot of an aircraft from making control commands that would
force the aircraft to exceed its structural and aerodynamic operating limits. It is used in some
form in all modern commercial fly-by-wire aircraft. The professed advantage of flight envelope
protection systems is that they restrict a pilot's excessive control inputs, whether in surprise
reaction to emergencies or otherwise, from translating into excessive flight control
surface movements. Notionally, this allows pilots to react quickly to an emergency while
blunting the effect of an excessive control input resulting from "startle," by electronically
limiting excessive control surface movements that could over-stress the airframe and endanger
the safety of the aircraft.
In practice, these limitations have sometimes resulted in unintended human factors errors and
accidents of their own.

EXTRA POWER

Extra power, or specific excess power, is a very basic method of determining an aircraft's flight
envelope. It is easily calculated, but as a downside does not tell very much about the actual
performance of the aircraft at different altitudes.
Choosing any particular set of parameters will generate the needed power for a particular aircraft
for those conditions. For instance a Cessna 150 at 2,500-foot (760 m) altitude and 90-mile-per-
hour (140 km/h) speed needs about 60 horsepower (45 kW) to fly straight and level. The C150 is
normally equipped with a 100-horsepower (75 kW) engine, so in this particular case the plane
has 40 horsepower (30 kW) of extra power. In overall terms this is very little extra power, 60%
of the engine's output is already used up just keeping the plane in the air. The leftover 40 hp is all
that the aircraft has to manoeuvre with, meaning it can climb, turn, or speed up only a small
amount. To put this in perspective, the C150 could not maintain a 2g (20 m/s²) turn, which would
require a minimum of 120 horsepower (89 kW) under the same conditions.
For the same conditions a fighter aircraft might require considerably more power due to their
wings being designed for high speed, high agility, or both. It could require 10,000 horsepower
(7.5 MW) to achieve similar performance. However modern jet engines can provide considerable
power with the equivalent of 50,000 horsepower (37 MW) not being atypical. With this amount
of extra power the aircraft can achieve very high maximum rate of climb, even climb straight up,
make powerful continual manoeuvres, or fly at very high speeds.

85
STALLING SPEED
All fixed-wing aircraft have a minimum speed at which they can maintain level flight, the stall
speed  (left limit line in the diagram). As the aircraft gains altitude the stall speed increases; since
the wing is not growing any larger the only way to support the aircraft's weight with less air is to
increase speed. While the exact numbers will vary widely from aircraft to aircraft, the nature of
this relationship is typically the same; plotted on a graph of speed (x-axis) vs. altitude (y-axis) it
forms a diagonal line.
SERVICE CEILING
Inefficiencies in the wings also make this line "tilt over" with increased altitude, until it becomes
horizontal and no additional speed will result in increased altitude. This maximum altitude is
known as the service ceiling (top limit line in the diagram), and is often quoted for aircraft
performance. The area where the altitude for a given speed can no longer be increased at level
flight is known as zero rate of climb and is caused by the lift of the aircraft getting smaller at
higher altitudes, until it no longer exceeds gravity.
TOP SPEED
The right side of the graph represents the maximum speed of the aircraft. This is typically sloped
in the same manner as the stall line due to air resistance getting lower at higher altitudes, up to
the point where an increase in altitude no longer increases the maximum speed due to lack of
oxygen to feed the engines.
The power needed varies almost linearly with altitude, but the nature of drag means that it varies
with the square of speed—in other words it is typically easier to go higher than faster, up to the
altitude where lack of oxygen for the engines starts to play a significant role.

Küssner effect

An airfoil flying into a gust region. The airfoil speed is denoted with V and is constant, the lift
force on the airfoil is given by L, and its pitching moment by M. The gust has a transverse
(vertical) velocity w, which is assumed to be a constant in the gust region, left of the dashed line.
In fluid dynamics, the Küssner effect describes the unsteady aerodynamic forces on
an airfoil or hydrofoil caused by encountering a transverse gust. This is directly related to

86
the Küssner function, used in describing the effect. Both the effect and function are named
after Hans Georg Küssner (1900–1984), a German aerodynamics engineer.
Küssner derived an approximate model for an airfoil encountering a sudden step-like change in
the transverse gust velocity — or, equivalently, as seen from a frame of reference moving with
the airfoil: a sudden change in the angle of attack. The airfoil is modelled as a flat plate in
a potential flow, moving with constant horizontal velocity. For this case he derived the impulse
response function — known as Küssner function— needed to compute the
unsteady lift and moment exerted by the air on the airfoil.

Thus, a graph between load factor and velocity is plotted for the desired aircraft
and optimal gust and maneuverability envelopes are obtained.

87
 DETAILED
DESIGN REPORT

88
S.NO PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
1 LENGTH 84 m

2 HEIGHT 18.1 m

3 WING SPAN 94.84 m

4 WING AREA 1058.355 m2

5 ASPECT RATIO 8.5 No unit

6 TAPPER RATIO 0.213 No unit

7 TAKE-OFF LIFT 3657199.86 N

8 LANDING-LIFT 3735743.12 N

9 MEAN AERODYNAMIC 12.604 m

CHORD

10 LIFT COEFFICIENT 0.4972 No unit

11 WING SWEEP 30.81 degree

12 CRUISE ALTITUDE 10000 m

13 RANGE 4000 km

14 WING LOADING 125 Kg/ m2

89
15 AREA OF VERTICAL 58.9698 m2
STABILIZER

16 AREA OF 157.89 m2
HORIZONTAL
STABILIZER

17 LOAD FACTOR -1.52 < n < 3.8 No unit

18 LANDING GEAR 32 No unit

19 NOSE WHEEL 4 No unit

20 MAIN WHEEL 28 No unit

21 GLIDING ANGLE 3.814 degree

22 MAX. RATE OF CLIMB 1.68 m/s

23 FUSELAGE BENDING 16517371.71 Nm

MOMENT

24 MAX. BENDING 2897784.51 Nm

MOMENT

25 RUNWAY DISTANCE 3400 m

26 1-g STALL VELOCITY 118.19 m/s

27 MAX. CRUISE SPEED 850 Km/hr

90
28 CRUISE SPEED 800 Km/hr

29 EFFECTIVE MACH 0.560 No unit

NUMBER

91
92
LOCATION OF CONTROL SURFACES

93
94
LOAD FACTORS

95
CONCLUSION

96
 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the series of cargo aircrafts incorporated many unique design of future that were
never seen on an operational aircraft. The design of these aircrafts points the way for the design
of future of very high mach airplanes.
The airplane has gone through many design modifications since its early conceptual designs
expected, among these was a growth in weight. The document to provide information on the
trends in various aircraft characteristics that may influence general long-term airport planning
and design.
These are strong indications that future trends could see the coexistence of very high capacity
aircraft modules of similar capacities for the long range/very long range operations.
Cargo payloads, which include mail, express and freight, are increasing in size and weight as
larger aircraft service with the airlines,
To ensure continued growth in payload and the profitability of cargo operations, improvements
in methods, equipment and terminal facilities will be required in order to reduce cargo handling
costs and aircraft ground time and to provide improved service for the shippers.

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 REFERENCES
AIRCRAFT TYRE MANUAL
FLAP DATA BOOK
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE MANUAL
JANE’S ALL WORLD AIRCRAFT BOOK
MICHELIN TYRE SPECIFICATIONS
ANTONOV AIRLINES BROSHURE
JET-ENGINE.NET
AERO SUPPLIES
CS-25 AMENDMENT (EASA)
EMBRY-RIDDLE AVIATION JOURNAL
U.S AIRFORCE RESEARCH MEMORANDUM
FLIGHT INTERNATIONAL AND AVIATION WEEK MAGAZINE
WWW.FAA.GOV
AIRCRAFT-ANALYTICS.COM

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