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Gene Expression Translation

Translation is the process by which messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to produce proteins. It involves three main components: mRNA, which carries the genetic code; transfer RNA (tRNA), which carries amino acids; and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which forms the ribosome machinery. The process begins with initiation, where the small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA start codon along with initiator tRNA. Elongation then occurs as amino acids are added one by one to the growing polypeptide chain. Termination happens when a stop codon is reached, the protein is released, and the ribosome dissociates into subunits to begin another round of translation.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
52 views

Gene Expression Translation

Translation is the process by which messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to produce proteins. It involves three main components: mRNA, which carries the genetic code; transfer RNA (tRNA), which carries amino acids; and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which forms the ribosome machinery. The process begins with initiation, where the small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA start codon along with initiator tRNA. Elongation then occurs as amino acids are added one by one to the growing polypeptide chain. Termination happens when a stop codon is reached, the protein is released, and the ribosome dissociates into subunits to begin another round of translation.

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6.01 Gene Expression III: Translation  


Suzette Mendoza, MD | April 1, 2019  
 
  →  Elongation  
▪   New  tRNA  carrying  an  AA  enters  the  A-­site  of  the  
OUTLINE ribosome.  On  the  ribosome,  the  anticodon  of  the  incoming  
I.  Overview   tRNA  is  matched  against  the  mRNA  codon  of  the  A-­site.  
   A.  Introduction      A.  Translation  of  the  Message       During  proofreading,  tRNA  with  the  incorrect  anticodons  
   B.  tRNA      B.  Cleavage  of  mRNA   are  rejected  and  replaced  by  new  tRNA  that  are  checked  
   C.  Genetic  Code      C.  mRNA-­binding  CHONs  and   again.    
   D.  The  Wobble  Rule   Regulation  of  Ferritin   ▪   When  the  right  aminoacyl  tRNA  enters  the  A-­site,  a  
II.  Cap-­Dependent  Translation      D.  Alterations  to  the  Ribosome   peptide  bond  is  made  between  the  two  adjacent  AAs.  As  
   A.  Initiation      E.  Antisense  RNA   the  peptide  bond  is  formed,  the  tRNA  in  the  P-­site  
   B.  Elongation      F.  mRNA  Upstream  and   releases  the  AA  into  the  tRNA  in  the  A-­site  and  becomes  
   C.  Termination   Downstream  Regions   empty.  At  the  same  time,  the  ribosome  moves  one  triplet  
   D.  Ribosome  Recycling      G.  Effects  of  the  3’-­UTR  of   forward  on  the  mRNA.  As  a  result,  the  empty  tRNA  is  on  
III.  Cap-­Independent  Translation   mRNA   the  E-­site  and  the  peptidyl  tRNA  is  in  the  P-­site.  The  A-­
   A.  Internal  Ribosome  Entry      H.  Attenuation   site  is  now  unoccupied  and  ready  to  accept  a  new  tRNA.  
Sites  (IRES)      I.  Riboswitches   The  cycle  is  repeated  for  each  codon  of  the  mRNA.  
   B.  Translation  Halts  when      J.  Methylation   →  Termination  
Nutrients  are  Scarce   VIII.  Genome  Defense   ▪   Happens  when  one  of  the  stop  codons  is  positioned  in  the  
(Mechanisms)      A.  Introduction   A  site.  No  tRNA  can  fit  in  the  A-­site  at  that  point.  
   C.  Export  of  Proteins      B.  Principles  of  RNA   ▪   Binding  of  release  factor  catalyzes  the  cleavage  of  the  
   D.  Cotranslational  Export  of   Interference  (RNAi)   bond  between.  The  polypeptide  is  released  from  the  
Proteins      C.  Micro  RNA  (miRNA)   ribosome  
   E.  Protein  Folding      D.  Piwi-­interacting  RNA    
IV.  How  Antibiotics  Work   (piRNA)   A. INTRODUCTION
V.  Post-­Translational      E.  Structure  of  Dicer    
   A.  Modification  of  CHONs      F.  The  Argonaut  Family  of   ●   Translation  –  conversion  of  genetic  information  in  nucleic  acid  
   B.  Degradation  of  CHONs   CHONs     “language”  into  protein  “language”  
VI.  Mistranslation:  Mistakes  in      G.  Amplification  and  Spread  of   →  Specifically  where  RNA  is  the  coding  messenger  RNA  
CHON  Synthesis   RNAi   because  messenger  RNA  message  will  always  be  translated  
VII.  Regulation  of  Protein      H.  CRISPR:  Antiviral  Defense   into  proteins.  
Synthesis  in  Eukaryotes   in  Bacteria   ●   Proteome  –  the  complete  set  of  proteins  encoded  by  a  genome  
  or  the  total  number  of  proteins  at  one  point  in  time.  (The  
  complete  set  of  proteins  that  you  and  I  will  have  at  any  given  
OBJECTIVES   time  –  Dr.  Mendoza)  
●   Summarize  the  steps  involved  in  CHON  synthesis  (translation)   →  The  phrase  “at  any  given  time”  is  because  of  the  two  types  of  
in  eukaryotes   proteins:  
●   Discuss  some  post-­translational  modifications  of  newly   ▪   Constitutive  proteins  –  always  present  because  they  are  
synthesized  CHONs   always  needed  by  the  body  
●   Describe  the  different  mechanisms  involved  in  the  regulation  of   ▪   Inducible  proteins  –  proteins  that  will  only  be  
protein  synthesis  in  eukaryotes   synthesized  when  they  are  needed  by  the  body  
●   Expound  on  the  different  categories  of  genome  defense   ●   3  components  of  translation:  
  →  messenger  RNA  (mRNA)  
I. OVERVIEW →  translational  RNA  (tRNA)  –  the  adaptor;;  the  one  carrying  
●   Translation  process  (from  video  shown  in  class)   the  required  amino  acid  
→  Initiation   →  ribosomal  RNA  (rRNA)  –  very  important  constituent  of  
▪   Small  ribosomal  subunits  (40S)  binds  to  the  initiator   translation  machinery  or  the  ribosomes  
tRNA  carrying  the  initiator  amino  acid  (AA)  methionine.   →  40S,  60S  ribosomal  subunit  –  unique  to  eukaryotes  (in  
This  complex  then  attaches  to  the  cap  structure  at  the  5’   contrast  to  30S  and  50S  for  prokaryotes)  
end  of  the  mRNA  and  scans  for  the  start  codon  AUG.    
▪   The  process  is  mediated  by  several  initiation  factors.  At    
the  start  codon,  the  large  ribosomal  unit  (60S)  joins  the    
complex.  Upon  binding  of  the  large  ribosomal  unit,  all  the    
initiation  factors  are  released.    
▪   The  ribosome  has  3  sites:      
−   A-­site:  entry  site  for  new  tRNA  charged  with  amino    
acid  (aminoacyl  tRNA)    
−   P-­site:  occupied  by  peptidyl  tRNA  which  carries  the    
growing  polypeptide  chain    
−   E-­site:  exit  site  for  the  tRNA  after  it’s  done  delivering    
the  AA    
▪   The  initiator  tRNA  is  positioned  in  the  P-­site.    
   
   

BCH 1 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

B. tRNA    
  ●   Each  AA  will  be  represented  by  a  codon  (3  nucleotides;;  ex.  
How tRNA participates in protein synthesis AUG,  UUC,  etc.).  There  are  only  4  nucleotides  but  different  
combinations  were  worked  out  to  create  64  different  codons  to  
stand  for  the  20  AA.  
→  Since  there  are  only  20  different  AAs,  this  means  that  an  AA  
can  have  more  than  1  codon  except  for  methionine  (AUG)  
and  tryptophan  (UGG)  which  both  have  only  1  codon.  
→  Out  of  the  64  codons,  3  codons  are  used  as  punctuation  or  
stop  codons:  UAG,  UGA,  UAA  
▪   Presence  of  either  UAG,  UGA,  UAA  =  stop  translation  
●   Pairing  exists  between  the  codon  of  mRNA  and  anticodon  of  
tRNA.    
→  Should  be  complementary  
→  The  codon  &  anticodon  recognize  each  other  by  base  pairing  
through  hydrogen  bonds.  
→  Each  tRNA  carries  a  specific  AA  which  usually  undergoes  a  
stage  of  charging.    
▪   “It’s  not  the  usual  process  that  the  AA  will  just  attach  to  
the  tRNA.  There  is  such  a  process  as  charging  the  tRNA  
therefore  you  will  have  your  tRNA  and  its  cognate  AA.  
There  is  a  corresponding  AA  to  the  tRNA.”  –  Dr.  Mendoza  
→  Some  tRNAs  can  read  >1  codon  but  this  should  code  for  the  
same  AA.  
●   The  genetic  code  is  read  from  5’  to  3’.  “The  genetic  code  is  said  
to  be  universal  but  there  can  be  certain  differences  especially  
when  you  talk  about  the  mitochondrial  DNA.  There  are  certain  
codons  in  the  genetic  code  that  will  be  read  differently  when  
you’re  talking  about  the  mitochondrial  DNA.”  –  Dr.  Mendoza  
   
Figure  1.  tRNA  molecule  during  protein  synthesis   D. THE WOBBLE RULE  
   
●   The  amino  acid  that  is  needed  is  bound  to  the  3’-­OH  group  of  
adenosine  at  the  free  3’  end  of  the  acceptor  arm  (always  ends  
in  C-­C-­A)  of  tRNA.  
●   tRNA  will  have  an  anticodon  arm.    
→  Anticodon  arm  is  always  composed  of  7  amino  acids  (AA)  
with  the  anticodon  in  the  middle  of  those  7  AA.    
●   The  anti-­codon  is  always  preceded  by  2  pyrimidines,  on  the  5’  
side,  followed  by  a  modified  purine  after  the  anti-­codon.  
●   “We  said  that  thymine  is  never  found  in  RNA  but  there’s  always  
an  exception.  Thymine  is  part  of  the  TΨC  arm  (T-­loop)  of  the  
tRNA.  This  a  special  circumstance,  not  a  general  characteristic.  
Thymine  is  never  found  in  mRNA.”  –  Dr.  Mendoza  
 
C. GENETIC CODE  
 
  Figure  3.  Wobble  Rule  
 
●   The  first  2  bases  in  the  codons  of  the  mRNA  strictly  follows  
base  pairing.  This  means  that  C  will  always  base  pair  with  G  
and  A  will  always  base  pair  with  U  in  the  anti-­codon.  
st rd
●   When  it  comes  to  the  1  base  of  the  anti-­codon,  which  is  the  3  
base  of  the  codon  of  mRNA,  this  can  wobble.    
→   The  base  can  be  interchanged  not  strictly  following  the  base  
pairing.  
→   (Please  refer  to  Figure  3)  G  is  normally  paired  with  C  but  
when  there  is  wobble,  G  can  wither  pair  with  C  or  U.  U,  which  
normally  base  pairs  with  A  can  either  base  pair  with  A  or  G.  I  
(inosine  which  is  a  modified  nucleotide)  can  base  pair  with  C  
or  U  or  A.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure  2.  Genetic  Code    

BCH 2 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

II. CAP-DEPENDENT TRANSLATION →  AUG  is  not  the  determining  factor  for  the  start  of  initiation.    
  →  The  necessary  sequence  must  be  present  in  order  for  the  
A. INITIATION   initiation  complex,  after  its  formation,  to  start  initiation.  
  →  If  several  AUG  is  present  in  a  sequence  of  mRNA  but  the  
sequence  is  missing,  then  that  AUG  may  be  skipped.    
→  The  initiation  complex  will  then  move  on  to  an  appropriate  
AUG.    
●   Initiator  tRNA  is  charged  with  unmodified  methionine.  Initiator  
tRNA  will  become  methionine  tRNA  initiation  methionine  (Met-­
tRNAiMet).  
→  Met-­tRNAiMet  will  bind  to  the  peptidyl  side  (P  side)  of  the  
AUG  start  codon.  
 
Charging of tRNA  
 
●   Enzyme  needed  for  charging  of  tRNA:  
→  Aminoacyl  tRNA  synthetase  –  specific  enzyme  that  
recognize  both  tRNA  and  its  appropriate  AA.  The  enzyme  
attaches  the  cognate  AA  to  the  tRNA.  This  process  is  called  
“charging  the  tRNA”.  
▪   Charged  tRNA  –  w/  AA  
▪   Uncharged  tRNA  –  w/o  AA  
●   Charging  of  tRNA  is  a  2-­step  process  that  utilizes  ATP  as  a  
source  of  energy  
→  AA  +  ATP  to  form  aminoacyl-­AMP  (or  aminoacyl-­adenylate)  
▪   AA+ATP  -­>  aminoacyl-­AMP  +  PPi  
→  Amino-­acyl  group  is  transferred  to  the  3’  end  (acceptor  arm)  
of  tRNA  
▪   Aminoacyl-­AMP  +  tRNA  -­>  aminoacyl-­tRNA  +  AMP  
→  “Everytime  you  charge  a  tRNA,  you’re  using  2  molecules  of  
ATP.  Basta  if  the  end-­product  is  AMP,    2  molecules  of  ATP  
are  used.  The  pyrophosphate  (PPi)  will  be  cleaved  further  to  
become  the  2nd  ATP.”  –  Dr.  Mendoza    
 
Assembly: Initiation Complex  
 
●   Complexes  that  need  to  be  assembled  before  initiation  complex  
can  be  formed.  
→  Complex  1:  43S  pre-­initiation  complex  (complex  1)  
▪   Composed  of    
−   small  40S  subunit  of  ribosome  
−   several  eukaryotic  initiation  factors  (eIF1,  eIF1A,  eIF3,  
eIF5)    
−   Met-­tRNAiMet  (charged  initiator  tRNA)  accompanied  by  
eIF2  
→  Complex  2:  cap-­binding  complex  (complex  2)    
▪   This  will  bind  FIRST  to  the  5’  cap  of  mRNA  
▪   Composed  of    
−   cap-­binding  protein  (eIF4E)  
−   eIF4G,  eIF4A,  eIF4B  
−   polyadenylate-­binding  protein  (PABP)  
 
 
   
Figure  4.  Translation  Initiation  
   
●   Initiation  always  starts  with  AUG  (methionine)  but  if  mRNA  is    
long  and  has  several  AUG,  how  will  the  initiation  complex  know    
which  AUG  codon  to  start  with?    
→  In  contrast  to  prokaryotes,  eukaryotes  have  no  ribosome    
binding  site  (RBS)  so  instead  of  just  looking  for  AUG,  the    
initiation  complex  will  also  look  at  the  surrounding  sequence    
of  the  AUG.    
→  The  sequence  (GCCRCCAUG  ;;  R  can  either  be  adenine  (A)    
or  guanine  (G))  ,  along  with  AUG,  must  be  present.  This  will    
be  the  indicator  that  it  is  the  correct  AUG  to  start  with.    
   

BCH 3 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

Initiation Process   →  Peptidyl  transferase  activity  of  the  28S  subunit  of  rRNA  
  (biggest  subunit)  will  create  the  peptide  bond  between  
methionine,  in  P  site,    and  incoming  tRNA  with  its  
corresponding  AA  in  the  A  side.  
→  eEF2  uses  GTP  to  drive  the  conformational  changes  in  the  
ribosome  and  ratchets  the  tRNA  from  the  P-­site  and  A-­site  to  
the  E-­site  and  P-­site.  
●   Elongation  continues  until  a  stop  codon  enters  the  A  site.  
 
C. TERMINATION  
 
●   Happens  when  the  A  site  of  the  ribosome  reaches  one  of  the  
stop  codons  of  the  mRNA  (UAG,  UGA,  UAA)  because  no  tRNA  
exists  to  read  these  codons    
●   Unlike  prokaryotes  with  2  release  factors,  eukaryotes  have  a  
single  release  factor  (eRF1)  that  recognizes  all  3  stop  codons.  
→  eRF1    
−   Binds  the  stop  codon  without  affecting  the  peptide  bond  
 
Figure  5.  Assembly  of  Initiation  Complex     formation.  
(This  figure  is  continuous  with  the  next  figure)   −   Recognizes  UAA,  UAG,  or  UGA  
  →  eRF3  carrying  a  GTP  molecule  binds  to  eRF1  -­>  GTP  
hydrolysis  -­>  final  AA  attaches  to  the  polypeptide.  
 
D. RIBOSOME RECYCLING  
●   eIF3  triggers  the  release  of  the  60S  subunit.  
●   eIF1  releases  the  final  tRNA  (at  the  E-­site).  
●   eIF3j  removes  the  mRNA  
●   Components  (initiation  factors,  elongation  factors,  termination  
factors,  ribosome)  are  recycled  except  for  mRNA  which  will  be  
degraded  after  it  has  done  its  function.  
 
III. CAP-INDEPENDENT TRANSLATION
 
A. INTERNAL RIBOSOME ENTRY SITES (IRES)  
●   Sequence  found  in  few  mRNA  which  allow  ribosomes  to  initiate  
translation  internally  rather  than  at  the  5’  cap  end  of  the  mRNA.  
●   This  is  usually  observed  during  major  stress  situations  (ex.  heat  
shock  or  energy  deficit)  where  protein  synthesis  is  greatly  
 
Figure  6.  Initiation  Process     decreased.  
  ●    “When  nutrients  are  scarce  or  when  there’s  stress  of  whatever  
1.   After  Cap-­binding  complex  (complex  2)  attaches  to  the   form,  generally,  protein  synthesis  stops.”  –  Dr.  Mendoza  
mRNA  via  its  cap  at  the  5’  end.   ●   In  this  situation,  proteins  that  respond  to  stress  are  whats  
2.   Polyadenylate  tail  of  mRNA  is  bound  by  PABP.  This  will   needed.  Proteins  that  respond  to  stress  will  be  the  only  ones  
form  a  ring  structure.   synthesized  using  IRES.  All  the  others  will  use  the  CAP-­
3.   The  ring  structure  now  binds  the  43S  pre-­initiation   dependent  translation  process.  
complex  (complex  1).  Both  the  cap-­binding  protein  and   ●   When  resources  are  poor  (ex.  AA  are  not  coming  in  from  the  
pre-­initiation  complex  will  scan  for  appropriate  AUG  to   diet).  This  can  be  an  indication  that  protein  synthesis  needs  to  
start  initiation.  This  scanning  uses  ATP.   be  stopped  because  one  of  the  precursors  (AAs)  is  missing.  
4.   If  suitable  AUG  is  located,  eIF5  joins  the  complex.  This   Rather  than  stopping  ribosomal  activity,  it  is  easier  to  control  the  
will  be  the  signal  for  60S  to  also  join  the  complex.  Now,   initiation  factors.  
an  entire  ribosome  with  40S  and  60S  components  is    
present  (recall  that  40S  is  a  component  of  43S  pre-­ B. TRANSLATION HALTS WHEN NUTRIENTS ARE SCARCE
initiation  complex)  *Note:  eIF5  uses  GTP  to  accomplish   (MECHANISMS)  
the  remodeling  of  the  ribosome.        1.  Phosphorylation  of  eIF2  
5.   Cap-­binding  protein,  eIF2,  eIF1,  eIF3,  and  eIF5  departs.   →  In  times  of  stress,  a  kinase  phosphorylates  eIF2,  preventing  
6.   Other  initiation  factors  depart.  This  now  calls  for   the  removal  of  GDP.    
translation  to  begin.   →  Recall  (in  Figure  5)  that  eIF2  requires  GTP  so  if  GDP-­eIF2  
  complex  is  present,  this  will  not  promote  translation  and  
B. ELONGATION   protein  synthesis  is  halted.    
●   Met-­tRNAiMet  will  occupy  the  P-­site  of  the  60S  ribosome.        2.  Regulate  the  cap-­binding  complex  
●   Eukaryotic  elongation  factors  (eEF)  also  participate  in  the   →  When  the  cell  is  stressed  or  starved,  mammalian  target  of  
elongation  process:   rapamycin  (mTOR)  is  prevented  from  phosphorylating  eIF4E,  
→  eEF1A  delivers  the  charged  tRNA  using  GTP  for  energy     eIF4G,  &  eIF4B  which  are  components  of  the  cap-­binding  
→  eEF1B  replaces  the  depleted  GTP  with  new  GTP.  “This   complex  (complex  1).    
process  is  a  very  expensive  process  that’s  why  it  has  to  be   →  Without  the  phosphorylation  of  these  initiation  factors,  eIF  
correct.”  –  Dr.  Mendoza   complex  cannot  bind  to  mRNA  so  translation  is  halted.  

BCH 4 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

  translocation  step  of  protein  


C. EXPORT OF PROTEINS   synthesis  
●   Proteins  are  synthesized  in  the  cytosol.  These  proteins  need  to  
Tetracyclines   Inhibit  both  bacterial  and  
be  delivered  where  they  are  needed.    
eukaryotic  ribosomes  by  binding  
●   Proteins  destined  for  export  are  tagged  at  the  N-­terminus  with  
to  16S  or  (18S)  rRNA  of  the  
a  signal  sequence  which  is  cut  off  by  proteases  attached  to  the  
small  subunit  and  block  the  
outside  of  the  membrane  after  export.  
attachment  of  charged  tRNA  
●   Signal  sequences  consist  of  approximately  20  AAs  that  form  an  
alpha-­helix.     Chloramphenicol   Binds  to  the  50S  subunit  to  the  
●   These  have  both  positively  charged  and  basic  N-­terminus  of   loop  23S  rRNA  that  interacts  with  
2-­8  AAs  followed  by  a  long  stretch  of  hydrophobic  AAs.     the  acceptor  stem  of  the  tRNA  
●   AA  just  before  the  cleavage  site  has  a  short  side  chain.   and  inhibits  peptidyl  transferase  
  Cycloheximide   Binds  to  the  60S  subunit  of  
D. COTRANSLATIONAL EXPORT OF PROTEINS   eukaryotic  ribosomes  and  
●   Cotranslational  means  that  it’s  being  exported  while  being   inhibits  peptidyl  transferase  
synthesized  because  the  synthesis  of  proteins  occur  in  the   Erythromycin  and  related   Binds  to  23S  rRNA  of  bacterial  
cytosol.   Macrolide  antibiotics   ribosomes  and  inhibit  the  
1.   The  ribosome  making  the  polypeptide  (pp)  chain   translocation  step  
approaches  the  cell  membrane.  The  polypeptide  with  its  
signal  sequence  binds  to  the  signal  recognition   Fusidic  Acid   Bind  to  prokaryotic  elongation  
protein.   factor  EF-­G  w/  its  bound  GDP,  
2.   The  signal  recognition  protein  recognizes  the  translocase   is  frozen  in  place  for  the  
and  binds  to  it  which  allows  the  peptide  chain  to  begin  its   ribosome  
journey  through  the  membrane.    
3.   After  the  signal  sequence  exits  the  translocase,  leader   V. POST-TRANSLATIONAL
peptidase  cuts  the  polypeptide  chain  to  liberate  the  signal    
peptide.   A. MODIFICATION OF CHONs  
4.   Final  folding  of  the  protein  occurs  outside  the  cell.   ●   Selenocysteine  (Sec):  incorporated  into  a  few  rare  CHONs  
Note  :  This  is  the  process  of  insulin.   during  translation  of  the  mRNA  
  ●   Encoded  by  UGA,  a  stop  codons  
E. PROTEIN FOLDING   ●   The  choice  between  “stop”  &  selenocysteine  depends  on  a  
●   Molecular  chaperones  or  chaperonins  –  proteins  that   special  recognition  sequence,  the  selenocysteine  insertion  
oversee  the  correct  folding  of  other  proteins  whether  in  their   sequence  (SECIS  element)  
primary,  secondary,  tertiary,  or  quaternary  structures.   ●   Selenocysteine  has  its  own  tRNA  &  a  special  CHON  initiation  
→  Majority  of  chaperonins  belong  to  the  family  of  heat  shock   factor  to  escort  charged  tRNA-­Sec  to  the  ribosome.    
proteins  (HSPs).  They  are  usually  synthesized  when  there’s   ●   Selenocysteine-­tRNA  is  initially  charged  w/  serine,  then  the  
increased  temperature.   attached  ser  is  enzymatically  modified  to  form  selenocysteine  
→  2  types:   ●   In  2002,  a  22nd  genetically  encoded  AA  was  discovered,  
▪   holders  –  prevent  premature  folding   pyrrolysine  (Pyl),  a  derivative  of  lysine  with  an  attached  
▪   folders  –  attempt  to  rectify  misfolding   pyrroline  ring  
●   The  N-­terminus  of  the  growing  pp  has  already  left  the  ribosome,   →  Encoded  by  the  stop  codon  UAG  in  occasional  proteins  
while  the  C-­terminal  region  is  still  being  made.      
●   The  N-­terminal  region  does  not  yet  have  access  to  any  folding  
information  that  resides  in  later  regions  of  the  protein.  
●   To  prevent  misfolding,  the  emerging  protein  is  sheltered  by  a  
trigger  factor  (a  chaperonin)  which  binds  to  the  large  subunit  of  
the  ribosome  close  to  the  polypeptide  exit  tunnel.  
 
IV. HOW ANTIBIOTICS WORK
 
Table  1.  Antibiotics  and  their  Actions  
Antibiotic     Action  
Aminoglycosides   Binds  the  30S  subunit  
Streptomycin   Binds  to  the  16S  rRNA  near  
where  2  ribosomal  units  touch,  
distorts  the  A  site  and  hinders  
binding  of  incoming  of  charged  
tRNA  (initiator  tRNA-­MET)  so    
initiation  of  translation  is   Figure  7.  Protein  Synthesis  of  Selenocysteine  
 
prevented  
B. DEGRADATION OF CHONs  
Streptomycin  and  other  amino   Cause  misreading  of  the  mRNA   ●   Proteases  (proteinases):  enzymes  that  degrade  CHONs  
glycosides   →  Proteases  are  found  in  3  main  locations:  extracellular,  
Gentamycin  and  Kanamycin   Bind  on  multiple  sites  of  the  30S   inside  special  compartments,  &  free  in  the  cytoplasm.    
subunit  and  mainly  inhibit  the   ●   Proteasomes:  cylindrical  structures,  w/  the  protease  active  
sites  inside  
BCH 5 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

→  Top  &  bottom  of  the  cylinder  are  covered  by  CHON   ●   Cap  and  Poly-­A  tail  protects  RNA  from  degradation,  but  once  
complexes  that  recognize  &  bind  damaged  or  unwanted   translated  this  will  be  degraded  as  in  recycling  of  your  
CHONs.     ribosomes  
→  Ubiquitin  tags  damaged  CHONs  &  is  recognized  by  the    
cylindrical  proteasome   C. mRNA-BINDING CHONs AND REGULATION OF
→  After  degradation,  the  polypeptide  fragments  &  ubiquitin  are   FERRITIN  
extruded   ●   Some  regulatory  CHONs:  translational  repressors  
●   Ferritin  translation  is  dependent  on  blood  Iron  levels  
●   Ferritin  (a  hollow  spherical  CHON  that  can  store  5000  Fe  
molecules)  level  is  regulated  in  response  to  the  Fe  supply,  w/c  
depends  on  translational  regulation  
→  When  Fe  is  scarce, translation of ferritin mRNA is ↓  
→  When  Fe  is  plentiful,  more  ferritin  is  made  to  sequester  Fe  
from  creating  toxic  free  radicals  
●   5’-­UTR  of  ferritin  mRNA:  w/  a  special  recognition  sequence,  
iron-­responsive  element  (IRE),  which  forms  a  stem-­loop  
structure.    
→  When  iron  is  scarce,  an  iron-­regulatory  protein  (IRP)  binds
to the IRE stem & loop → prevents  translation.    
→  Surplus  iron → detachment of IRP from the ferritin mRNA →
  translated    
Figure  8.  Proteasome   ●   Free  [Fe]:  directly  monitored  by  the  IRP;;  the  major  one,  IRP1,  
 
is  identical  to  the  aconitase  
VI. MISTRANSLATION: MISTAKES IN CHON SYNTHESIS ●   IRP1:  w/  an  Fe4S4  cluster  needed  for  enzyme  activity  
●   Ribosomes  are  not  perfect  &  make  occasional  mistakes.     →  Fe  is  scarce:  1  of  the  4  Fe  atoms  is  lost  from  the  Fe4S4  
●   1  in  10,000  codons  is  misread  &  results  in  the  wrong  AA  being   cluster  → aconitase/IRP1 loses enzyme activity & changes
incorporated.    
conformation, exposing its RNA-binding site (RNA-binding
●   2  AAs  whose  codons  differ  by  only  1  base  are  most  likely  to  be  
confused.   translational repressor)  
●   Other  possible  errors  are  shifts  in  the  reading  frame   →  When  Iron  is  low  one  of  the  clusters  leave  the  cluster,  when  
(“frameshift”)  or  reading  through  stop  codons.     that  happens  aconitase/IRP1  loses  enzyme  activity  and  
  Ferritin  synthesis  does  not  occur  
→  Fe  &  ferritin  plentiful,  aconitase/IRP1  acts  as  aconitase    
VII. REGULATION OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN
 
EUKARYOTES
D. ALTERATIONS TO THE RIBOSOME  
 
●   Phosphorylation  of  protein  S6  of  the  small  ribosomal  subunit  in  
A. TRANSLATION OF THE MESSAGE   the  cells  of  mammals    
●   Control  over  the  rate  of  degradation  of  the  mRNA   ●   The  S6  protein  may  be  phosphorylated  up  to  5X  on  a  cluster  of  
●   Modification  of  untranslatable  mRNA  to  a  form  that  can  be   serine  residues  close  to  its  C-­terminus.    
translated     ●   Phosphorylation  occurs  after  cells  receive  a  signal  to  proliferate  
●   Control  of  mRNA  translation  by  regulatory  proteins     &  affects  cell  size  &  glucose  metabolism  
●   Preferential  translation  of  certain  classes  of  mRNA  due  to   ●   ribosomes  w/  S6P  preferentially  bind  &  translate  mRNA  
alteration  of  the  ribosome     molecules  with  5’-­terminal  oligo-­pyrimidine  tracts  (5’-­TOP)  
●   Binding  of  antisense  RNA,  including  miRNA,  to  mRNA  to   →  5’-­TOP:  located  at  the  5’  end  of  mRNAs  encode  ribosomal  
prevent  its  translation     proteins  &  elongation  factors  (eEFs)  
●   Control  of  mRNA  translation  by  attenuation  mechanisms   ●   Some  mRNA  can  be  preferentially  translated  
(premature  termination)   ●   In  cases  of  Stress  and  Starvation  mRNA  translate  proteins  
●   Control  of  mRNA  translation  by  riboswitches     that  are  responsive  to  stress    
●   Regulation  of  mRNA  expression  by  base  modification,    
especially  adenosine  methylation    
●   Regulating  exit  of  mRNA  from  the  nucleus,  in  the  case  of  
E. ANTISENSE RNA  
eukaryotes    
 
B. CLEAVAGE OF mRNA  
●   mRNAs  are  relatively  short-­lived  
●   Ribonucleases:  remove  mRNA  once  it  has  served  its  function    
●   Degradation  of  mRNA  may  be  hindered  or  hastened  by  the  
binding  of  RNA-­specific  regulatory  CHONs  by:  
→  Directly  alter  susceptibility  to  ribonuclease  attack.    
→  Help  or  hinder  binding  to  the  ribosome,  w/c  would  alter  the  
rate  of  translation  &  affect  mRNA  stability  indirectly  
●   Cap  and  Poly-­A  tail  splice  introns  in  transcription  NOT  
translation    
●   Once  translation  occurs  you  have  a  fully  functional  messenger   Figure  9.    Antisense  RNA  
RNA    
●   If  an  antisense  RNA  is  made,  it  will  base  pair  w/  the  mRNA  &  
prevent  it  from  being  translated.    

BCH 6 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

●   Eukaryotes:    
→  Artificially  synthesized  antisense  RNA  Fomivirsen
(antisense oligonucleotide) binds to mRNA → preventing viral
replication → preventing damage to the retina & preventing
Retinitis (blindness)  due  to  Cytomegalovirus  (CMV)  
 
F. mRNA UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM REGIONS  
●   5’-­  UTR  of  mRNA:  where  the  ribosome  binds  
→  Binding  is  promoted  by  the  presence  of  the  5’-­cap  
●   After  binding,  5’-­UTR  can  take  part  in  regulating  scanning  for  
the  start  codon  
→  Translation initiation factors may bind to the 5’-UTR → alter
secondary  structure  of  mRNA  affecting  translation  
●   Upstream  open  reading  frame  (uORF):  short  ORF  found  in  the  
upstream  region  of  some  eukaryotic  mRNA  w/c  regulates  
translation  of  mRNA  by  (-­)  expression  of  main  ORF    
→  Some uORF overlap w/ main ORF → ↓ expression of main
ORF  
→  uORF  skipping:  increased  by  the  (P)  of  eIF2  
▪   Occurs  under  stress  conditions,  where  CHON  synthesis  
as  a  whole  declines,  but  increases  synthesis  of  CHONs  
needed  for  the  stress  response.    
●   Mechanisms  by  which  increase  in  upstream  ORFs  decrease  
 
translation  of  the  main  ORF   Figure  10.  Length  of  3’-­UTR  
→  Ribosome  translates  the  uORF  &  then  dissociates    
▪   Reinitiation  to  translate  the  main  ORF  is  extremely   ●   The  shorter  the  length  of  3'-­UTR  =  the  shorter  the  travel  
unlikely.     ●   The  longer  the  length  of  3'-­UTR  =  The  longer  the  travel  
→  Ribosome  translates  the  uORF  but  stalls  before  completing   (protein  may  be  extruded  out  of  the  cell  because  it  is  long)  
it.   ●   Ex.  CD47  (a  signaling  protein  of  immune  system)  with  long  3'-­
  UTR  will  be  extruded  out  of  the  cell,  while  CD47  with  shorter  3'-­
G. EFFECTS OF THE 3’-UTR OF mRNA   UTR  will  stay  at  the  endoplasmic  reticulum.  
●   Regulatory  strategies:  localization,  stability,  &  expression  level   ●   The  longer  3'-­UTR  has  a  helper  (HER)  which  help  in  the  travel  
of  the  mRNA     of  your  protein.  
→  Expression  level  of  mRNA  is  often  controlled  by  binding  to   ●   Short  3'-­UTR  travels  only  up  to  endoplasmic  reticulum  
short  regulatory  microRNA  (miRNA)  molecules.  Base  on  the   ●   Longer  3'-­UTR  is  recognized  by  HER  
3’-­UTR  region  your  miRNA  occupy,  can  have  a  positive  or   ●   Membrane  localization  factor  guides  the  long  journey  of  the  
negative  effect  on  translation   proteins  out  of  the  cell  into  the  blood.  
▪   These may bind to various regions of the mRNA,  
especially the 3’-UTR → vary CHON expression based on H. ATTENUATION  
cell type   ●   Basic  principle  of  attenuation:  the  first  part  of  the  mRNA  to  be  
made,  the  leader  sequence,  can  fold  up  into  2  alternative  
→  mRNA:  physically  moved  to  different  locations  in  the  cell  
secondary  structures.  
depending  on  the  length  of  your  3’-­UTR.    
→  One  of  these  allows  continued  transcription,  but  the  other  
→  Stability  of  mRNA  is      by  removal  of  the  cap  &/or  3’-­ secondary  structure  causes  premature  termination.    
poly(A)  tail.     ●   One  of  these  allows  continued  transcription,  but  the  other  
▪   CHONs  that  bind  to  the  3’-­UTR  may  promote  cap  or  tail   secondary  structure  causes  premature  termination.    
removal     ●   Leader  region  contains  4  sub-­regions  (sequences  1  -­  4)  that  
−   promotes  mRNA  degradation   may  base  pair  in  2  different  ways.    
→  Promote  CHON-­  CHON  interactions:  3’-­UTR  acts  as  a   →  When  no  other  factors  intervene,  sequence  1  base  pairs  
scaffold  for  CHON  binding.       with  2  and  sequence  3  base  pairs  with  4,  forming  2  stem  &  
▪   Newly  made  CHON  will  emerge  very  close  to  the  CHON   loop  structures.    
bound  by  the  3’-­UTR  favoring  the  2  CHONs  binding  to   →  The  2nd  of  these  stem  &  loop  structures,  containing  paired  
each  other.     sequences  3  &  4,  acts  as  a  terminator  that  stops  RNA  
●   Newly  made  CHON  will  emerge  very  close  to  the  CHON  bound   polymerase  transcription  shortly  after  starting.  2  base  pairs  
by  the  3’-­UTR  favoring  the  2  CHONs  binding  to  each  other.     with  3  No  Terminator  translation  goes  on.  
→  It  may  act  briefly  as  a  chaperone  to  assist  folding    
→  Add  post-­translational  modifications  
→  Take  part  in  forming  a  longer-­term  CHON  complex.  
 

BCH 7 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

VIII. GENOMIC DEFENSE  


 
A. INTRODUCTION
●   We  need  to  defend  our  genomes  because  a  lot  of  invaders  are  
out  there  and  if  we  don’t  have  any  means  of  defending  our  
human  genome,  then  other  foreign  genetic  material  can  be  
incorporated  in  our  system.    
●   A  very  good  example  is  Hepatitis  B,  which  is  an  RNA  virus.  This  
virus  has  an  enzyme  that  can  synthesize  the  DNA  from  their  
RNA  and  when  that  occurs,  it  can  be  incorporated  in  our  
genome.  That’s  why  we  can  get  chronic  Hepatitis  B.  You  don’t  
get  cured.      
●   Anything  out  there  has  the  possibility  of  invading  our  genome.  
These  are  usually  viral  infections.  
●   We  have  mobile  elements,  the  transposons,  which  can  jump  
  from  one  gene  to  the  other.  We  don’t  want  these  to  be  inserted  
Figure  11.  Attenuation  
  in  our  genomes,  otherwise  we  become  mutants.    
I. RIBOSWITCHES   ●   Restriction  endonucleases  are  some  of  the  enzymes  that  can  
recognize  foreign  elements,  DNA,  and  RNA.    
●   RNA  domains  at  the  front  of  mRNAs  (riboswitches),  can  directly  
●   Genome  of  a  cell  is  under  constant  threat  of  invasion  at  the  
interact  with  small  molecules  &  can  control  expression  of  the  
genetic  level    
mRNA.    
●   2  main  types  of  genome  level  threats    
●   Switch  on/off  ribosomes;;  sensitive  to  GTP  and  GDP  cycles  
→  Invasion  of  the  cell  by  a  virus  results  in  the  cellular  machinery  
●   Riboswitches  are  known  that  respond  to  the  regulatory  
being  hijacked  by  the  virus  genome    
nucleotide  cyclic-­di-­GMP.    
→  A  variety  of  mobile  genetic  elements  (such  as  transposons  
●   Riboswitches:  known  for  several  vitamins,  AAs,  glucosamine,  
and  retroelements)  can  insert  themselves  into  the  host  
magnesium  uptake,  &  adenine  &  guanine    
genome  
●   Riboswitches  exist  in  2  alternative  conformations  that  have  
 
different  stem  &  loop  structures.    
●   Controls  gene  expression  by  1  of  2  related  mechanisms:   B. PRINCIPLES OF RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi)  
→  Premature  termination  of  transcription  (i.e.,  attenuation)   ●   Gene  silencing  induced  by  dsRNA,  usually  of  mRNA  that  are  
→  Translational  inhibition   homologues  in  sequence  to  the  dsRNA  that  triggered  the  
●   Riboswitch  sequesters  the  terminator  sequences  in  the   response  
absence  of  the  signal  metabolite  &  transcription  continues.     →  Gene  silencing  is  when  you  prevent  them  [gene]  from  being  
●   But  when  the  metabolite  binds,  the  riboswitch  switches  to  a   translated  or  expressed.  These  are  usually  induced  by  the  
conformation  that  allows  the  formation  of  a  terminator  stem  &   presence  of  double  stranded  RNA.    
loop  → premature termination  of  the  mRNA,  genes  not   →  Double  stranded  RNA  will  involve  subsequently,  the  
expressed.     degradation  of  both  the  double  stranded  RNA  and  single  
  RNA  molecule.    
●   RNAi:  triggered  by  dsRNA  that  is  fully  bp,  &  at  least  21  –  23  bp  
J. METHYLATION   in  length  (very  short  segments  of  RNA)    
●   Chemical  modifications  to  bases  of  mRNA   ●   Longer  molecules  of  dsRNA  are  cleaved  into  fragments  of  21  –  
●   The  most  frequent  modification:  methylation  of  adenosine  on   23  bp  by  “Dicer”    siRNA:  (short  interfering  RNA)  w/c  are  
N6  (m6A)   recognized  by  proteins  of  the  RNA-­induced  silencing  complex  
●   Presence  of  m6A  may  alter  the  secondary  structure of mRNA (RISC)    
→w/c may affect the binding of regulatory proteins that have a →  Dicer  is  the  enzyme.    
variety of effects either positive  or  negative   →  RISC  is  also  called  the  RNAi  components  
●   Presence  of  m6A  on  mRNA  is  correlated  with:     ●   RISC  separates  the  2  strands  of  the  siRNA  (double  stranded  
→  Promoting  a  few  cases  of  alternative  splicing  of  mRNA   RNA)  and  scours  the  cytoplasm  for  complementary  RNA  
→    Increasing  the  rate  of  export  of  mRNA  from  the  nucleus,   sequences.    
enhancing  mRNA  expression   ●   The  nuclease  activity  of  RISC  sometimes  referred  to  as  “Slicer,”  
→  Increasing  the  binding  of  mRNA  to  the  ribosome  &   but  more  commonly  known  as  Argonaut  (AGO)  family  member,  
enhancing  mRNA  translation   degrades  the  complementary  [strand  of  the  double  stranded]  
→  Promoting  RNA  degradation,  decreasing  expression  of  the   RNAs    
mRNA   →  Application:  If  the  complementary  is  a  viral,  then  it  (slicer)  will  
●   Methylation  &  demethylation  occur  w/in  the  nucleus.     destroy  that.  Hence,  it  will  not  be  mutated.  
●   Some  of  the  m6A  mRNA  is  recognized  by  nuclear  proteins  such    
as  HNRNPC  that  promote  alternative  splicing.     Steps  
●   Most  of  the  m6A  mRNA  moves  to  the  cytoplasm,  where  a   1.   Intruding  dsRNA  is  recognized  as  foreign  by  RDE-­4  &  
variety  of  recognition  proteins  determine  its  fate.     other  proteins.    
●   Both  eIF3  &  some  YTH  CHONs  (+)  increased  translation  of  the   2.   Dicer  cleaves  the  dsRNA  (double  stranded  RNA)  into  
mRNA  whereas  other  YTH  CHONs  (+)  increased  degradation.   segments  of  21  or  22  nucleotides  with  1  or  2  base  
  overhangs  –  pieces  called  short  interfering  RNA  
  (siRNA)  [small/micro  RNA].    
  3.   This  is  recognized  by  RDE  –  1,  which  recruits  the  RNA  –  
  induced  silencing  complex  (RISC).    
 

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TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni
                                                                                                                                     
 
 

4.   The  strands  of  the  siRNA  are  separated  during  RISC   nucleotides):  Piwi-­interacting  RNA  (piRNA)  for  the  Argonaut-­
activation.   like  protein  that  uses  them  to  suppress  gene  expression  
a.   So  that  one  will  be  degraded.  The  foreign  RNA  
molecule  will  be  destroyed.     piRNA
5.   Finally,  RISC  cleaves  target  RNA  that  corresponds  to  
●   Not  generated  by  Dicer/Drosha-­style  cleavage  of  dsRNA    
the  siRNA    
●   In  eukaryotes,  piRNA  protect  against  the  spread  of  repeated  
  DNA  sequences  and  are  especially  active  in  the  reproducing  
C. MICRO RNA (miRNA)   cells  of  higher  animals    
●   miRNA  molecules:  short  RNA  molecules  that  share  several    
properties  in  common  with  siRNA     E. STRUCTURE OF DICER  
●   miRNA  regulates  the  gene  expression  of  the  eukaryotic  cell  
itself  rather  than  acting  as  a  defense  mechanism  against  
intruders    
●   miRNA  acts  primarily  by  blocking  translation  of  mRNA    
→  The  binding  of  miRNA  to  mRNA,  usually  in  the  3’-­UTR  &  less  
commonly  in  the  coding  region  
●   Made  by  processing  a  longer  precursor  that  folds  into  a  stem  
loop  
●   Processing  occurs  in  2  steps  using  the  nucleases  Drosha  and  
Dicer    
→  Pre-­  microRNA  
→  Drosha  will  cleave  to  form  pre-­primary  transcript    
→  Goes  out  of  the  nucleus    
→  Dicer  works  on  it    
→  miRNA  will  be  acted  upon  by  RISC  and  it  will  prevent  the    
translation  of  that  mRNA.     Figure  13.  Structure  of  a  Dicer  
●   After  binding  to  miRISC  &  strand  separation,  1  strand  of  the    
miRNA  binds  to  the  target  mRNA  &  prevents  translation   ●   Dicer  
  →  a  family  of  enzymes  that  generate  short  RNA  about  21  –  23  
Table  2.  RNAi  vs  miRNA   nucleotides  in  length  
→  There  is  a  guide  strand  that  is  needed,  when  you  have  a  
  Precursor   Enzyme  
dicer.    
RNAi   Double  stranded  RNA   Only  Dicer   ●   Subdivided  into  different  CHON  domains  that  all  work  to  find,  
miRNA   Longer  Precursor   Drosha  and  Dicer   bind  and  dice  dsRNA:    
  →  Ds  RNA-­binding  site    
→  2  RNase  III  domains  work  on  each  backbone  of  the  double  
helix  to  create  the  specific  cuts    
→  PAZ  domain  binds  to  RNA  ends,  preferring  a  2-­nucleotide  
overhang  on  the  3’  end  of  RNA.      
→  That’s  why  you  find  them  very  near  centromeres  and  
telomeres.    
 
F. THE ARGONAUT FAMILY OF CHONS  
●   Destroys  the  target  mRNA  
●   3  different  families  of  Argonaut-­like  proteins    
→  Piwi  group:  binds  to  piRNAs    
→  Ago  group:  binds  to  miRNA  &  siRNAs    
→  3rd  group:  found  in  nematodes;;  has  only  been  identified    
●   Ago  protein:  central  molecule  in  RISC,  and  it  unwinds  the  small  
RNAs  created  by  Dicer  to  make  a  single  strand  template,  guide  
strand    
●   The  guide  strand  is  loaded  into  Ago  protein,  and  then  the  
enzyme  searches  the  cytoplasm  for  complementary  sequences.    
●   Ago  proteins  have  a  PAZ  domain  that  binds  to  the  3’  end  of  
RNA,  a  mid  domain  that  binds  the  5’  end  of  RNA,  and  a  tract  of  
  (+)  charged  AAs  in  between  that  attract  the  (-­)  charged  
Figure  12.  miRNA   phosphates  of  the  guide  RNA  
→  Ago  family  is  always  involved  and  helps  in  the  proper  
D. PIWI-INTERACTING RNA (piRNA)   placement  of  short  interfering  RNA.    
●   Noncoding  RNA   ●   When  this  complex  finds  a  complementary  mRNA  sequence  
●   Repetitive  sequences  shown  to  create  a  large  number  of   (cytoplasm),  it  cuts  the  middle  of  the  target  mRNA  with  its  
small  RNAs.  Repetitive  sequences  (many  of  which  are   RNase  III-­like  domain  
defective  transposons)  are  clustered  into  tandem  repeats   ●   Once  the  target  mRNA  is  cut  by  RISC  the  mRNA  is  further  
around  the  centromere  &  telomere.     degraded  by  RNases  
●   Transposons  &  repeat  elements  &  slightly  longer  than  the   ●   Occur  in  a  small  region  of  the  cytoplasm  called  a  P  body,  a  
previously  characterized  siRNA  &  miRNA  (23-­26   place  filled  with  mRNA  degradation  enzymes  

BCH 9 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
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●   Other  CHONs  in  RISC  help  unwind  the  siRNA,  miRNA,  &   ▪   When  DNA  is  transcribed,  RNA  forms  little  hairpin  turns  
piRNA,  &  maintain  the  interaction  with  the  target  mRNAs.     ▪   Identical  to  one  another  but  they  are  interspaced  
●   Whether  your  interfering  RNA  are  double  stranded  to  start  with,   →  Spacer  DNA  
eventually,  one  of  the  strands  will  be  degraded.  This  is  the   ▪   NOT  identical  
general  idea.     ▪   Unique  
  ▪   Important  DNA  that  matches  up  with  viral  and  
G. AMPLIFICATION AND SPREAD OF RNAi   bacteriophage  DNA  
●   <  50  molecules  of  siRNA  can  silence  target  RNA  that  is  present   ●   CAS  genes  
in  thousands  of  copies/cell     →  CRISPR-­associated  genes  
●   This  results  from  creation  of  more  siRNA  copies  via  an  RNA  –   →  This  will  make  CAS  proteins  
dependent  RNA  polymerase  (RdRP)     ●   CAS  proteins  
→  Can  make  a  lot  of  copies  of  RNAi   →  Will  be  the  helicases  and  nucleases  
●   1  or  both  of  these  aberrant  RNA  molecules  are  used  as   ▪   Helicases  -­  proteins  that  unwind  the  DNA  
template  by  RdRP  to  generate  dsRNA   ▪   Nucleases  –  proteins  that  cuts  the  DNA  
  ●   An  immune  system  for  bacteria  
H. CRISPR: ANTIVIRAL DEFENSE IN BACTERIA   ●   CAS  complex  
●   Defense  of  bacteria  against  viruses   →  Transcribed  and  translated  by  CRISPR  system  
●   Bacteria  do  not  have  RNAi,  but  have  another  defense  program   →  Will  transcribe  the  DNA  to  make  CRISPR  RNA  
to  destroy  invading  virus  genomes  &  other  foreign  genetic   ●   CRISPR  RNA  
elements     →  Breaks  apart  the  viral  DNA  before  the  infection  starts    
→  Clustered  Regularly  Interspaced  Short  Palindromic  Repeats   ●   Spacers  –  History  of  old  infections  
(CRISPR)     ●   CRISPR  CAS9  System  
▪   A  memory  bank  of  hostile  foreign  genetic  sequences  and   →  Identified  by  Jennifer  Doudna  and  Emmanuelle  Charpentier  
a  mechanism  for  identification  and  destruction  of  incoming   →  Streptococcus  pyogene  and  their  CAS-­CRISPR  system  
foreign  DNA  or  RNA,  including  viruses,  plasmids  and   →  Has  a  nuclease    
transposons   →  CRISPR  RNA  
    ▪   Going  to  fit  into  the  CAS  
→  Tracer  RNA  
Applications Using CRISPR   ▪   Holds  the  CRISPR  RNA  in  place    
●   Use  in  various  applications  and  organisms:     →  CRISPR  RNA  and  tracer  RNA  forms  a  complex  where  we  
→  Genome  editing,  functional  genomics,  imaging,  and   can  break  DNA    
introduction  of  mutations  (point  mutations,  insertions,   →  Created  a  tracer  RNA-­CRISPR  RNA  chimera  
deletions,  chromosome  rearrangements)     ▪   Chimera  –  ancient  mythological  beast  that  is  a  
●   Nonhomologous  end  joining  and  homology-­directed  repair  are  2   combination  of  different  species  
cellular  mechanisms  for  double-­strand  break  repair  in  DNA       ▪   New  type  of  RNA  
●   Species  of  algae  have  been  engineered  using  CRISPR  for   ▪   Two  parts:  CAS9  protein  and  chimera    
increased  bioethanol  production  and  lipid  content,  both  of  which   ▪   CRISPR  part  –  RNA  that  has  the  information  that  we  want  
have  implications  in  alternative  fuels  and  sustainable  energy     to  cut  
●   CRISPR  technology  in  plants  has  produced  gene  knockouts   ▪   Protein  –  Going  to  do  the  cutting    
and  knock-­ins,  disrupted  regulatory  networks,  suppressed  viral   ▪   Created  a  guide  RNA  that  has  a  corresponding  bit  of  RNA  
infection,  and  has  the  capacity  to  restructure  the  chromosome   ●   Can  cut  the  DNA  in  multiple  different  places    
to  separate  linked  genes  for  crop  improvement.      
●   Biofuel,  ethanol,  better  crops  resistant  to  infections,  anti-­viral,  
anti-­cancer  and  vaccine  development   REVIEW QUESTIONS (required)  
   
CRISPR Impacts Human Health Through Several 1.   Which  of  the  following  is  not  a  stop  codon?  
Mechanisms   a.  UAG  
●   Medical  applications:  programmed  suicide  of  antibiotic-­ b.  UGA  
resistance  bacteria,  the  engineering  of  insect  vectors  to  prevent   c.  UAA  
the  spread  of  diseases,  eliminating  viruses  from  human  host   d.  UUA  
cells,  reprogramming  cancerous  cells,  and  alleviating  the  impact    
of  genetic  diseases     2.   What  kind  of  chaperonins  attempt  to  rectify  misfoldings?  
●   Vaccine  development  and  several  cell  lines  for  vaccine   a.  Folders  
production  have  been  improved  with  CRISPR  technology     b.  Molecular  chaperones  
●   Increase  the  human  host’s  own  immune  response  against   c.  Holders    
cancerous  cells      
 
 
What is CRISPR? By Bozeman Science (Transcription  

Answers:  d,  a  
of the Video)    
●   Clustered  Regularly-­Interspaced  Short  Palindromic  
Repeats   REFERENCES
●   CRISPR  is  going  to  revolutionize  medicine   [Biochemistry]2019/04/01.  Translation.  Suzette  Mendoza  MD.  
●   First  identified  in  E.coli   [Biochemistry]2019/04/01.  Regulation  of  Translation.  Suzette  
●   Two  main  parts  found  in  CRISPR   Mendoza  MD.  
→  Repeats   [Biochemistry]2019/04/01.  Genomic  Defense.  Suzette  Mendoza  
▪   Short  segments  of  DNA  (20-­40  letters  in  length)     MD.  
▪   Palindrome    
BCH 10 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
 
Musni

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