Gene Expression Translation
Gene Expression Translation
BCH 1 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
B. tRNA
● Each AA will be represented by a codon (3 nucleotides;; ex.
How tRNA participates in protein synthesis AUG, UUC, etc.). There are only 4 nucleotides but different
combinations were worked out to create 64 different codons to
stand for the 20 AA.
→ Since there are only 20 different AAs, this means that an AA
can have more than 1 codon except for methionine (AUG)
and tryptophan (UGG) which both have only 1 codon.
→ Out of the 64 codons, 3 codons are used as punctuation or
stop codons: UAG, UGA, UAA
▪ Presence of either UAG, UGA, UAA = stop translation
● Pairing exists between the codon of mRNA and anticodon of
tRNA.
→ Should be complementary
→ The codon & anticodon recognize each other by base pairing
through hydrogen bonds.
→ Each tRNA carries a specific AA which usually undergoes a
stage of charging.
▪ “It’s not the usual process that the AA will just attach to
the tRNA. There is such a process as charging the tRNA
therefore you will have your tRNA and its cognate AA.
There is a corresponding AA to the tRNA.” – Dr. Mendoza
→ Some tRNAs can read >1 codon but this should code for the
same AA.
● The genetic code is read from 5’ to 3’. “The genetic code is said
to be universal but there can be certain differences especially
when you talk about the mitochondrial DNA. There are certain
codons in the genetic code that will be read differently when
you’re talking about the mitochondrial DNA.” – Dr. Mendoza
Figure 1. tRNA molecule during protein synthesis D. THE WOBBLE RULE
● The amino acid that is needed is bound to the 3’-OH group of
adenosine at the free 3’ end of the acceptor arm (always ends
in C-C-A) of tRNA.
● tRNA will have an anticodon arm.
→ Anticodon arm is always composed of 7 amino acids (AA)
with the anticodon in the middle of those 7 AA.
● The anti-codon is always preceded by 2 pyrimidines, on the 5’
side, followed by a modified purine after the anti-codon.
● “We said that thymine is never found in RNA but there’s always
an exception. Thymine is part of the TΨC arm (T-loop) of the
tRNA. This a special circumstance, not a general characteristic.
Thymine is never found in mRNA.” – Dr. Mendoza
C. GENETIC CODE
Figure 3. Wobble Rule
● The first 2 bases in the codons of the mRNA strictly follows
base pairing. This means that C will always base pair with G
and A will always base pair with U in the anti-codon.
st rd
● When it comes to the 1 base of the anti-codon, which is the 3
base of the codon of mRNA, this can wobble.
→ The base can be interchanged not strictly following the base
pairing.
→ (Please refer to Figure 3) G is normally paired with C but
when there is wobble, G can wither pair with C or U. U, which
normally base pairs with A can either base pair with A or G. I
(inosine which is a modified nucleotide) can base pair with C
or U or A.
Figure 2. Genetic Code
BCH 2 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
II. CAP-DEPENDENT TRANSLATION → AUG is not the determining factor for the start of initiation.
→ The necessary sequence must be present in order for the
A. INITIATION initiation complex, after its formation, to start initiation.
→ If several AUG is present in a sequence of mRNA but the
sequence is missing, then that AUG may be skipped.
→ The initiation complex will then move on to an appropriate
AUG.
● Initiator tRNA is charged with unmodified methionine. Initiator
tRNA will become methionine tRNA initiation methionine (Met-
tRNAiMet).
→ Met-tRNAiMet will bind to the peptidyl side (P side) of the
AUG start codon.
Charging of tRNA
● Enzyme needed for charging of tRNA:
→ Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase – specific enzyme that
recognize both tRNA and its appropriate AA. The enzyme
attaches the cognate AA to the tRNA. This process is called
“charging the tRNA”.
▪ Charged tRNA – w/ AA
▪ Uncharged tRNA – w/o AA
● Charging of tRNA is a 2-step process that utilizes ATP as a
source of energy
→ AA + ATP to form aminoacyl-AMP (or aminoacyl-adenylate)
▪ AA+ATP -> aminoacyl-AMP + PPi
→ Amino-acyl group is transferred to the 3’ end (acceptor arm)
of tRNA
▪ Aminoacyl-AMP + tRNA -> aminoacyl-tRNA + AMP
→ “Everytime you charge a tRNA, you’re using 2 molecules of
ATP. Basta if the end-product is AMP, 2 molecules of ATP
are used. The pyrophosphate (PPi) will be cleaved further to
become the 2nd ATP.” – Dr. Mendoza
Assembly: Initiation Complex
● Complexes that need to be assembled before initiation complex
can be formed.
→ Complex 1: 43S pre-initiation complex (complex 1)
▪ Composed of
− small 40S subunit of ribosome
− several eukaryotic initiation factors (eIF1, eIF1A, eIF3,
eIF5)
− Met-tRNAiMet (charged initiator tRNA) accompanied by
eIF2
→ Complex 2: cap-binding complex (complex 2)
▪ This will bind FIRST to the 5’ cap of mRNA
▪ Composed of
− cap-binding protein (eIF4E)
− eIF4G, eIF4A, eIF4B
− polyadenylate-binding protein (PABP)
Figure 4. Translation Initiation
● Initiation always starts with AUG (methionine) but if mRNA is
long and has several AUG, how will the initiation complex know
which AUG codon to start with?
→ In contrast to prokaryotes, eukaryotes have no ribosome
binding site (RBS) so instead of just looking for AUG, the
initiation complex will also look at the surrounding sequence
of the AUG.
→ The sequence (GCCRCCAUG ;; R can either be adenine (A)
or guanine (G)) , along with AUG, must be present. This will
be the indicator that it is the correct AUG to start with.
BCH 3 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
Initiation Process → Peptidyl transferase activity of the 28S subunit of rRNA
(biggest subunit) will create the peptide bond between
methionine, in P site, and incoming tRNA with its
corresponding AA in the A side.
→ eEF2 uses GTP to drive the conformational changes in the
ribosome and ratchets the tRNA from the P-site and A-site to
the E-site and P-site.
● Elongation continues until a stop codon enters the A site.
C. TERMINATION
● Happens when the A site of the ribosome reaches one of the
stop codons of the mRNA (UAG, UGA, UAA) because no tRNA
exists to read these codons
● Unlike prokaryotes with 2 release factors, eukaryotes have a
single release factor (eRF1) that recognizes all 3 stop codons.
→ eRF1
− Binds the stop codon without affecting the peptide bond
Figure 5. Assembly of Initiation Complex formation.
(This figure is continuous with the next figure) − Recognizes UAA, UAG, or UGA
→ eRF3 carrying a GTP molecule binds to eRF1 -> GTP
hydrolysis -> final AA attaches to the polypeptide.
D. RIBOSOME RECYCLING
● eIF3 triggers the release of the 60S subunit.
● eIF1 releases the final tRNA (at the E-site).
● eIF3j removes the mRNA
● Components (initiation factors, elongation factors, termination
factors, ribosome) are recycled except for mRNA which will be
degraded after it has done its function.
III. CAP-INDEPENDENT TRANSLATION
A. INTERNAL RIBOSOME ENTRY SITES (IRES)
● Sequence found in few mRNA which allow ribosomes to initiate
translation internally rather than at the 5’ cap end of the mRNA.
● This is usually observed during major stress situations (ex. heat
shock or energy deficit) where protein synthesis is greatly
Figure 6. Initiation Process decreased.
● “When nutrients are scarce or when there’s stress of whatever
1. After Cap-binding complex (complex 2) attaches to the form, generally, protein synthesis stops.” – Dr. Mendoza
mRNA via its cap at the 5’ end. ● In this situation, proteins that respond to stress are whats
2. Polyadenylate tail of mRNA is bound by PABP. This will needed. Proteins that respond to stress will be the only ones
form a ring structure. synthesized using IRES. All the others will use the CAP-
3. The ring structure now binds the 43S pre-initiation dependent translation process.
complex (complex 1). Both the cap-binding protein and ● When resources are poor (ex. AA are not coming in from the
pre-initiation complex will scan for appropriate AUG to diet). This can be an indication that protein synthesis needs to
start initiation. This scanning uses ATP. be stopped because one of the precursors (AAs) is missing.
4. If suitable AUG is located, eIF5 joins the complex. This Rather than stopping ribosomal activity, it is easier to control the
will be the signal for 60S to also join the complex. Now, initiation factors.
an entire ribosome with 40S and 60S components is
present (recall that 40S is a component of 43S pre- B. TRANSLATION HALTS WHEN NUTRIENTS ARE SCARCE
initiation complex) *Note: eIF5 uses GTP to accomplish (MECHANISMS)
the remodeling of the ribosome. 1. Phosphorylation of eIF2
5. Cap-binding protein, eIF2, eIF1, eIF3, and eIF5 departs. → In times of stress, a kinase phosphorylates eIF2, preventing
6. Other initiation factors depart. This now calls for the removal of GDP.
translation to begin. → Recall (in Figure 5) that eIF2 requires GTP so if GDP-eIF2
complex is present, this will not promote translation and
B. ELONGATION protein synthesis is halted.
● Met-tRNAiMet will occupy the P-site of the 60S ribosome.
2. Regulate the cap-binding complex
● Eukaryotic elongation factors (eEF) also participate in the → When the cell is stressed or starved, mammalian target of
elongation process:
rapamycin (mTOR) is prevented from phosphorylating eIF4E,
→ eEF1A delivers the charged tRNA using GTP for energy
eIF4G, & eIF4B which are components of the cap-binding
→ eEF1B replaces the depleted GTP with new GTP. “This complex (complex 1).
process is a very expensive process that’s why it has to be → Without the phosphorylation of these initiation factors, eIF
correct.” – Dr. Mendoza
complex cannot bind to mRNA so translation is halted.
BCH 4 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
→ Top & bottom of the cylinder are covered by CHON ● Cap and Poly-A tail protects RNA from degradation, but once
complexes that recognize & bind damaged or unwanted translated this will be degraded as in recycling of your
CHONs.
ribosomes
→ Ubiquitin tags damaged CHONs & is recognized by the
cylindrical proteasome
C. mRNA-BINDING CHONs AND REGULATION OF
→ After degradation, the polypeptide fragments & ubiquitin are FERRITIN
extruded
● Some regulatory CHONs: translational repressors
● Ferritin translation is dependent on blood Iron levels
● Ferritin (a hollow spherical CHON that can store 5000 Fe
molecules) level is regulated in response to the Fe supply, w/c
depends on translational regulation
→ When Fe is scarce, translation of ferritin mRNA is ↓
→ When Fe is plentiful, more ferritin is made to sequester Fe
from creating toxic free radicals
● 5’-UTR of ferritin mRNA: w/ a special recognition sequence,
iron-responsive element (IRE), which forms a stem-loop
structure.
→ When iron is scarce, an iron-regulatory protein (IRP) binds
to the IRE stem & loop → prevents translation.
→ Surplus iron → detachment of IRP from the ferritin mRNA →
translated
Figure 8. Proteasome ● Free [Fe]: directly monitored by the IRP;; the major one, IRP1,
is identical to the aconitase
VI. MISTRANSLATION: MISTAKES IN CHON SYNTHESIS ● IRP1: w/ an Fe4S4 cluster needed for enzyme activity
● Ribosomes are not perfect & make occasional mistakes.
→ Fe is scarce: 1 of the 4 Fe atoms is lost from the Fe4S4
● 1 in 10,000 codons is misread & results in the wrong AA being cluster → aconitase/IRP1 loses enzyme activity & changes
incorporated.
conformation, exposing its RNA-binding site (RNA-binding
● 2 AAs whose codons differ by only 1 base are most likely to be
confused.
translational repressor)
● Other possible errors are shifts in the reading frame → When Iron is low one of the clusters leave the cluster, when
(“frameshift”) or reading through stop codons.
that happens aconitase/IRP1 loses enzyme activity and
Ferritin synthesis does not occur
→ Fe & ferritin plentiful, aconitase/IRP1 acts as aconitase
VII. REGULATION OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN
EUKARYOTES
D. ALTERATIONS TO THE RIBOSOME
● Phosphorylation of protein S6 of the small ribosomal subunit in
A. TRANSLATION OF THE MESSAGE the cells of mammals
● Control over the rate of degradation of the mRNA
● The S6 protein may be phosphorylated up to 5X on a cluster of
● Modification of untranslatable mRNA to a form that can be serine residues close to its C-terminus.
translated
● Phosphorylation occurs after cells receive a signal to proliferate
● Control of mRNA translation by regulatory proteins
& affects cell size & glucose metabolism
● Preferential translation of certain classes of mRNA due to ● ribosomes w/ S6P preferentially bind & translate mRNA
alteration of the ribosome
molecules with 5’-terminal oligo-pyrimidine tracts (5’-TOP)
● Binding of antisense RNA, including miRNA, to mRNA to → 5’-TOP: located at the 5’ end of mRNAs encode ribosomal
prevent its translation
proteins & elongation factors (eEFs)
● Control of mRNA translation by attenuation mechanisms ● Some mRNA can be preferentially translated
(premature termination)
● In cases of Stress and Starvation mRNA translate proteins
● Control of mRNA translation by riboswitches
that are responsive to stress
● Regulation of mRNA expression by base modification,
especially adenosine methylation
● Regulating exit of mRNA from the nucleus, in the case of
E. ANTISENSE RNA
eukaryotes
B. CLEAVAGE OF mRNA
● mRNAs are relatively short-lived
● Ribonucleases: remove mRNA once it has served its function
● Degradation of mRNA may be hindered or hastened by the
binding of RNA-specific regulatory CHONs by:
→ Directly alter susceptibility to ribonuclease attack.
→ Help or hinder binding to the ribosome, w/c would alter the
rate of translation & affect mRNA stability indirectly
● Cap and Poly-A tail splice introns in transcription NOT
translation
● Once translation occurs you have a fully functional messenger Figure 9. Antisense RNA
RNA
● If an antisense RNA is made, it will base pair w/ the mRNA &
prevent it from being translated.
BCH 6 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
● Eukaryotes:
→ Artificially synthesized antisense RNA Fomivirsen
(antisense oligonucleotide) binds to mRNA → preventing viral
replication → preventing damage to the retina & preventing
Retinitis (blindness) due to Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
F. mRNA UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM REGIONS
● 5’- UTR of mRNA: where the ribosome binds
→ Binding is promoted by the presence of the 5’-cap
● After binding, 5’-UTR can take part in regulating scanning for
the start codon
→ Translation initiation factors may bind to the 5’-UTR → alter
secondary structure of mRNA affecting translation
● Upstream open reading frame (uORF): short ORF found in the
upstream region of some eukaryotic mRNA w/c regulates
translation of mRNA by (-) expression of main ORF
→ Some uORF overlap w/ main ORF → ↓ expression of main
ORF
→ uORF skipping: increased by the (P) of eIF2
▪ Occurs under stress conditions, where CHON synthesis
as a whole declines, but increases synthesis of CHONs
needed for the stress response.
● Mechanisms by which increase in upstream ORFs decrease
translation of the main ORF
Figure 10. Length of 3’-UTR
→ Ribosome translates the uORF & then dissociates
▪ Reinitiation to translate the main ORF is extremely ● The shorter the length of 3'-UTR = the shorter the travel
unlikely.
● The longer the length of 3'-UTR = The longer the travel
→ Ribosome translates the uORF but stalls before completing (protein may be extruded out of the cell because it is long)
it.
● Ex. CD47 (a signaling protein of immune system) with long 3'-
UTR will be extruded out of the cell, while CD47 with shorter 3'-
G. EFFECTS OF THE 3’-UTR OF mRNA UTR will stay at the endoplasmic reticulum.
● Regulatory strategies: localization, stability, & expression level ● The longer 3'-UTR has a helper (HER) which help in the travel
of the mRNA
of your protein.
→ Expression level of mRNA is often controlled by binding to ● Short 3'-UTR travels only up to endoplasmic reticulum
short regulatory microRNA (miRNA) molecules. Base on the ● Longer 3'-UTR is recognized by HER
3’-UTR region your miRNA occupy, can have a positive or ● Membrane localization factor guides the long journey of the
negative effect on translation
proteins out of the cell into the blood.
▪ These may bind to various regions of the mRNA,
especially the 3’-UTR → vary CHON expression based on H. ATTENUATION
cell type
● Basic principle of attenuation: the first part of the mRNA to be
made, the leader sequence, can fold up into 2 alternative
→ mRNA: physically moved to different locations in the cell
secondary structures.
depending on the length of your 3’-UTR.
→ One of these allows continued transcription, but the other
→ Stability of mRNA is by removal of the cap &/or 3’- secondary structure causes premature termination.
poly(A) tail.
● One of these allows continued transcription, but the other
▪ CHONs that bind to the 3’-UTR may promote cap or tail secondary structure causes premature termination.
removal
● Leader region contains 4 sub-regions (sequences 1 - 4) that
− promotes mRNA degradation
may base pair in 2 different ways.
→ Promote CHON- CHON interactions: 3’-UTR acts as a → When no other factors intervene, sequence 1 base pairs
scaffold for CHON binding.
with 2 and sequence 3 base pairs with 4, forming 2 stem &
▪ Newly made CHON will emerge very close to the CHON loop structures.
bound by the 3’-UTR favoring the 2 CHONs binding to → The 2nd of these stem & loop structures, containing paired
each other.
sequences 3 & 4, acts as a terminator that stops RNA
● Newly made CHON will emerge very close to the CHON bound polymerase transcription shortly after starting. 2 base pairs
by the 3’-UTR favoring the 2 CHONs binding to each other.
with 3 No Terminator translation goes on.
→ It may act briefly as a chaperone to assist folding
→ Add post-translational modifications
→ Take part in forming a longer-term CHON complex.
BCH 7 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
BCH 8 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
4. The strands of the siRNA are separated during RISC nucleotides): Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) for the Argonaut-
activation. like protein that uses them to suppress gene expression
a. So that one will be degraded. The foreign RNA
molecule will be destroyed. piRNA
5. Finally, RISC cleaves target RNA that corresponds to
● Not generated by Dicer/Drosha-style cleavage of dsRNA
the siRNA
● In eukaryotes, piRNA protect against the spread of repeated
DNA sequences and are especially active in the reproducing
C. MICRO RNA (miRNA) cells of higher animals
● miRNA molecules: short RNA molecules that share several
properties in common with siRNA
E. STRUCTURE OF DICER
● miRNA regulates the gene expression of the eukaryotic cell
itself rather than acting as a defense mechanism against
intruders
● miRNA acts primarily by blocking translation of mRNA
→ The binding of miRNA to mRNA, usually in the 3’-UTR & less
commonly in the coding region
● Made by processing a longer precursor that folds into a stem
loop
● Processing occurs in 2 steps using the nucleases Drosha and
Dicer
→ Pre- microRNA
→ Drosha will cleave to form pre-primary transcript
→ Goes out of the nucleus
→ Dicer works on it
→ miRNA will be acted upon by RISC and it will prevent the
translation of that mRNA.
Figure 13. Structure of a Dicer
● After binding to miRISC & strand separation, 1 strand of the
miRNA binds to the target mRNA & prevents translation
● Dicer
→ a family of enzymes that generate short RNA about 21 – 23
Table 2. RNAi vs miRNA nucleotides in length
→ There is a guide strand that is needed, when you have a
Precursor Enzyme
dicer.
RNAi Double stranded RNA Only Dicer ● Subdivided into different CHON domains that all work to find,
miRNA Longer Precursor Drosha and Dicer bind and dice dsRNA:
→ Ds RNA-binding site
→ 2 RNase III domains work on each backbone of the double
helix to create the specific cuts
→ PAZ domain binds to RNA ends, preferring a 2-nucleotide
overhang on the 3’ end of RNA.
→ That’s why you find them very near centromeres and
telomeres.
F. THE ARGONAUT FAMILY OF CHONS
● Destroys the target mRNA
● 3 different families of Argonaut-like proteins
→ Piwi group: binds to piRNAs
→ Ago group: binds to miRNA & siRNAs
→ 3rd group: found in nematodes;; has only been identified
● Ago protein: central molecule in RISC, and it unwinds the small
RNAs created by Dicer to make a single strand template, guide
strand
● The guide strand is loaded into Ago protein, and then the
enzyme searches the cytoplasm for complementary sequences.
● Ago proteins have a PAZ domain that binds to the 3’ end of
RNA, a mid domain that binds the 5’ end of RNA, and a tract of
(+) charged AAs in between that attract the (-) charged
Figure 12. miRNA phosphates of the guide RNA
→ Ago family is always involved and helps in the proper
D. PIWI-INTERACTING RNA (piRNA) placement of short interfering RNA.
● Noncoding RNA
● When this complex finds a complementary mRNA sequence
● Repetitive sequences shown to create a large number of (cytoplasm), it cuts the middle of the target mRNA with its
small RNAs. Repetitive sequences (many of which are RNase III-like domain
defective transposons) are clustered into tandem repeats ● Once the target mRNA is cut by RISC the mRNA is further
around the centromere & telomere.
degraded by RNases
● Transposons & repeat elements & slightly longer than the ● Occur in a small region of the cytoplasm called a P body, a
previously characterized siRNA & miRNA (23-26 place filled with mRNA degradation enzymes
BCH 9 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni
● Other CHONs in RISC help unwind the siRNA, miRNA, & ▪ When DNA is transcribed, RNA forms little hairpin turns
piRNA, & maintain the interaction with the target mRNAs.
▪ Identical to one another but they are interspaced
● Whether your interfering RNA are double stranded to start with, → Spacer DNA
eventually, one of the strands will be degraded. This is the ▪ NOT identical
general idea.
▪ Unique
▪ Important DNA that matches up with viral and
G. AMPLIFICATION AND SPREAD OF RNAi bacteriophage DNA
● < 50 molecules of siRNA can silence target RNA that is present ● CAS genes
in thousands of copies/cell
→ CRISPR-associated genes
● This results from creation of more siRNA copies via an RNA – → This will make CAS proteins
dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP)
● CAS proteins
→ Can make a lot of copies of RNAi
→ Will be the helicases and nucleases
● 1 or both of these aberrant RNA molecules are used as ▪ Helicases - proteins that unwind the DNA
template by RdRP to generate dsRNA
▪ Nucleases – proteins that cuts the DNA
● An immune system for bacteria
H. CRISPR: ANTIVIRAL DEFENSE IN BACTERIA ● CAS complex
● Defense of bacteria against viruses
→ Transcribed and translated by CRISPR system
● Bacteria do not have RNAi, but have another defense program → Will transcribe the DNA to make CRISPR RNA
to destroy invading virus genomes & other foreign genetic ● CRISPR RNA
elements
→ Breaks apart the viral DNA before the infection starts
→ Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats ● Spacers – History of old infections
(CRISPR)
● CRISPR CAS9 System
▪ A memory bank of hostile foreign genetic sequences and → Identified by Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier
a mechanism for identification and destruction of incoming → Streptococcus pyogene and their CAS-CRISPR system
foreign DNA or RNA, including viruses, plasmids and → Has a nuclease
transposons
→ CRISPR RNA
▪ Going to fit into the CAS
→ Tracer RNA
Applications Using CRISPR ▪ Holds the CRISPR RNA in place
● Use in various applications and organisms:
→ CRISPR RNA and tracer RNA forms a complex where we
→ Genome editing, functional genomics, imaging, and can break DNA
introduction of mutations (point mutations, insertions, → Created a tracer RNA-CRISPR RNA chimera
deletions, chromosome rearrangements)
▪ Chimera – ancient mythological beast that is a
● Nonhomologous end joining and homology-directed repair are 2 combination of different species
cellular mechanisms for double-strand break repair in DNA
▪ New type of RNA
● Species of algae have been engineered using CRISPR for ▪ Two parts: CAS9 protein and chimera
increased bioethanol production and lipid content, both of which ▪ CRISPR part – RNA that has the information that we want
have implications in alternative fuels and sustainable energy
to cut
● CRISPR technology in plants has produced gene knockouts ▪ Protein – Going to do the cutting
and knock-ins, disrupted regulatory networks, suppressed viral ▪ Created a guide RNA that has a corresponding bit of RNA
infection, and has the capacity to restructure the chromosome ● Can cut the DNA in multiple different places
to separate linked genes for crop improvement.
● Biofuel, ethanol, better crops resistant to infections, anti-viral,
anti-cancer and vaccine development
REVIEW QUESTIONS (required)
CRISPR Impacts Human Health Through Several 1. Which of the following is not a stop codon?
Mechanisms a. UAG
● Medical applications: programmed suicide of antibiotic- b. UGA
resistance bacteria, the engineering of insect vectors to prevent c. UAA
the spread of diseases, eliminating viruses from human host d. UUA
cells, reprogramming cancerous cells, and alleviating the impact
of genetic diseases
2. What kind of chaperonins attempt to rectify misfoldings?
● Vaccine development and several cell lines for vaccine a. Folders
production have been improved with CRISPR technology
b. Molecular chaperones
● Increase the human host’s own immune response against c. Holders
cancerous cells
What is CRISPR? By Bozeman Science (Transcription
Answers: d, a
of the Video)
● Clustered Regularly-Interspaced Short Palindromic
Repeats
REFERENCES
● CRISPR is going to revolutionize medicine
[Biochemistry]2019/04/01. Translation. Suzette Mendoza MD.
● First identified in E.coli
[Biochemistry]2019/04/01. Regulation of Translation. Suzette
● Two main parts found in CRISPR
Mendoza MD.
→ Repeats
[Biochemistry]2019/04/01. Genomic Defense. Suzette Mendoza
▪ Short segments of DNA (20-40 letters in length)
MD.
▪ Palindrome
BCH 10 / 10
TRANS Lim, K., Lim, M., Lopez, C., Lopez, L. CORE Mateo, Meceda, Ng, Ocenar, Ordoñez HEAD Natural
Musni