GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

SWACHH BHARAT MISSION

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT MANUAL
Part II: the manual

Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO)

MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT

www.moud.gov.in
www.swachhbharaturban.gov.in
2016
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE GUIDANCE 01
 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT
http://moud.gov.in

Central Public Health and Environmental

Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO)

IN COLLABORATION WITH

German International Cooperation

2016
In keeping with the advancements in this sector, updates as and when found necessary will be hosted in the
Ministry website: http://moud.gov.in/ and the reader is advised to refer to these also.

All rights reserved

No, portion of this document may be reproduced / printed for commercial purpose without the prior
permission of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India

Designed under contract with GIZ by Aspire Design, New Delhi

Part II:
Manual on
Municipal Solid
Waste Management

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE

GUIDANCE iii
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MANUAL

The management of municipal solid waste in India has surfaced or continued

to be a severe problem not only because of environmental and aesthetic
concerns but also because of the enormous quantities generated every day.
Even though only 31% of Indian population resides in urban areas, this
population of 377 million (Census of India, 2011) generates a gigantic
1,43,449 metric tonnes per day of municipal solid waste, as per the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 2014-15 and these figures increase every day
with an increase in population. To further add to the problem, the total
number of towns (statutory and census) in the country have also increased
from 5,161 in 2001 to 7,936 in 2011, thus increasing the number of
municipal waste generation by 2,775 within a decade.

The management of municipal solid waste is one of the main functions of all
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in the country. All ULBs are required to
meticulously plan, implement and monitor all systems of urban service
delivery especially that of municipal solid waste. With limited financial
resources, technical capacities and land availability, urban local bodies are
constantly striving to meet this challenge.

With the launch of the flagship programme by the Government of India,

Swachh Bharat Mission in 2014 that aims to provide basic infrastructural and
service delivery with respect to sanitation facilities to every family, including
toilets and adopting the scientific methods to collect, process and disposal
of municipal solid waste. The mission focuses on quality and sustainability
of the service provision as well as emphasising on the commitment on every
stakeholder to bring about a visible change in society.

This manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management provides guidance to

urban local bodies on the planning, design, implementation and monitoring
of municipal solid waste management systems. Issues of environmental and
financial sustainability of these systems are a critical consideration.

The manual clearly defines the planning process to be adopted by urban

local bodies for preparing, revising and implementing Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plans (MSWM Plans). The long term planning horizon of 25
years is further divided into short term plans to be prepared once every five
years, with a mid-term review once every 2-3 years within this 5 year period,
as per requirement. ‘A seven step approach for MSWM Planning’ is defined
(Chapter 1), with special emphasis on community or stakeholder contribution
and inter-departmental coordination at the local authority level to ensure
implementation success. The Planning process suggests the adoption of the
integrated solid waste management hierarchy for deciding on processing or
technology solutions for municipal solid waste. Procedure for establishing the
baseline of municipal solid waste management in urban local bodies is
detailed

v
out. Ensuring financial viability of municipal solid waste management systems
through revenue generation and encouraging Private Sector Participation
(PSP) and Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) is suggested in this manual.

The MSWM Planning has to be supplemented with ‘Technical Aspects of

MSW Segregation, Collection and Transportation’ that are addressed in detail
(Chapter 2) in this manual. Processes for ensuring segregation at the
household level in wet, dry and domestic hazardous waste, as suggested in the
Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016, are defined. Guidance
mentioned under the SWM Rules, 2016 on waste collection and transportation
systems is highlighted where relevant. Requirements for segregated
secondary storage and transportation of segregated waste to appropriate
processing and disposal facilities, sizing of systems for different scales of
operation, norms for transfer stations, typical configurations of transfer
stations, norms for street sweeping and corresponding resource allocation are
provided in detail. Potential for involvement of the informal sector is explored,
with a strong message that ULBs should consider the involvement of the
informal sector after appropriately recognizing their services and with due
focus on their livelihood and health.

MSWM Planning has to be strengthened by the ‘Technical Aspects of

Processing and Treatment of MSW (Chapter 3)’: Urban Local Bodies, in the
planning process, should make appropriate technology choices for waste
management within the jurisdiction of the ULB, either independently or
through the involvement of the private sector, with an aim to maximise
resource conservation and efficiency and minimize health and environmental
impacts. Waste minimization should be the primary focus of all community
awareness programmes. Material recovery and recycling potential of
municipal solid waste should be the first consideration in the management of
generated waste. Where ever possible waste should be segregated into
fractions promising viable recycling potential. Subsequently other forms of
treatment and processing should be considered in accordance to the guidance
given by the ISWM waste treatment and processing hierarchy. Guidance
under the Solid Waste Management, Rules 2016 on waste processing and
treatment technologies is highlighted where relevant. Technical specifications
and design considerations for composting: windrow composting, aerated
static pile, in-vessel composting decentralised composting, vermicomposting
and yard waste composting, are given in detail. Waste to Energy technologies:
incineration, biomethanation and RDF production and use are also covered in
this manual. Specific issues to be considered while planning for and
implementing these systems are defined and the scale at which these
technologies are viable is clearly mentioned. Technologies under
development: pyrolysis, gasification are discussed for guidance of urban local
bodies. C&D waste management and guidance for urban local bodies is also
included as part of this chapter.

The ISWM hierarchy clearly indicates that landfilling of municipal solid waste
is the least preferred option for MSW management. However, given that the
municipal solid waste management system in the country has not yet reached
a stage where landfilling can be avoided, sanitary landfill design guidelines
and operational guidance is detailed out (Chapter 4). Rehabilitation of old
dump sites is also addressed.

MSWM plan preparation considers operational and technological choices for

an appropriate implementation route. This could be done either
independently by the ULB or through private sector involvement or informal
sector and with defined contracting and financing arrangements. Plan
implementation should commence after the plan is approved by the Municipal
Council and the buy- in from the community is ascertained.

Management aspects of municipal solid waste include statutory clearances

like environmental clearances that are required for establishing municipal
solid waste treatment, processing and disposal facilities. Pre-feasibility and
feasibility studies may be required for ascertaining appropriate modes of
treatment and processing at selected locations. Detailed Project Reports will
need to be prepared to ensure detailed planning and financial viablity of
projects. Guidance on these aspects and on tendering, contracting and contract
monitoring are also detailed out in Chapter 5.

Managing municipal solid waste is not easy, it requires regular monitoring of

MSWM service provision by the ULB through basic or advanced Management
Information Systems. All services provided by the ULB either through its own
sources or through those outsourced to private entities, should be
appropriately documented and monitored in order to ensure effective
implementation and to identify issues that are to be addressed in the mid-term
review of the MSWM plan and in subsequent short term plans (Chapter 6).
Aspects of environmental monitoring, record keeping, training requirements
for MSWM service provision are also addressed in this chapter.

Several waste types find their way into the municipal solid waste stream,
which require special handling and disposal because of their quantity,
concentration, physical and chemical characteristics or biological properties
(special wastes). Many of these waste streams are also governed by specific
Rules, viz. Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016. Guidance on the ULBs’
responsibilities for managing specific special waste streams namely, plastic
waste, bio-medical waste, slaughter house waste, E-waste, waste tyres and
lead battery waste are included in this manual (Chapter 7).

A compendium of good practises both national and international are included

as Part III of the manual. All Rules and guidelines that are of relevance in the
management of municipal solid waste for an ULB and are referred to in the
different sections of Part II of the manual are included in the Part III of the
Manual.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-

WISE GUIDANCE
1. Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan: Step-Wise Guidance 3
1.1 Requirements and Stipulations by the Rules 3
1.2 Guiding Principles for Municipal Solid Waste Management 4
1.2.1 The Integrated Solid Waste Management System 4
1.2.2 Extended Producer Responsibility 6
1.2.3 Decentralised Waste Management Systems 6
1.2.4 Integration of the Informal Sector 7
1.3 Overview of Developing a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan in an
Urban Local Body 8
1.4 Seven Step Approach for Municipal Solid Waste Management Planning 14
1.4.1 Step 1: Policies, Programmes and Legal Framework 14
1.4.1.1 Identify National and State Policies or Strategies and their Goals 14
1.4.1.2 State level Municipal Solid Waste Management Strategies or Policies 16
1.4.1.3 Identify and Analyse Regional or District Solid Waste
Management Plans 18
1.4.1.3.1 Objectives of
Regional Solid Waste Management Plans 19
1.4.1.3.2 Institutional
Aspects of Regional Approaches 20
1.4.1.3.3Implementation of Regional Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plans 20
1.4.1.3.4 Land Allocation for Regional Municipal Solid
Waste Projects 21
1.4.1.3.5 Solid Waste Quantity and Tipping Fee 22
1.4.1.3.6 Collection and Transportation of Municipal Solid Waste 22
1.4.1.4 Role of Central, State and Local Governments 24
1.4.1.4.1 G
uidance on State and Urban Local Body Institutional
Linkages 34
1.4.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan: Link to Service Level Benchmarks 34
1.4.3 Step 2: Assessment of Current Situation or Status and Gap Analysis 36
1.4.3.1 Gap Analysis 37
1.4.3.2 Data Collection Methodology 41
1.4.3.2.1 Representative Data 41
1.4.3.3 Quantification and Composition of Waste 42
1.4.3.3.1 Waste Quantification 44
1.4.3.3.2 Determining Waste Composition 47

ix
 1.4.3.3.3 Physical Characteristics of Municipal Waste48
1.4.4 Step 3: Stakeholder Consultation for Planning 50

x Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 1.4.4.1 Departments Involved in Municipal Solid Waste Management
Planning (Internal Stakeholders) 50
1.4.4.1.1 Plan
Preparation – Core Team 50
1.4.4.1.2 Advisory Role
52
1.4.4.1.3 External
Stakeholders 52
1.4.4.2 Defining the Goals and Objectives of the Municipal Solid
Waste Management Plan 53
1.4.5 Step 4: Preparation of Draft Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan 54
1.4.5.1 Future Projections 54
1.4.5.1.1 Forecasting Waste Generation 55
1.4.5.1.2 Population Projection 55
1.4.5.2 Per Capita Waste Generation 58
1.4.5.3 Rules, Regulations and Municipal Bye-Laws 58
1.4.5.4 Planning for an Institutional Structure (to bridge the gaps) 58
1.4.5.4.1 Towns below 1 Lakh Population 59
1.4.5.4.2 Cities between 1 and 2.5 Lakh Population 59
1.4.5.4.3 Cities between 2.5 and 5 Lakh Population 60
1.4.5.4.4 Cities between 5 and 20 Lakh Population 60
1.4.5.4.5 Cities between 20 and 50 Lakh Population 60
1.4.5.4.6 Cities above 50 Lakh Population 61
1.4.5.5 Training and Capacity Building 61
1.4.5.6 Financial Implementation Structure 63
1.4.5.6.1 Overall Cost Assessment (Full Cost Assessment) 63
1.4.5.6.2Financial Viability of Municipal Solid Waste
Management System 69
1.4.5.6.3 Identification of Sources for Finance 69
1.4.5.6.4 Deficit Management 86
1.4.5.7 Analysis of Appropriate Public Private Partnership Contract Models 87
1.4.5.8 Planning for Centralised and Decentralised Facilities 91
1.4.5.8.1 R
ole of Decentralised Municipal Solid Waste Management
Systems 91
1.4.5.8.2 Management and Monitoring of Decentralised Municipal
Solid Waste Facilities 94
1.4.5.9 Arrangements for Informal Sector Integration 99
1.4.5.10 Segregated Collection (Door-to-Door Collection, Street Sweeping and
Drain Cleaning), Storage and Transportation 102
1.4.5.11 Identification of Land and Inclusion in City Master Plan or
City Development Plan 103
1.4.5.12 Pr
 ocess Selection and Best Available Technology for Processing and
Disposal 104
1.4.5.13 Pla
nning for Effective Community Participation through Information,
Education and Communication 113
 1.4.5.13.1 Communicating the Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan 114
1.4.6 Step 5: Schedule for Implementation 119
1.4.7 Step 6: Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan Validation 120
1.4.8 Step 7: Municipal Council Approval for Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan and Plan Implementation including Public Private
Partnership 121
1.4.9 Action Points for Awareness Generation through Information,
Education, and Communication Activities for Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan Implementation by the Urban Local Body 122

CHAPTER 2: TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION,

COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION
2. Technical Aspects: Segregation, Collection and Transportation 127
2.1 Waste Minimisation (At Source Reduction and Reuse) 127
2.1.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 - Requirements on Waste
Minimisation 127
2.1.2 Waste Minimisation in Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy 127
2.1.3 Need for and Benefits of Waste Minimisation 128
2.1.4 Strategies for Waste Minimisation 128
2.1.4.1 Waste Minimisation Strategies Requiring a National or
State Level Directive 128
2.1.4.2 Waste Minimisation Initiatives Requiring Urban Local Bodies
Support 131
2.1.5 Developing a Waste Minimisation Programme in Urban Local 132
Bodies
2.1.6 Ensuring Feasibility of Waste Minimisation Programmes 133
2.2 Source Segregation 134
2.2.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 - Requirements on
Source 134
Segregation
2.2.1.1 Segregation of Municipal Solid Waste at Source 137
2.2.1.2 Storage of Municipal Solid Waste at Source 146
2.2.1.2.1 Household-level Storage of Segregated Waste 146
2.2.1.2.2On-site Storage of Bulk Wastes 147
2.2.1.2.3 Storage of Municipal Solid Waste
in Public Places or Parks 148
2.2.1.3 Storage of Yard Waste or Garden Waste 148
2.2.1.4 Storage and Processing of Special Wastes Including
Domestic Hazardous Waste 149

xi
 2.2.1.5 Managing Industrial Wastes Generated Within Municipal
Jurisdictions (Excluding Industrial Estates Within
Municipal Areas) 150
2.2.2 Public Participation and Awareness 151
2.3 Collection and Transportation 155
2.3.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 - Requirements on Primary
/ Secondary Collection and Transportation 155
2.3.2 General Principles 156
2.3.3 Primary Collection 160
2.3.3.1 Location and Organisation of Primary Collection 160
2.3.4 Vehicles and Equipment for Primary Collection 164
2.3.4.1 Handcarts or Tricycles with Containers or Bins 164
2.3.4.2 Tricycle with Hydraulic Tipping Containers 165
2.3.4.3 Light Commercial Vehicles (Mini Trucks) with Hydraulic
Tipping Containers 165
2.3.4.4 Four-wheeled Mini Trucks with International Standard Bins 166
2.3.5 Staffing and Equipment Requirements for Primary Collection 167
2.3.6 Community Involvement in Primary Collection 169
2.3.7 Role of the Informal Sector in Primary Waste Collection 170
2.3.8 Secondary Collection and Transportation 175
2.3.8.1 Concept of Bin-Less Area Or City 175
2.3.8.2 Secondary Storage 176
2.3.8.3 Vehicles and Equipment for Secondary Storage Collection 177
2.3.8.3.1 Bi
ns for Community Places on Public Roads and for
Bulk Generators 177
2.3.8.3.2 Four-wheeled Compactor Containers 177
2.3.9 Criteria for Sizing Waste Storage Capacities 179
2.3.10 Maintenance of Waste Storage Depots or Containers179
2.3.10.1 Secondary Segregation and Segregation at Transfer Stations
179
2.3.11 Secondary Transportation 179
2.3.11.1 Types of Vehicles and Equipment for Transportation 179
2.3.11.1.1 Skip Truck (Dumper Placer) 180
2.3.11.1.2 Refuse Collector without Compactor 181
2.3.11.1.3 Re
ar Loading Compactor Trucks Used for
Transportation 181
2.3.11.1.4 Light
Commercial Vehicle with Tipping Floor 182
2.3.12Waste Transportation Planning and Deployment of Equipment and
Vehicles 182
2.3.12.1 Management
 Information System for Waste Transportation 186
2.3.12.2 Management of Contracts for Waste Collection
and Transportation 189

2.4 Street Cleaning 189

2.4.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 -
Requirements on Street Cleaning 190
2.4.2 Planning for Street Cleaning 190
2.4.2.1 Street Classification and Street Cleaning Frequency 191
2.4.3 Manual Street Cleaning 193
2.4.3.1 Type of Street Cleaning Equipments 193
2.4.4 Mechanised Street Cleaning 195
2.4.4.1 Mechanical Broom Sweeper 195
2.4.4.2 Regenerative Air Sweeper 196
2.4.4.3 Vacuum Sweeper 197
2.4.4.4 Financial Implications of Mechanised Street Cleaning 199
2.4.5 Cleaning of Surface Drains 199
2.4.5.1 Silt Management 200
2.4.6 Transfer Stations 201
2.4.6.1 Types of Transfer Stations 202
2.5 Action Points for Awareness Generation through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Efficient Segregation, Collection
and
Transportation 206

CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF PROCESSING AND TREATMENT

OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
3. Technical Aspects of Processing and Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste 209
3.1 Recycling and Recovery 210
3.1.1 Advantages of Recycling 210
3.1.2 Assessment of Recyclables - Characterisation and Quantification 211
3.1.3 Stages of Material Recovery 214
3.1.4 Material Recovery Facility 216
3.1.4.1 Types of Material Recovery Facility 216
3.1.4.1.1 Unit Processes in Material Recovery Facility 219
3.1.5 Need for Establishing Market Linkages and Extended Producer
Responsibility 221
3.1.6 Informal Sector Involvement in Recycling 222
3.1.7 Recycling of Plastics 223
3.1.8 Thermocol Recycling 223
3.1.9 Recycling Paper and Board 224
3.1.10 Recycling of Garden
Waste or Yard Waste 227
 3.1.11 Construction and
Demolition Waste 227
3.1.12 E-Waste 228
3.1.13 Greenhouse Gas
Mitigation Potential from Recycling and Reuse 228
3.2 Composting 229

3.2.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: Guidance On Composting 229

3.2.2 Composting in the Integrated Solid Waste Management Framework 231
3.2.3 Benefits of Composting 231
3.2.4 Need for Market Identification and Analysis 232
3.2.4.1 Constraints Faced by the Composting Sector in India 234
3.2.5 The Composting Process – Phases and Critical Parameters 236
3.2.5.1 Biological Processes 236
3.2.5.2 Chemical Parameters 237
3.2.5.3 Physical Processes 238
3.2.6 Municipal Solid Waste Feedstock for Composting 239
3.2.7 Pre-Processing of Mixed Municipal Solid Waste 240
3.2.8 Composting Technologies 244
3.2.8.1 Windrow Composting 244
3.2.8.2 Key Performance Indicators for Windrow Compost Production 244
3.2.8.3 Unit Operations in Windrow Composting 246
3.2.8.4 Aerated Static Pile Composting 254
3.2.8.5 In-Vessel Composting 256
3.2.8.6 Decentralised Composting 258
3.2.8.6.1 Bin Composting 260
3.2.8.6.2 Box Composting 260
3.2.8.7 Vermicomposting 265
3.2.9 Yard Waste Composting 268
3.2.10 Summary: Criteria for Selection of Composting Technologies 271
3.2.11 Monitoring of Compost Plants 272
3.2.11.1 Quality Parameters for Compost Production 272
3.2.12 Integration of the Informal Sector 274
3.2.13 Human Resource Requirement 274
3.2.14 Greenhouse Gas Emission Avoidance through Composting 275
3.3 Waste to Energy 276
3.3.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: Guidance On Waste to Energy 276
3.3.2 Waste to Energy (WtE) in the Integrated Solid Waste
Management Hierarchy 277
3.3.3 Incineration 278
3.3.3.1 Key Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration 279
3.3.3.2 Key Considerations for Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste 280
3.3.3.3 Overview of the Incineration Process 281
 3.3.3.4 Siting of Incineration Plant 281
3.3.3.5 Waste Reception and Handling 282
3.3.3.6 Combustion and Steam Generation System 283
3.3.3.6.1 Grate Incinerators 284
3.3.3.7 Incinerator Air Feeding 286
3.3.3.8 Flue Gas Recirculation 286

3.3.3.9 Residual Haulage and Disposal System 287

3.3.3.10 Consumption of Raw Materials and Energy by
Incineration Plants 288
3.3.3.11 Environmental
Considerations 288
3.3.3.12 Emission Reduction
in Incinerators 288
3.3.3.13 Monitoring
Requirements 290
3.4 Biomethanation 294
3.4.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: Guidance On Biomethanation 295
3.4.2 Merits of Biomethanation Process 296
3.4.3 Applicability of Biomethanation 297
3.4.4 General Process Involved in Biomethanation 297
3.4.5 Operating Parameters for Biomethanation 299
3.4.6 Types of Anaerobic Digesters in Use 301
3.4.7 Utility of Biogas Produced in Biomethanation Plants 307
3.4.7.1 Local Gas Use 307
3.4.7.2 Pipeline Injection 308
3.4.7.3 Electricity Generation 308
3.4.7.4 Purification of Biogas 308
3.5 Refuse Derived Fuel 308
3.5.1 Legal Framework for Refuse Derived Fuel Production and Utilisation 309
3.5.2 Refuse Derived Fuel in Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy 311
3.5.3 General Composition of Refuse Derived Fuel in India 311
3.5.4 Refuse Derived Fuel Potential from Municipal Solid Waste 312
3.5.5 Utilisation of Refuse Derived Fuel 312
3.5.6 Refuse Derived Fuel Production Process 313
3.5.7 Potential Use of Refuse Derived Fuel in Industry 314
3.5.7.1 Co-processing in Cement Kilns or Coal based Power Plants 315
3.5.7.1.1 Technical Specification of Boilers 315
3.5.8 Monitoring Requirements for Facilities Utilising Refuse Derived Fuel 319
3.5.9 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential from Refuse Derived
Fuel Utilisation 319
3.6 Technologies under Development 319
3.6.1 Pyrolysis 320
 3.6.1.1 Feed Stock for Pyrolysis 321
3.6.1.2 Municipal Solid Waste Pyrolysis 321
3.6.1.3 Plasma Pyrolysis Vitrification 323
3.6.2 Gasification 323
3.6.2.1 Gasification of Municipal Solid Waste 323
3.6.2.2 Types of Gasifiers for Municipal Solid Waste Treatment 324
3.6.2.3 Emerging Trends in Gasification 326
3.6.2.4 Integrated Gasification with Power Generating Equipment 328

3.6.2.5 Challenges of Operating Gasification Plants 328

3.6.2.6 Challenges of Utilising Pyrolysis and Gasification in the Indian Context 328
3.7 Construction and Demolition Waste (C&D WASTE) 329
3.7.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 – Requirements on Construction
and Demolition Waste 329
3.7.2 Construction and Demolition Waste Rules 329
3.7.3 Responsibilities of Various Stakeholders for Construction and
Demolition Waste Management 331
3.7.4 Management of Construction and Demolition Waste 334
3.7.5 Storage Collection Transportation and Disposal of Construction and
Demolition Waste 335
3.7.5.1 Site Selection for Storage, Collection, Processing and Recycling
or Processing Facilities for Construction and Demolition Waste 335
3.7.5.2 Benefits of Processing Construction and Demolition Waste 338
3.7.5.3 Reuse and Recycling Potential 340
3.7.5.4 Proposed use for Processed Construction and Demolition Waste 342
3.7.6 Siting and Managing Construction and Demolition Recycling Plants 343
3.7.6.1 Identification of Appropriate Land for Construction and
Demolition Processing Facilities 343
3.7.6.2 Siting Criteria for Storage and Processing Facilities 343
3.7.7 Environmental Considerations 344
3.8 Action Points for Awareness Generation through Information, Education, and
Communication Activities for Technical Aspects of Processing and Treatment
of
Municipal Solid Waste 347

CHAPTER 4: TECHNICAL ASPECTS: MUNICIPAL SANITARY LANDFILLS

4. Technical Aspects: Municipal Sanitary Landfills 351
4.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 - on Landfills 351
4.2 Environmental Impacts and its Minimisation 359
4.3 Types of Municipal Solid Waste to be Accepted at Landfills 359
4.4 Essential Components of Municipal Sanitary Landfills 360
4.5 Planning and Design of a Landfill 361
4.5.1 Site Selection 361
4.5.1.1 Location Criteria 362
4.5.1.2 Search Area 362
4.5.1.3 Development of a List of Potential Sites 363
4.5.1.4 Data Collection for Potential Sites 363
4.5.1.5 Field Visit for Local Verification and Identification of
Potential Sites 365
4.5.1.6 Selection of Best Ranked Sites 365
 4.5.1.7 Preliminary Environmental Impact Investigation 365
4.5.1.8 Final Site Selection 366
4.5.1.9 Site Investigation and Site Characterisation 366
4.5.2 Sanitary Landfill Design 369
4.5.2.1 Design Life 369
4.5.2.2 Specific Waste Volume: Sanitary Landfill Capacity and 369
Area
4.5.2.3 Sanitary Landfill Layout 370
4.5.2.4 Technical Design Requirements 372
4.5.2.5 Base Sealing System 373
4.5.2.6 Landfill Phasing 375
4.5.2.7 Leachate Management 377
4.5.2.7.1 Leachate Generation 377
4.5.2.7.2 Leachate Collection 377
4.5.2.7.3 Leachate Pond 381
4.5.2.7.4 Leachate Treatment 382
4.5.2.8 Waste Placement 384
4.5.2.9 Surface Sealing System 384
4.5.2.10 Infrastructure for Sanitary Landfill 385
4.5.2.10.1 Road Construction 385
4.5.2.10.2 Equipment and Resources 385
4.5.2.10.3 Waste Inspection Area or Emergency 386
Area
4.5.2.10.4 Security and Fencing 386
4.5.2.10.5 Tyre Cleaning Unit 386
4.5.2.10.6 Sanitary Landfill Buildings 386
4.5.3 Construction of a Sanitary Landfill 387
4.5.3.1 Supervision of Construction Works 387
4.5.3.2 Quality Assurance 388
4.5.3.3 Drainage Layer 393
4.5.3.4 Leachate Collection System 393
4.5.3.5 Slope Stability Aspects and Seismic Aspects 395
4.5.4 Sanitary Landfill Operation 396
4.5.4.1 General Requirements 396
4.5.4.1.1 Operation Manual 396
4.5.4.1.2 Employee Assignments and Responsibilities 396
4.5.4.1.3 Staff Responsibilities and Qualifications 397
4.5.4.1.4 Hours of Opening and Operation 398
4.5.4.1.5 Site Notice Board 398
4.5.4.1.6 Site Security 398
4.5.4.2 Waste Reception and Control of Incoming Waste 399
4.5.4.2.1 Execution of the Weighing Process 399
4.5.4.3 Waste Assignment 399

xviii Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

4.5.4.3.1 Preparing of Filling Plans 400

xvii
 4.5.4.4 Filling and Compaction Procedure of Waste 400
4.5.4.5 Covering of Waste 402
4.5.4.5.1 Daily Cover 402
4.5.4.5.2 Intermediate Cover 402
4.5.4.5.3 Temporary Surface Cover 402
4.5.4.5.4 Covering during the Monsoon 402
4.5.4.6 Final Cover (Surface Sealing System) 403
4.5.4.7 Landfill Gas Management 403
4.5.4.7.1 Controlled Passive Venting 403
4.5.4.7.2 Controlled Active Collection and Treatment or Reuse 404
4.5.4.8 Sanitary Landfill Roads 405
4.5.4.8.1 Road Construction 405
4.5.4.8.2 Main and Temporary Roads 405
4.5.4.8.3 Road Maintenance 406
4.5.4.9 Storm Water Management 406
4.5.4.9.1 Surface Water Collection 406
4.5.4.9.2 Storm Water Retention Pond 407
4.5.4.9.3 Maintenance of the Storm Water System 407
4.5.4.10 Landfill Equipment 408
4.5.4.10.1 Required Equipment 408
4.5.4.10.2 Maintenance of Mobile Equipment 409
4.5.4.11 Housekeeping on the Sanitary Landfill 409
4.5.4.11.1 Health and Safety 409
4.5.4.11.2 General Safety Measures 410
4.5.4.11.3 Person Related Safety Measures 410
4.5.4.11.4 First Aid 410
4.5.4.11.5 Personnel Accidents 411
4.5.4.11.6 Fire Prevention and Protection 411
4.5.4.12 Environmental Monitoring 412
4.5.5 Closure and Post Closure Plan 412
4.5.5.1 Plantation at Landfill Site 412
4.5.6 Considerations for Landfill Costing 412
4.5.7 Existing Dumpsite Closure or Reclamation 414
4.5.7.1 Dumpsite Closure 414
4.5.7.2 Dumpsite Reclamation 416
4.5.7.3 Method for Dumpsite Reclamation 416
4.5.7.3.1 Excavation 416
4.5.7.3.2 Screening 417
4.5.7.4 Expansion of Landfill Operations in Existing Waste
Dump or Landfill 421
4.5.7.5 Assessing Utility of the Closed or Covered Dumpsite –
Post 15 years 422
 4.6 Action Points for Awareness Generation through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Municipal Sanitary Landfills 423

CHAPTER 5: MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN IMPLEMENTATION

5. Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan Implementation 427
5.1 Obtaining Statutory Clearances for Municipal Solid Waste Management Facilities 428
5.1.1 Identification of Land for Municipal Solid Waste Management Processing,
Treatment and Disposal – Preliminary Environmental Assessment 429
5.1.2 Environmental Impact Assessment Requirements for Municipal
Solid Waste Management Facilities 430
5.1.2.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Stakeholders Involved in
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 432
5.1.2.2 Procedure for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Clearance 432
5.2 Preparation of Action Plans and Detailed Project Reports 435
5.2.1 Action Plans for Municipal Solid Waste Management Service Provision 436
5.2.2 Assessment of Suitability of Projects for Implementation through
Public Private Partnership Mode 436
5.2.3 Detailed Project Reports for Infrastructure Based Projects 440
5.3 Considerations for Contracting a Municipal Solid Waste Management Service 443
5.3.1 Contracting Arrangements for municipal Solid Waste Service Provision 445
5.4 Tendering, Contract Management and Supervision 448
5.4.1 Engaging With a Public Private Partner 449
5.4.2 Tendering Process for Public Private Partnership Projects 450
5.4.2.1 Single Stage Process 450
5.4.2.2 Two Stage Process 451
5.4.3 Request for Proposal (RFP) from ULBs 452
5.4.3.1 Volume I: Instruction To Bidders (ITB) 452
5.4.3.2 Volume II: Minimum Mandatory Technical and Performance
Specifications or Project Information Memorandum 453
5.4.3.3 Volume III: Draft Concession Agreement 453
5.4.4 Suggested Contents of Proposals from Bidders 456
5.4.5 Cost Escalation 457
5.4.5.1 Annual Escalation in General Costs 457
5.4.5.2 Price Increase on Account of Increase in Diesel Or
Staffing Costs 458
5.4.6 Evaluation and Selection 459
5.4.7 Contract Monitoring 460

xix
 5.5 Operationalising the Financial Plan 462
5.6 Action Points for Awareness Generation through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan
Implementation 463

CHAPTER 6: MANAGEMENT ASPECTS: MONITORING MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICE PROVISION
6. Management Aspects: Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste Management
Service Provision 469
6.1 Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste Management Service Provision 469
6.1.1 Data Collection and Analysis for Monitoring 470
6.1.2 Monitoring Achievement of Service Level Benchmarks 476
6.1.3 Management Information System 477
6.1.3.1 Record Keeping 483
6.2 Operation and Maintenance Plan for Municipal Solid Waste
Management Services 483
6.3 Preventive Maintenance 485
6.3.1 Benefits of Preventive Maintenance 486
6.4 Complaint Redressal System 487
6.4.1 Elements of a Complaint Redressal System 488
6.5 Environmental and Occupational Health Monitoring of Municipal Solid Waste
Treatment, Processing and Disposal Facilities 489
6.5.1 Environmental Monitoring as per Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 490
6.5.2 Reporting Requirements 491
6.6 Training Requirements for Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste Service Provision 492
6.7 Action Points for Awareness Generation Through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste
Service Provision 493

CHAPTER 7: MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL WASTE INCLUDING

DOMESTIC HAzARDOUS WASTE
7. Management of Special Waste Including Domestic Hazardous Waste 497
7.1 Introduction to Special Waste Including Domestic Hazardous Waste 497
7.2 Existing Rules for Management of Special Waste Including Domestic Hazardous
Waste 497
7.3 Special Waste Management including Domestic Hazardous Waste –
Guidance from the Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) Hierarchy 500
 7.4 Plastic Waste 500
7.4.1 Excerpts From the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 500
7.4.2 Composition of Plastics 504
7.4.3 Plastic Waste Management 505
7.4.4 Recycling of Plastic Wastes 506
7.4.4.1 Steps Involved in the Recycling Process 507
7.4.5 Sustainable Disposal of Plastic Waste 507
7.4.6 Co-processing and Co-incineration of Plastic Waste as Alternative
Fuel and Raw Material (AFR) in Cement Kilns 507
7.4.7 Other Plastic Waste Disposal Options 509
7.4.7.1 Use of Waste Plastic in Construction of Bituminous Roads 509
7.4.7.2 Conversion of Plastic Waste into Liquid Fuel 510
7.4.7.3 Incineration of Plastic Waste 511
7.5 Bio-medical Waste 511
7.5.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 - Requirements on
Bio-Medical Waste 511
7.5.2 Collection and Segregation of Waste in Health Care Establishments 512
7.6 Slaughterhouse Waste 513
7.6.1 Processing Slaughterhouse Waste 514
7.7 Electric and Electronic Waste 518
7.7.1 E-waste Management Rules, 2016 518
7.7.2 Current status of E-waste Generation and its Management 519
7.7.3 E-waste Categories 519
7.8 Waste Tyres 521
7.8.1 Storage of Used Tyres 522
7.8.2 Reuse of Used Tyres 522
7.8.3 Processing of Used Tyres 522
7.8.4 Co-processing of Waste Tyres 522
7.9 Lead Battery Waste 523
7.9.1 The Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001 523
7.10 Action Points for Awareness Generation Through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Special Waste Including Domestic
Hazardous Waste 524

xxi
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

FIGURE
S
Figure 1.1: Integrated Solid Waste Management System Hierarchy 5
Figure 1.2: Seven-Step Approach for Developing a Plan* 8
Figure 1.3: Step 1 in Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan 14
Figure 1.4: Step 2 in Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan 37
Figure 1.5: An Overview of Baseline Information Required for Strategic 37
Planning
Figure 1.6: Considerations for Gap Analysis 38
Figure 1.7: Characterisation of Municipal Solid Waste through Quartering 49
Method
Figure 1.8: Step 3 in the Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan 51
Figure 1.9: Step 4: Preparation of Draft Municipal Solid Waste Management 55
Plan
Figure 1.10: Capacity Building Approaches for Different Stakeholders 63
Figure 1.11: Elements of Full Cost Accounting 65
Figure 1.12: Step 5: Schedule for Implementation 120
Figure 1.13: Components of the Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan 120
Figure 1.14: Components of a Short term Plan 121
Figure 1.15: Step 6: Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan Validation 121
Figure 1.16: Step 7 in Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan 122
Figure 2.1: Waste Minimisation in the Integrated Solid Waste
Management Waste Hierarchy 127
Figure 2.2: Developing a Waste Minimisation Programme 132
Figure 2.3: Bins for Collection of Dry Waste and Wet Waste for Household 143
Figure 2.4: Typical Waste Collection Bins in Parks and along Walk-Ways 144
Figure 2.5: Flow Chart for Household Waste Collection, Transportation and 158
Disposal
Figure 2.6: Flow Charts for Collection, Transportation and Disposal of
Street Sweeping and Drain Silt 159
Figure 2.7: Flow Chart for Collection, Transportation and Disposal
of Vegetable Market Waste 160
Figure 2.8: Hand Carts with Bins 165
Figure 2.9: Tricycle with Hydraulic Tipping Container 165
Figure 2.10: Mini Truck with Hydraulic Container 166
Figure 2.11: Waste Picker with Recyclable Material 172
Figure 2.12: Synchronised Primary Collection and Secondary Storage 176
Figure 2.13: Skip Truck (Dumper Placer Machines) 180
Figure 2.14: Medium Size Compactor Truck 181
Figure 2.15: Transfer of Waste from Secondary Collection Bins to Refuse 182
Compactor
Figure 2.16: Fan-shaped and Bunched Filament Brooms (Delhi Model) 194
Figure 2.17: Mechanical Broom Sweeper 196
Figure 2.18: Regenerative Air Sweeper 197
Figure 2.19: Vacuum Sweeper and Vacuum Nozzle 197
Figure 2.20: Self-propelled Road Sweeping Machine 198
Figure 2.21: Truck Mounted with Pressure Water Jetting and Suction 200
Machine
Figure 2.22: Direct Transfer Station 202
Figure 2.23: Stationary Compactor Transfer Station Design 203
Figure 2.24: Typical Activities at the Transfer Station 203
Figure Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy 209
3.1:
Figure Recycling in Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy 210
3.2:
Figure Municipal Solid Waste Characterisation in India 212
3.3:
Figure Stages of Material Recovery in Municipal Solid
3.4: Waste Management Chain 215
Figure Indicative Material Recovery Facility and Pre-sorting Facility
3.5: for Mixed Waste 217
Figure Indicative Material Recovery Facility and Pre-sorting
3.6: Facility Dedicated to Dry Waste 218
Figure Indicative Material Recovery Facility and Pre-sorting
3.7: Facility Dedicated to Wet Waste 218
Figure Composting in the Integrated Solid Waste Management 231
3.8: Hierarchy
Figure Process of Aerobic Composting 236
3.9:
Figure 3.10: Pre-processing of Mixed Municipal Solid Waste 239
Figure 3.11: Process Flowchart and Mass Balance for Aerobic Windrow
Composting of 500 Tonnes Per Day of Waste 245
Figure 3.12: Windrow Sizing Calculations 247
Figure 3.13: Arrangements and Turning of Windrows 249
Figure 3.14: Squeeze Test to Estimate Moisture Content 250
Figure 3.15: Unit Operations in Windrow Composting 252
Figure 3.16: Aerated Static Pile 256
Figure 3.17: Composting Process in In-Vessel Composting 257
Figure 3.18: Bin Composting 260
Figure 3.19: Cross Section of Typical 3 Tonne Composting Box 262
Figure 3.20: Typical Cross Section of Composting Box 263
Figure 3.21: Cross Section of Drainage Channels and Vertical Pipes 263
Figure 3.22: WtE in the Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy 277
Figure 3.23: Typical Mass Burn Incinerator 282
Figure 3.24: Grate Furnace and Heat Recovery Stages of a Municipal Waste
Incineration Plant 284

xxiii
 Figure 3.25: Biomethanation Plant for 50 TPD Feed (Biodegradable
MSW and Cattle Manure) 306
Figure 3.26: Refuse Derived Fuel in Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy 311

xxiii Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Figure 3.27: Refuse Derived Fuel Production Line (Pelletization) 313
Figure 3.28: Municipal Solid Waste Pyrolysis 322
Figure 3.29: Waste Gasification Plant 324
Figure 4.1: Section of Typical Sanitary Landfill 360
Figure 4.2: Typical Sanitary Landfill Layout with Facilities 371
Figure 4.3: Base Liner 374
Figure 4.4: a and b: Longitudinal Section Profile of Landfill Phasing (Not to 375
Scale)
Figure 4.5: Liner Placement at the Edges of the Landfill 376
Figure 4.6: Support of Leachate Pipes 378
Figure 4.7: Placement of the High density Polyethylene Liner over the Clay 379
Liner
Figure 4.8: Placement of the Gravel Drainage Layer and Geotextile over the Clay 380
Liner
Figure 4.9a: Leachate Collection Pipes Connected to a Sump (through the 380
liner)
Figure 4.9b: Leachate Collection Pipes Connected to a Sump (through a
riser on the side slopes) 380
Figure 4.9c: Leachate Collection Pipes Connected to a Sump (sump within the
footprint of the landfill) 381
Figure 4.10: Sealed Leachate Pond with Two Basins 382
Figure 4.11: Irrigation of Leachate on the Slopes of the Pond. 383
Figure 4.12: Surface Liner System 385
Figure 4.13: Sanitary Landfill under Construction 387
Figure 4.14: Construction of Test Field 388
Figure 4.15: Test Field with all Sealing Components 389
Figure 4.16: Welding of HDPE Geomembrane 391
Figure 4.17: Proof of welding seams 391
Figure 4.18: Welding of Leachate Pipes 394
Figure 4.19: Proper Holed Leachate Pipes 395
Figure 4.20: Filling and Compaction Method 401
Figure 4.21: Landfill Compactor 401
Figure 4.22: Placement of Passive Vent 404
Figure 4.23: Gas Recovery through Wells-Active 405
Figure 4.24: Surface Water Drainage System in Completed Landfill 407
Figure 4.25: Old Waste in New Landfill 415
Figure 4.26: Closure of Old Waste Dump with Cover 415
Figure 4.27: Expansion of Waste Dump 421
Figure 4.28: Relocation of Waste 421
Figure 4.29a: Horizontal Expansion (Option A – preferred) 421
Figure 4.29b: Horizontal Expansion (Option B) 422
Figure 5.1: Components of Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan 427
Figure 5.2: Environmental Impact Assessment Clearance Requirements for
Municipal Solid Waste Management Projects 431
 Figure 5.3: Steps for Conducting an Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 434
Figure 5.4: Hierarchy of Environmental Impact Mitigation Options 435
Figure 5.5: Public Private Partnerships – Stages of Implementation. 437
Figure 5.6: Process for Determining Suitability of Projects for Public
Private Partnership Implementation 440
Figure 6.1: Minimum Data Requirement for MIS, GIS and GPS Systems 479
Figure 7.1: Options for Plastic Waste Management 506
Figure 7.2: Use of Plastic Waste in Construction of Bituminous Road 510

TABLE
S
Table 1.1: Important Policy Landmarks and Initiatives by Government of India on
Solid Waste Management 16
Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid
Waste Management 24
Table 1.3: Service Level Benchmarks for Solid Waste Management 36
Table 1.4: Matrix for Collection of Baseline Information (including
statutory requirements as per SWM Rules, 2016 and SLBs) 39
Table 1.5: Per-capita Waste Generation Rates from NEERI Study in 1996 44
Table 1.6: Physical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste 44
Table 1.7: Indicative Front-end Costs in a Typical Municipal Solid Waste
Management System 66
Table 1.8: Indicative Format for Assessing Capital Costs for Collection and
Transportation System for Municipal Solid Waste Management 67
Table 1.9: Indicative Format for Assessing Capi
tal Costs for Establishing Processing
and Disposal Systems for Municipal Solid Waste Management 68
Table 1.10: Indicative Format for Assessing Capital Costs for Collection and
Transportation System for Municipal Solid Waste Management 68
Table 1.10: Indicative Format for Assessing Capital Costs for Collection and
Transportation System for Municipal Solid Waste Management 69
Table 1.11: Format for Assessing Financial Deficits for Provision of Municipal Solid
Waste Management Services 70
Table 1.12: Mechanisms for Recovery of Municipal Solid Waste Management
User Charges 80
Table 1.13: Format for Assessing the Gap and Bridging the Financial Deficit for
Municipal Solid Waste Management Services 87
Table 1.14: Key Characteristics of Contracts in Municipal Solid Waste Sector 88
Table 1.15: Contracting Models & Private Sector Responsibilities 90
Table 1.15: Contracting Models and Private Sector Responsibilities [contd.] 91
Table 1.16: Management Models for Decentralised Waste Management 96
Table 1.17: Criteria for Identifying Suitable Land for Sanitary Landfill Sites 104

xxvi Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or
1.18: Combination of Technologies 106
Table Stages of Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan Implementation
1.19: – Objectives and Target Audience 116
Table 2.1: Indicative List for Segregation of Household Wastes, 140
Table 2.2: Elements of Primary Waste Collection System 167
Table 2.3: Estimates for Deployment of Vehicles and Manpower
for Primary Collection 169
Table 2.4: Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan for Municipal Councils
and A, B, C Class Cities, 183
Table 2.5: Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan for Municipal Corporations 184
Table 2.6: Street Sweeping Norms for Small towns or Small Cities or Mega 191
Cities
Table 2.7: Typical Classification of Streets and Frequency of Sweeping 192
Table 3.1: Important Recycling Material: Recycling Potential and Special 212
Conditions
Table 3.2: Different Processes or Stages and Equipment Employed in a
Material Recovery Facility 220
Table 3.3: Pre-processing: Sorting of Mixed Municipal Solid Waste 242
Feedstock
Table 3.4: Vermicomposting- Problems, Possible Causes and Solutions 268
Table 3.5: Yard Composting-Problems and Solutions 270
Table 3.6: Summary of Different Composting Technologies 271
Table 3.7: Compost Quality Standards as per Solid Waste Management Rules,
2016; Fertiliser Control Order, 2009; and Fertiliser Control 273
Order, 2013
Table 3.8: Vermicompost Standards as per Fertilizer Control Order, 2009 274
Table 3.9: Indicative Staff Requirement for a 300 TPD Compost Plant 275
(Windrow)
Table Air Emission Control Technologies 289
3.10:
Table The Stack Emission Standards for Treatment and Utilisation
3.11: of Municipal Solid Waste Using Incinerator or Thermal 291
Technologies
Table Emission Norms for Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste
3.12: as per European Union Directive 292
Table Indicative Net Calorific Value of Refuse Derived Fuel vs. Coal 312
3.13:
Table Thermal Capacity of Different Gasifier Design 326
3.14:
Table C&D Wastes and Their Reuse Potential 341
3.15:
Table Potential Environmental Issues with Siting and Managing
3.16: a Construction and Demolition Recycling Facility 345
Table Ambient Air Quality at the Processing or Recycling Site and in the 346
3.17: Vicinity
Table 4.1: Criteria for Identifying Suitable Land for Sanitary Landfill Sites 362
Table 4.2: Rough Guidance for Sanitary Landfill Sizes 363
Table 4.3: Data Collection and Sources 363
Table 4.4: Minimum Slopes Inside the Sanitary Landfill 374
Table 4.5: Provisional Staffing Table 396
Table 4.6: Staff Qualification 397
Table 4.7: Equipment Required on a Sanitary Landfill 408
Table 4.8: Equipment required based on size of Sanitary Landfill 408
Table 4.9: Components of a Sanitary Landfill 413
Table 5.1: Actions for Preparation of Short term Municipal Solid
Waste Management Plan 427
Table 5.2: Indicative Contents for Pre-Feasibility Study 436
Table 5.3: Indicative Checklist for a Detailed Project Report 441
Table 5.4: Typical Services Bundled for Contracting 448
Table 5.5: List of Articles in the Concession Agreement 456
Table 5.6: Contract Monitoring – Activities or Clauses 462
Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste Management Data Collection and Analysis 471
Table 6.2: Monitoring Achievement of Service Level Benchmarks
for Municipal Solid Waste Management Service 476
Provision
Table 7.1: Existing Rules for Treatment of Special waste 498
Table 7.2: Central Pollution Control Board Guidance on Protocol for
Co-processing of Plastic Waste 508
Table 7.3: Classification of Slaughterhouses 513
Table 7.4: Methods for Processing, Utilisation and Disposal of Solid Wastes from
Slaughterhouse 515
Table 7.5: Categories of electronic wastes as per E- Waste
Management Rules, 2016 520
Table 7.6: Typical Product Yield from Scrap Tyres 522

xxvii
ABBREVIATIONS

ABC Asphalt, Brick and Concrete

ABS Area Based System
AD Anaerobic Digestion
ADB Asian Development Bank
ADDA Asansol Durgapur Development Authority
ADS Air Density Separator / De-stoner
AFR Alternative Fuels and Raw material
ALM Advanced Locality Management
AMC Asansol Municipal Corporation
APITC Andhra Pradesh Industrial & Technical Consultancy Organization
APPCB Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board
ASR Auto Shredder Residue
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BARC Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
BBMP Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palika
BFB Bubbling Fluidized Bed
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BOO Build Own Operate
BOOT Build Own Operate and Transfer
BOT Build Operate Transfer
C&D Construction & Demolition
CA Concession Agreement
CAA Constitutional Amendment Act
CBG Compressed Biogas
CBOs Community Based Organizations
CCF Clean City Foundation
CE Combustion Efficiency
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CFB Circulating Fluidized Bed
CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamps
CIPET Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology
CMA Commissionerate of Municipal Administration
CMWMF Common Municipal Waste Management Facilities
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CoC Cochin Municipal Corporation
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CoP Corporation of Panaji
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization
CPU Carcass Processing Unit
CPWD Central Public Works Department
CREDAI Confederation of Real Estate Developers’ Associations of India
CRRI Central Road Research Institute
CSI City Sanitary Inspector
CSP City Sanitation Plan
CSTR Continuously Stirred Tank Reactor
D2D Door-to-door
DBFOT Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer
DBO Design-Build-Operate
DBOOT Design-Build-Own-Operate and Transfer
DC Drain Cleaning
DEA Department of Economic Affairs
DMA Directorate of Municipal Administration
DMC Durgapur Municipal Corporation
DPR Detailed Project Report
DRANCO Dry Anaerobic Composting
DRE Destruction Removal Efficiency
DWCC Dry Waste Collection Centres
EAC Expert Appraisal Committee
EDMC East Delhi Municipal Corporation
EIA Environment Impact Assessment
EM Effective Micro Organisms
EMP Environmental Management Plan
EoI Expression of Interest
EPF Employment Provident Fund
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
EPS Expanded Polystyrene
EPTRI Environment Protection Training and Research Institute
ESI Employees’ State Insurance
ESP Electrostatic Precipitator
ETP Effluent Treatment Plant
EU European Union
FAQ Frequently Asked Question
FCA Full Cost Accounting
FCO Fertilizer Control Order
FGT Flue Gas Treatment

xxix
FRP Fiber Reinforced Plastic
GCL Geo Synthetic Clay Liner
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Green House Gas
GIS Geographic Information System
GNCTD Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi
GoI Government of India
GPRA General Pool Residential Accommodation
GPRS General Packet Radio Identification
GPS Global Positioning System
GSB Granular Sub Base
GSI Geologic Survey of India
HAPs Hazardous Air Pollutants
HDPE High-Density Polyethylene
HH Households
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
HUDCO Housing and Urban Development Corporation
IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute
IC Internal Combustion
ICICI Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IDBI Industrial Development Bank of India
IDFC Infrastructure Development Finance Company
IEC Information, Education and Communication
IEISL IL&FS Environmental Infrastructure and Services Limited
IFCI Industrial Finance Corporation of India
IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
IL&FS Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services
ILO International Labour Organization
IMD Indian Meteorological Department
IPNM Integrated Plant Nutrient Management
IREDA Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
IS Indian Standards
ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management
ITB Instruction to Bidders
JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation
JMC Jabalpur Municipal Corporation
JnNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
KfW Kreditanstalt fü r Wiederaufbau
KKPKP Kagad Kach Patra Kashtakari Panchayat
KKPNSPS Kagad Kach Patra Sahkari Patra Sansthan
KMC Kolkata Municipal Corporation
KPI Key Performance Indicators
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LCS Leachate Collection System
LCV Light Commercial Vehicle
LDO Light Diesel Oil
LDPE Low-density polyethylene
LED Light Emitting Diode
LEL Lower Explosive Limit
LIC Life Insurance Corporation of India
LoI Letter of Intent
LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas
M&E Monitoring & Evaluation
MCD Municipal Corporation of Delhi
MCGM Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai
MIS Management Information System
MMRDA Maharashtra Metropolitan Regional Development Authority
MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment and Forests & Climate Change
MoUD Ministry of Urban Development
MPPCB Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board
MRF Material Recovery Facility
MSW (M&H) Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling)
MSWMP Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NABL National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories
NAC Notified Area Committee
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NBCC National Buildings Construction
Company NCC National Cadet Corps
NCRPB National Capital Region Planning Board
NCV Net Calorific Value
NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
NGO Non- Government Organization
NGRI National Geophysical Research Institute
NIMBY Not in My Backyard
NMC Nashik Municipal Corporation
NMMC Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation
NMSH National Mission on Sustainable
Habitat NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation

xxxi
NUSP National Urban Sanitation Policy
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OHSAS Occupational Health and Safety Assessment System
OMC Optimum Oxygen Content
OWC Organic Waste Converters
PBG Performance Bank Guarantee
PBVS Parisar Bhagini Vikas Sangha
PCC Pollution Control Committee
PCMC Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation
PFDF Pooled Finance Development Fund
PIL Public Interest Litigation
PIM Project Information Memorandum
PNG Piped Natural Gas
PPE Personal Protection Equipment
PPP Public Private Partnership
PROM Phosphate Rich Organic Manure
PS Polystyrene
PSA Pressure Swing Adsorption
PSP Private Sector Participation
PTO Power Take-Off
PUF Polyurethane Foam
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
PVP Parisar Vikas Programme
RA Recycled Aggregates
RCA Recycled Concrete Aggregates
RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RFP Request for Proposal
RFQ Request for Qualification
RMC Ready Mix Concrete
RPM Respirable Particulate Matter
RSPM Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter
RWA Resident Welfare Association
S.I. Sanitary Inspector
S.O Sanitary Officer
S.S. Sanitary Supervisor
S.S.I Sanitary Sub-Inspector
SC&T Street Collection & Transportation
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction
SEAC State Expert Appraisal Committee
SEHB Shimla Environment Heritage Conservation and Beautification Society
SEIAA State Environment Impact Assessment Authority
SHGs Self Help Groups
SLB Service Level Benchmark
SLF Sanitary Landfill Facility
SMC Saharanpur Municipal Corporation
SMS Stree Mukti Sanghathana
SNCR Selective Non-catalytic Reduction
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SPCB State Pollution Control Board
SPFE State Pooled Finance Entities
SPI Society of the Plastics Industry
SS Street Sweeping
SSD Saturated Surface Dry
SSS State Sanitation Strategy
STP Sewage Treatment Plant
SWaCH Solid Waste Collection & Handling
TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
TEAM TERI Enhanced Acidification and
Methanation TERI The Energy & Resources Institute
TOR Terms of Reference
TPD Tonnes per Day
TSDF Treatment, Storage & Disposal Facility
UAFP Up-flow Anaerobic Filter Process
UASB Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
UDD Urban Development Department
UIDSSMT Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small & Medium Towns
UIG Urban Infrastructure and Governance
ULB Urban Local Body
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UV Ultra Violet
VAT Value Added Tax
WEEE Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
WMC Warangal Municipal Corporation
WOW Waste Out of Wealth
WPLF Waste Processing & Landfill
WTE Waste to Energy

xxxiii
CHEMICALS AND COMPOUNDS

As Arsenic
C Carbon
C6H5OH Phenol / Carbolic Acid
Cd Cadmium
CH4 Methane
Cl Chloride
CN Cyanide
CO Carbon monoxide
Co Cobalt
CO2 Carbon dioxide
Cr Chromium
Cu Copper
F Fluoride
H2S Hydrogen sulphide
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HF Hydrogen fluoride
Hg Mercury
K Potassium
K2O Potassium Oxide
KF Potassium fluoride
Li-ion Lithium-ion
LSHS Low Sulphur Heavy Stock
Mn Manganese
MS Multi station
N Nitrogen
Ni Nickel
NO Nitrogen monoxide
NOx Nitrogen oxides
P Potassium
P2O5 Phosphorus pentoxide
PAHs Polychlorinated Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Pb Lead
PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyl
PCDD Polychlorinated di-benzodioxins
PCDF Polychlorinated di-benzofurans
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
 pH Acidity or alkalinity of a solution
PM Particulate Matter
POP Persistent Organic Pollutants
PP Polypropylene
Sb Antimony
Sn Tin
SO2 Sulphur oxide
SO4 Sulphate
Th Thorium
TI Thallium
TOC Total organic carbon
TPH Tonnes per Hour
V Vanadium
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
Zn Zinc

xxxvi Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

METRIC CONVERSION TABLE

AREA
ha Hectares 1 hectare = 2.47 acres or 1,07,639
square feet (sq ft)
sq.km Square kilometre 1 sq. km = 0.386102 square mile (sq
mi)

LENGTH
km Kilometre 1 km = 1000 m
m Meter 1 m = 1000 cm
cm Centimetre 1 cm = 1000 mm
mm Millimetre 1 mm = 1000 µm
µm Micrometre

VOLUME
l Litre 1 l = 0.001 m m3
m3 or cu.m Cubic metre 1 m3 or cu.m = 10,00,000 cm3
cm3 Cubic centimetre 1 cm3 = 1e+21 Nm3
Nm3 Normal cubic metres
TEQ / Nm3 Dioxin toxic equivalent
per normal cubic
metres
KLD Kilolitre per day

MASS
MT or T Metric tonne or tonne 1 MT or T = 1000 kg
kg Kilogram 1 kg = 1000 g
g Gram 1 g = 10,00,000 μg
μg Microgram
gsm Grams per square metre

ENERGY
MW Megawatt 1 MW = 1000 KW
kW Kilowatt 1 KW = 1000 W
kcal Kilocalories 1 kcal = 1000 cal

TEMPERATURE
°C Celsius 1°C = 33.800 Fahrenheit (°F)
CURRENCY CONVERSION CHART

INDIAN NUMBERING SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL NUMBERING

SYSTEM
One lakh One hundred thousand
1,00,000 100,000
Ten lakhs One million
10,00,000 1,000,000
One crore Ten millions
1,00,00,000 10,000,000
Ten crores Hundred millions
10,00,00,000 100,000,000
Hundred crores One billion
100,00,00,000 1,000,000,000
xxxviii Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent
 1
Municipal Solid
Waste Plan:
Step-Wise Guidance

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE GUIDANCE 1

 IN THIS SECTION

1.1 Requirements and stipulations by the Rules 3

1.2 Guiding Principles for Municipal Solid Waste Management 4
1.3 Overview of Developing a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan in an
Urban Local Body 8
1.4 Seven Step Approach for Municipal Solid Waste Management Planning 14

2 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE
GUIDANCE
As many of the municipal authorities are still to develop in-house
capabilities to independently govern their solid waste, the central and
state governments continue to play aMSWM crucialis role
an integral component
by formulating
of municipal services delivered by ULBs, who are respo
policies, programmes, and regulations and by providing technical and
environment of a city Therefore, preparation and imple
financial assistance for infrastructure development
of a strategic including
and detailed MSWM plan is essential
management of municipal solid waste (MSW) in urban areas. Although
municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is an essential service and
a mandatory function of municipal authorities across the country, it is
still being managed in an unplanned manner, giving rise to
environmental degradation and serious health problems especially for
women and children. This clearly underlines the need for preparing a
strategic and detailed MSWM plan by the urban local bodies (ULBs).
Every ULB should undertake the preparation of a MSWM plan,
addressing short term and long term actions.

1.1 REqUIREMENTS AND STIPULATIONS BY THE RULES

Clause 15(a) of Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016
stipulate that the local authorities shall “ prepare a solid waste
management plan as per state policy and strategy on solid waste
management within six months from the date of notification of state
policy and strategy and submit a copy to respective departments of
State Government or Union territory Administration or agency
authorised by the State Government or Union territory
Administration” SWM Rules, 2016 stipulate that every ULB shall prepare a MSWM pla

This chapter provides stepwise guidance to local authorities in the

preparation of MSWM plans. MSWM is essentially a municipal
function; it is mandatory for all municipal authorities to provide this
service efficiently to keep the cities and towns clean and to dispose the
MSW in an environmentally acceptable manner, complying with the
SWM Rules, 2016.

It is also pertinent that MSWM systems adopt measures (as per the
Supreme Court Directives, 1998) which not only reduce environmental
degradation but also look at how high levels of toxins are affecting
the health of men, women, and children. The state level municipal acts
clearly mention the mandatory functions and additional discretionary
functions that the ULBs must perform. ULBs, therefore, have to
prioritise their mandatory functions by duly considering their current
status and deficiencies.

It is imperative to take stock of the existing situation and develop an

MSWM plan, which addresses all aspects of MSWM in compliance

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 3

GUIDANCE
 with the SWM Rules, 2016 and in alignment with the respective

4 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 State Sanitation Strategy under the National Urban Sanitation Policy
(NUSP), and which follows the principles of the Integrated Solid Waste
Management (ISWM) hierarchy.
MSWM Plan: once every 20-25 years
MSWM Plan – once every 5 years
The MSWM plan encompasses:
ort term plan: once every 2-3 years
(i) institutional strengthening;
(ii) human resources development;
(iii)technical capacity building;
(iv) financial capacity and arrangements (public private partnership
[PPP] framework);
(v) community participation;
(vi) legal framework and mechanism for enforcement; and
(vii) public grievance or complaint redressal.

The MSWM plan should consider a long term planning horizon of 20–
25 years. Short term implementation plans covering 5 years each
should be slotted within the long term plan for ease of implementation.
The short term plan should be reviewed and updated once every 2–3
years for any midcourse correction as required. Local authorities
should ensure that the short term plan is aligned with long term
planning and implementation.

1.2 GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT
MSWM in
1.2.1 THE INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ring the generation, segregation,
very, and disposal of waste in an integrated manner, with
ency of resource use MSWM and adoption of processing technologies are dependent on
the quantity and characteristics of the total waste generated in a local
authority, the financial resources available, and in-house capability of
local authorities to oversee project implementation.

be prevented or recycled can be processed for energy recovery (tier 4). Tier 5 is disposal of waste in sanitary landfill, w
 Figure 1.1: Integrated Solid Waste Management System Hierarchy

ferred
minimization and sustainable use/multi use At Source Reduction & Reuseof products (e.g.
Thereuse
ISWMof carry bags/packaging
hierarchy ranks waste managemen
ng non-biodegradable waste to recover Recyclingcommercially valuable materials (e.g. plastic, paper,
lass and e-waste recycling)
according to their environmental be
ng organic waste to recover compost (e.g.
tingwindrow composting, in-vessel composting, vermi composting)
oRecovering energy before final disposal of waste Energy(e.g. RDF, biomethanation, co-processing of
tible non-biodegradable dry fraction of
cineration)

Landfills
ferred

Safe disposal of inert residual waste at sanitary landfills

 At source reduction and reuse: The most preferred option for waste
management in the ISWM hierarchy is to prevent the generation of
waste at various stages including in the design, production,
packaging, use, and reuse of products. Waste prevention helps to
Preferential order of waste management options as per the ISWM
reduce handling, treatment, and disposal costs and various
Waste Recycling Composting Waste to Energy Waste Disposal
environmental impacts such as leachate, air emissions, and
generation of greenhouse gases (GHG). Minimisation of waste
generation at source and reuse of products are the most preferred
waste prevention strategies.

 Waste recycling: The next preferred option for waste management

in the ISWM hierarchy is recycling of waste to recover material
resources through segregation, collection, and re-processing to
create new products. In the waste management hierarchy,
composting is considered as an organic material recovery process
and is often considered at the same hierarchical level as inorganic
waste recycling.

 Waste to energy: Where material recovery from waste is not

possible, energy recovery from waste through production of heat,
electricity, or fuel is preferred. Biomethanation, waste incineration,
production of refuse derived fuel (RDF), co-processing of
combustible non- biodegradable dry fraction from MSW in cement
kilns and pyrolysis or gasification are some waste-to-energy
technologies.

 Waste disposal: Residual inert wastes at the end of the hierarchy

are to be disposed in sanitary lined landfills, which are constructed
in accordance with stipulations prescribed in SWM Rules, 2016.
All over the world, landfills which integrate the capture and use of
methane are preferred over landfills which do not capture the
landfill gas. As per the hierarchy, the least preferred option is the

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 5

GUIDANCE
 disposal of waste in open dumpsites. However, Indian laws and
rules do not permit disposal of organic matter into sanitary landfills
and mandate

6 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 that only inert rejects (residual waste) from the processing facilities,
inert street sweepings, etc. can be landfilled. In cases where old
dumps are to be closed, there is a possibility of capturing methane
gas for further use. However, repeated burning of waste significantly
decreases the potential of capturing methane.

The hierarchy indicates that all options of source waste minimisation

should be utilised before appropriate treatment technologies are
selected and implemented.

ISWM is closely linked to the 3R approach (reduce, reuse, and

recycle), which also preliminarily emphasises the importance of waste
reduction, reuse, and recycling over other forms of waste processing or
management. The adoption of these principles helps in minimising the
amount of waste to be disposed, thus also minimising the public health
and environmental risks associated with it. Maximisation of resource
recovery at all stages of solid waste management is advocated by both
approaches.

1.2.2 ExTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY

Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is a policy approach wherein a

producer is held responsible for the post-consumer stage of a product,
typically for defined tasks of separate collection (e.g., for e-waste or
hazardous waste components), reuse (e.g., disposal-refund systems for
bottles), recycling (e.g., for used cars), and storage and treatment (e.g.,
for batteries). EPR programs are commonly made mandatory through
legislation, but can also be adopted voluntarily (i.e., retail take-back
programs). National and state level involvement is necessary to ensure
that EPR initiatives are successfully implemented. However, ULBs
should also encourage local level initiatives based on the principles of
EPR (refer to Section 2.1.2 of Part II for further guidance.)

1.2.3 DECENTRALISED WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Decentralised community level waste management systems are

preferred to centralised waste management solutions under certain
circumstances. Decentralised waste management systems or
community level waste management systems reduce the burden of
handling large volumes of MSW at a centralised location, with
corresponding reduction in costs of transportation and intermediate
storage.
 Some of the advantages of decentralised waste management include
the following:
 Decentralised systems allow for lower level of mechanisation than
the centralised solutions, and provide job opportunities for informal
workers and small entrepreneurs.
 Decentralised options can be tailor made for the local waste stream,
climate, social, and economic conditions.
 Decentralised systems reduce the cost incurred for the collection,
transportation, and disposal of waste by the ULBs.

However, ULBs should be aware of some of the limitations of

decentralised waste management such as the following:
 difficulty in obtaining land in many urban areas;
 difficulty in maintaining scientific and hygienic conditions due to
lack of sufficient space and training and capacity of workers;
 uncertain quality of end products; and
 difficulty in ensuring economic viability of the system, especially
when qualified staff is required.

Collection of recyclables at the community level, preferably through

involvement of the informal sector, and management of organic waste
through home composting systems and community level composting
systems are preferred (refer to Section 1.4.5.8 of Part II for further
details).

1.2.4 INTEGRATION OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR

In India the informal sector, comprising of the kabadi system and waste
pickers, plays a significant role in collection and processing of
recyclable material. There is a significant thrust in various national and
state level policies to recognise, identify, and integrate informal sector
workers into formal waste management processes and initiatives.
Creation of livelihoods, social acceptance, and security for informal
sector workers and regularising the recycling sector are all benefits of
integrating the informal sector. This may be done effectively by
organising them into self-help groups (SHGs) or cooperatives, to
capacitate them to work as entrepreneurs in a business entity. In the
future, they may own small recycling facilities which are managed
scientifically and hygienically (Section 1.4.5.9 of Part II further
elaborates these aspects).

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 7

GUIDANCE
 1.3 OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPING A MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN IN AN
URBAN LOCAL BODY
Figure 1.2: Seven-Step Approach for Developing a Plan
follows a seven step process, complying with SWM Rules,
d by the Government of India
SteP 1: POLICIES, PROGRAMMES AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK
Identify National and State Policies/Strategies and their Goals
State Level/Regional/District SWM Strategies/Policies
Identify Overall Goals for ULBs
Role of Central/State and Local Government
Institutions and Stakeholders Involved in MSWM Planning

SteP 2: ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT SITUATION AND GAP ANALYSIS

Legal & Policy Framework Institutional and Financial Set Up Technical Aspects

Community Participation Availability

MSW Generation, Collection & Suitability of Land for Processing & Disposal
and Transportation

MSW Processing, Treatment and Disposal

Current Status of Dump Sites Environmental Concerns

SteP 3: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION FOR MSWM PLANNING

SteP 4: PREPARATION OF DRAFT MSWM PLAN

Future Projections
Population Forecast
Anticipated Lifestyle Changes
Change in Socio-economic Status

Rules, Regulations and Municipal Bye-Laws

Community Participation/IEC

Institutional and Financial Structuring

Storage, Collection (Door-to-Door and Street Sweeping), Transportation

Identification of Land and Inclusion in City Master Plan/City Development Plan

Selection of Process and Best Available Technology for Processing and Disposal

SteP 5: SCHEDULE FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Timeline• Manpower Requirement Financial Viability

SteP 6: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION FOR MSWM PLAN VALIDATION

SteP 7: MUNICIPAL COUNCIL APPROVAL FOR MSWM PLAN AND PLAN IMPLEMENTATION INCLUDING PPP
Planning for the MSW management services follows a seven-step
process (as illustrated in Figure 1.2), which should be undertaken by all
ULBs to ensure compliance with SWM Rules, 2016 and other guidelines
provided by the Government of India and respective state governments
The MSWM plan is prepared for 20–25 years and embedded with
several short term plans (5 years), which shall be reviewed once every
2–3 years. The following steps provide an overview of the planning
process. Each step is further elaborated in Section 1.4.

Step 1: Policies, Programmes and Legal Framework

Step 1 entails a detailed review and analysis of national, state, and

municipal level laws, rules, policies, programmes, and guidance
Step 1: Review and analysis of p
related to MSWM. The ULB shall prepare a list of all mandatory and
programmes and legal framewo
recommended actions required as per SWM Rules, 2016 and other
policy guidance and shall ensure that the MSWM plan is developed
within these framework conditions.

Step 2: Assessment of Current Situation and Gap Analysis

The municipal authority should then carry out a critical assessment of

the current status of SWM in the city as per the SWM Rules, 2016;
NUSP; service level benchmarks (SLBs) for SWM service delivery
(prescribed by the Ministry of Urban Development [MoUD]), the
directives of the State Government and
Step 2: the local assess
Critically Municipal Acts
current situation and identify gaps
governing the ULBs. The assessment should clearly identify
deficiencies or gaps that need to be bridged to meet legal obligations.
Gaps with respect to human resources, institutional capacity,
infrastructure, financial resources, inclusiveness in service provision,
conducive regulatory framework, availability of essential data, land
availability, stakeholder willingness, awareness levels, as well as
information, education, and communication (IEC) needs of the
community should also be identified.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 9

GUIDANCE
 Assessment of Current Municipal Solid Waste Management Situation in the
City – What to do?
need to be considered in detail before MSWM plan can be prepared

Ward-wise and Consolidated Details

• Demographic data of population (which includes sex-disaggregated data),

number of households, shops and establishments, population growth
pattern, waste generation data
• Physical and chemical composition of waste
• Inventory of human resources at various levels
• Inventory of equipment, bins, vehicles, and available land for municipal solid
waste management (MSWM) facilities
• Public private partnership (PPP) status in providing services, extent of
private sector participation (PSP) in delivery of service, and cost benefits or
quality of service derived
• Involvement of community participation in MSWM with an overview of the
kind of community engagement, the outreach services, the number of men
and women, and also the activities in engaging communities
• Note on the kind of information, education, and communication (IEC)
material developed, whether they target a particular aspect of MSWM and
whether the message is gender-sensitive and not merely reinforcing
stereotyped roles of men and women

Storage at Source and Segregation

• Details of waste storage at source and source segregation (including the

number of fractions in which waste is segregated)

Primary Collection System in Practice

• Door-to-door collection, collection from community bins or any other

method, requirements of collectors, frequency of collection, percentage of
coverage under each collection method including a proper gap analysis

Street Sweeping

• Frequency of street sweeping, coverage, inclusiveness of slums and

informal settlements, and safety provisions

Secondary Storage

• Secondary storage in covered street bins, containers, masonry, concrete

bins, enclosures, dhalaos, open waste storage sites, or any other method, bin-
population ratio, or no secondary storage (direct transportation of
waste)
Transportation

• Type and number of vehicles used, quantity and percentage of waste

transported each day in covered vehicles and open vehicles, frequency of
transportation from secondary storage sites, percentage of manual loading
in relation to mechanical loading

Processing of Waste

• Quantity and percentage of waste processed, technology adopted, percentage of

residual waste sent to disposal site, realisation of revenues from the
processing facility, beneficiaries of the revenues

Disposal of Waste

• If the city has a sanitary landfill? If yes, area, designated site, and capacity
of the landfill, volume of the current cell and expected life, quantity of
waste deposited annually at the landfill (over the life of the landfill)
• Identifying location of existing dump sites and issues with these sites
• Land availability for MSWM as per city development plan or city master plan

Financial Assessment

• The budgetary allocations and actual annual expenditure on MSWM services

in relation to total revenue budget of the municipal authority
• Cost per tonne of various components of MSWM service
• Assessment of tax or user fees levied for providing MSWM service and
extent of cost recovery

Assessment of Social Impacts

• Estimate the impacts of the existing waste management system on the

informal sector of kabadi system and waste pickers, either negatively (hygienic
impacts) or positively (revenues for the informal sector)

Assessment of Environmental and Health Impacts

• Impacts on the environment and public health due to existing waste

management practices, impact on groundwater, soil, etc.
• Assess existing MSWM facilities and related land use issues and old
dumpsite closure issues
• Analyse gaps (including socioeconomic and gender-related disparities that
may exist) focusing on deficiencies of the existing system by reflecting
all issues mentioned above
• Compare the current situation with service level benchmarks (SLBs) prescribed
by the Government of India

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 11

GUIDANCE
Step 3: Stakeholder Consultation for Planning

MSWM has a direct relation with the community and other waste
generators. Due to the number of institutions and stakeholders
involved in MSWM, it is important that the MSWM plan, which aims
to bridge the gaps or improve the level of service, is developed through
a consultative process. Stakeholders’ views, including their willingness
to participate and pay for the service, should be considered. ULBs shall
ensure that women, as important providers of MSWM services as well
as beneficiaries of these services, shall be adequately involved in the
stakeholder consultations and decision making processes.

Step 4: Preparation of Draft Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

Identified gaps, future population projections and waste generation

rates, current and future quality and quantity of waste (based on
changing lifestyles and economic status), inputs from stakeholders,
financial situation, and technical capabilities of the local body should
be assessed. The municipal authority should prepare its draft short
term and long term MSWM plan, considering the provisions of the
local Municipal Act, SWM Rules, NUSP, and SLBs. Requirements for
equipment, vehicles, staffing, land revenues etc., for providing door- to-
door collection, street sweeping, secondary storage, transportation,
processing, and final disposal of waste should be considered.

Waste minimisation or reduction, waste reuse, and waste recycling

practices (3Rs) have a significant impact on the waste composition and
quantities of waste to be handled and disposed. ULBs should therefore
plan for an effective IEC campaign to promote the concept of 3Rs to
minimise waste generation. Decentralised approaches for treatment
and disposal of waste will also reduce waste quantities to be
transported and handled as compared to centralised plants, and should
therefore be included in the MSWM plan, wherever appropriate.

The size of the city; projected waste generation rate; waste

characterisation; geographical location; climatic conditions; hydro-
geological conditions and environmental, social, and economic
considerations have an impact on the selection of appropriate systems
and technologies for processing and disposal of waste.

The choice of technologies should be guided by proven performance

track records within or outside India, technical feasibility under
local conditions, financial viability or potential for cost recovery and
environmental regulations.

The institutional framework for providing MSWM services and its

monitoring and supervision through municipal departments or PPP
need to be planned. Depending on the size of the city, a dedicated
Adoption of novel technologies, whose performance has not been proved in the Indian context and wh

MSWM department, an MSWM cell, or responsible staff should be

made accountable for MSWM and implementation of the MSWM plan
in the city. Duties of the responsible staff should be detailed out and
disclosed to the general public. Capacity building needs of staff must
be addressed.

Identifying appropriate benchmarks for performance and delivery of

MSWM services is an integral part of the planning process.As a
minimum, the SLB indicators need to be regularly monitored.
Performance of all contracted services shall also be appropriately
monitored, reported, and analysed. A management information system
(MIS) should be set up to record and monitor all information or data
on MSWM.

Step 5: Schedule for Implementation

An implementation plan, indicating allocation of resources and

specifying timelines should be prepared. The implementation plan
should address institutional strengthening; raising financial resources
through rationalising taxes and supported by user fees as per the
relevant regulations; accessing loans from financial institutions; and
obtaining government grants, specific project development, and rollout.
The institutional and financial operating plan should be an integral part
of the MSWM plan. PPP for infrastructure development and service
delivery may be fully explored during this exercise. A macro-level time
plan for implementation of key activities proposed under the short
term and long term plans should be included in the MSWM plan.

Step 6: Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste

Management Plan Validation

Provision of effective MSWM services is substantially dependent on

community behaviour and practices. Segregation of waste at source,
delivering waste to doorstep collectors, avoiding littering, participating
in waste recycling, buyback programmes and, most importantly,
exploring options for waste minimisation are all dependent on active
and appropriate public involvement and support. Citizens should be
made aware of the full scale of MSWM services provided by the ULBs
and their potential involvement in implementing the plan. Including
women in the plan validation and decision-making process is critical
for ensuring successful plan implementation. The financial, health, and
environmental benefits accruing under the MSWM plan should be
determined and highlighted.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 13

GUIDANCE
 Step 7: Municipal Council Approval for Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan and Implementation Including Public Private
Partnership

The final MSWM plan is to be presented to the elected body of the

local authority to seek approval and to officially formalise the plan.
Municipal council should be made aware of the short term and long
term actions and should also approve the financial plan for
implementation of these actions. PPP or private operators should also
be made aware of the MSWM plan. Contracting models should be
transparent and performance based. Both the ULB and PPP operator
should be accountable for their roles to ensure successful and
sustainable project implementation.

1.4 SEVEN STEP APPROACH FOR MUNICIPAL

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNING
1.4.1 STEP 1: POLICIES, PROGRAMMES AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1.3: Step 1 in Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

Figure 1.4:1 1.4.1.1 Identify National and State Policies or

STEP
STEP 1: POLICIES, PROGRAMMES & LEGAL
Step 2
FRAMEWORK
Figure 1.5:
Step 3 Strategies and
• Identify National and State Policies/Strategies and their Goals
Step 4 • State Level/Regional/District SWM Strategies/Policies
Step 5 • Identify Overall Goals for ULBs
Step 6 • Role of Central/State and Local Government

Step 7 • Institutions and Stakeholders Involved in MSWM Planning

1.4.1.1 IDENTIFY NATIONAL AND STATE

POLICIES OR STRATEGIES AND THEIR
GOALS

The Government of India has undertaken a number of initiatives to

address MSWM issues since 2000. 1 The policy interventions by the
es, programmes and applicable legal framework
Government of India in MSWM can be traced back to 1960s, when
the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoA) announced loans for
composting of solid waste. However, a focused policy approach towards
managing solid waste gained momentum only after the plague
outbreak in Surat in 1994. The J.S. Bajaj Committee constituted in 1995
by the Planning Commission immediately after the plague outbreak,
made wide-ranging recommendations including waste segregation at
source, primary collection, levy of user charges, use of appropriate
equipment and vehicles, and focus on composting and landfilling.
Parallel to this, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare initiated a
National Mission
on Environmental Health and Sanitation while the Central Public
Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) under
In order to better manage MSW within th
MoUD prepared a draft policy paper that detailed funding
ULBs issues
should and
be aware of the other differe
requirements for MSWM. waste that should not be allowed to mix

The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)

notified the Municipal Solid Waste (M&H) Rules in September 2000.
The rules provide detailed guidelines on various aspects of MSWM
and identify the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) as nodal agencies to monitor
its implementation directly in the union territories and the states
respectively. The Ministry of Environment Forests and Climate Change
has recently revised the rules and renamed it as Solid Waste
Management Rules, 2016.

Other policy initiatives which inform and guide provision of MSWM

services include the recommendations of the Technical Advisory
Group on MSWM (2005) and the Inter-Ministerial Task Force on
Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (2005); the Hazardous Waste
(Management, Handling & Transboundary Movement) Rules (1989,
2008); Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules (2016); the Plastic Waste
Rules (2016); and the E-Waste Rules (2016). All of these cover specific
types of waste that are not regulated by the MSW (M&H) Rules, 2000.
However, they provide guidance to the management of certain streams
of waste which may otherwise inadvertently find their way into the
municipal waste streams.

Launched in 2014 under the flagship programme namely Swachh

Bharat Mission aims to provide the sanitation facilities with respect
to scientific municipal solid waste management and liquid waste
management to every citizens. SBM stipulates to build the capacities
of urban local bodies strong in order to design, execute and operate all
systems related to service provision. This requires close linkage
between planning, operationalising and sensitizing of the sanitation
and waste management services within the departments as well as the
citizens for achieving the overall goal of SBM. The initiative has also
encouraged the participation of private sector by providing the suitable
environment for their active and reliable participation in the sector.

Introduced in 2008, the National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP)

broadly covers aspects of urban sanitation. MSWM is an important
focus area in the NUSP. The NUSP stipulates that MSWM should also be
covered in the state sanitation strategy (SSS) and the city sanitation
plan (CSP). This requires close linkages between the waste
management and the sanitation planning in a particular ULB. The
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, which was approved in 2008
under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), highlights
the importance of adopting recycling strategies to avoid greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 15

GUIDANCE
 There are the rules, regulations, policies, and reforms that guide the
MSWM service delivery (Table 1.1). Provisions for floating tax-free
bonds by ULBs, income tax relief to waste management agencies,
introduction of double accounting system in ULBs, development
of model municipal bye-laws are other major policy or regulatory
directives which guide ULBs in certain aspects of planning for and
operationalising MSW services. Overarching guidelines for private
sector participation (PSP) and PPP arrangements have also been drawn
by the Department of Economic Affairs. The “Toolkit for Public Private
Partnership Frameworks in Municipal Solid Waste Management” was
developed by the Ministry of Urban Development.

Table 1.1: Important Policy Landmarks and Initiatives by Government of India2 on

Solid Waste Management

YEAR RULES, POLICIES, SCHEMES, FINANCIAL PLANS

1989 The Hazardous Waste (M&H) Rules
1994– MSWM strategy paper by NEERI
1995 J.S. Bajaj Committee (The High Powered Committee on Urban Solid
Waste
Management)
1998 Bio-medical Waste (M&H) Rules
Supreme Court appointed Barman Committee
2000 MSW (M&H) Rules
CPHEEO Manual on MSW
2005 Report of the Technology Advisory Group on SWM
JNNURM (2005–2012)—40 MSW projects costing Rs. 2,186 Cr sanctioned
from
a total of 65 cities covered
UIDSSMT (2005–2012)—51 MSW projects costing Rs. 327 Cr sanctioned
from a
total of 632 cities covered
12th Finance Commission (2005–2010)—Rs. 2,500 Cr for 423 Class I
cities
2006 Strategy and Action Plan-Use of compost in cities
2007 11th Five-Year Plan (2007–2012)—Rs. 2,210 Cr for MSWM
2008 National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP)
Service Level Benchmarks (SLBs) in MSWM
Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling & Transboundary
Movement)Rules
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NAPCC)
2010 13th Finance Commission (2010–2015)—Establishing standards for delivery
of
essential services
2011 Plastic Waste (M&H) Rules
E-Waste (M&H) Rules
Draft Bio-medical Waste (M&H) Rules
2014 Swachh Bharat Mission, October 2014
2016 Waste Management Rules, 2016 comprising of Solid Waste Management
Rules, Plastic Waste Management Rules, Bio-Medical Waste Management
Rules, E-Waste Management Rules, Hazardous and Other Wastes
(Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 and Construction
and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016.
1.4.1.2 STATE LEVEL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OR POLICIES

MSWM plans should take cognisance of state level SWM strategies and
policies. These policies provide further guidance to ULBs to implement
the SWM Rules, 2016.

While various states are in the process of defining the state level
MSWM strategy, some states like Karnataka and, most recently, Andhra
Pradesh have notified state level MSWM strategies.

Karnataka State Policy on Integrated Waste Management

The State Government of Karnataka adopted a policy on integrated

solid waste management (ISWM) in 2004 with the objective of
developing and implementing scientific and sustainable methods for
municipal solid waste
management (MSWM). Funds were made available under 11th Finance and 12th
Finance Commissions for purchase of land, development of landfill sites,
procurement of tools, equipment & vehicles and IEC activities.

The primary objectives of the Karnataka State policy on ISWM are to:
• provide directions for MSWM activities in an environmentally, socially, and
financially sustainable manner;
• establish an integrated and self-contained operating framework for MSWM; and
enhance the ability of ULBs to provide effective waste management services to
their citizens.

Some of the principles of the state policy on ISWM include:

• promoting public awareness regarding minimizing and avoiding multiple
handling of waste;
• defining the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders in an operating framework;
• developing systems for effective resource utilisation and deployment;
• promoting recovery of value from municipal solid waste (MSW); and
• developing treatment and final disposal facilities as per statutory requirements.

In order to enhance the stakeholders’ involvement in MSWM, the state policy also
proposes the following innovations:
• The responsibility of source segregation and primary collection shall be entrusted to
the waste generator level (community-based organisations);
• Information, education, and communication (IEC) activities and awareness
programs shall be developed and maintained;
• The role of non-government organisations (NGOs) as a communication bridge
among the ULB, community, self-help groups (SHGs), and resident welfare
associations (RWAs) shall be defined and utilized to help in promoting awareness
programme and to engage with communities in understanding difficulties, gaps, and
challenges in implementation. There shall be recommendations and consultations
with NGOs or RWAs on how to ensure an effective MSWM system;
• ULBs shall allow RWAs or SHGs to contract with private operators for various

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 17

GUIDANCE
 waste management activities, under specified guidelines and structures.

18 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 The state policy on various activities of MSWM includes the following:

• Primary collection: The ULBs shall charge a user fee for door-to-door
collection. The MSW from bulk generators shall be collected and transferred
directly to the secondary transport system.
• Street sweeping and drain cleaning: ULBs shall enter into appropriate contractual
agreement with private operators for street sweeping and should engage in
fair wage practices.
• Secondary collection and transportation: The ULBs shall abide by the statutory
guidelines of SWM Rules, 2016 and adopt the rule of thumb of usage of
metal containers and reduced multiple handling by using dumper placers or
tractors with tipping trailer mechanism.
• Treatment and disposal: The ULBs shall make a well-informed decision
while selecting treatment technologies and shall contract private partners
on a tipping fee basis. The policy follows the SWM Rules, 2016 and
maintains that all Class I cities in the state shall have both compost plants
and landfill sites, while other cities or towns with a population of less than 1
lakh shall have only suitable engineered landfill sites.

management facilities, as1.4.1.3

appropriate, should beAND
IDENTIFY included in the key
ANALYSE provisions ofOR
REGIONAL the state level strategy
DISTRICT SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANS

Technical, financial, and managerial challenges of MSWM in cities can

be addressed by considering regional arrangements for MSWM.3

Some of the benefits of regional MSWM facilities are the following:

 enable authorities to take advantage of economies of scale by
collecting inert waste generated across their respective
jurisdictions. These facilities reduce the financial and technical
burden on each individual authority and help authorities address
MSW management in a cost effective manner. They also enable
access to technologies requiring a higher order of resources other
than available with a single ULB.
 results in more efficient use of land and other scarce natural
resources within the region.

nts. A solid waste management cell may be constituted within the Urban Development Department at state level or wit
nd guidance on cost and revenue sharing, and ensuring protection of human rights of all workers or labourers shall be

3 Municipal Solid Waste Management on a Regional Basis; Ministry of Urban Development; available
at: http://www.urbanindia.nic.in/programme/uwss/mswm/msw_guide_note.pdf
 1.4.1.3.1 Objectives of Regional Solid Waste Management Plans

A regional MSWM facility serves multiple ULBs and facilitates

regional level disposal of MSW. In cases where land is not available for
Regional approach facilitates establishment of MSW processing and disposal facilitie
processing and disposal, regional processing and disposal facilities may
be proposed. To the extent possible, efforts should be made to treat
waste locally. Only in cases where there is scarcity of land or expertise,
regional processing facilities shall be proposed.

With a view to reduce expenditure of hauling small quantities of waste

to regional facilities, transfer stations may be established. Regional
systems benefit both large municipal bodies, which experience scarcity
of land resources, and smaller municipalities, which are challenged
by limited technical and financial resources for establishing their own
facilities.

small ULB to maintain and operate a treatment

here the dry and inert waste is being transferred to a regional facility, a transfer station should be constructed for the s

in all of its 5 city corporations and 49 municipalities. The State of Kerala is constrained by the lack of suitable land for

NO ITEM INDIVIDUAL SLF FOR REGIONAL

EACH ULB SLF
1 Land requirement (hectare) 2316 957
2 Cost of land (Rs per ha) 0.40 crores 0.18 crores
3 Savings on land cost (Rs) 754 crores
4 Operation and 388
Maintenance (O&M) cost
per tonne (Rs)
5 Savings per annum on O&M 13 crores
(Rs) Source: Suchitwa Mission.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 19

GUIDANCE
 1.4.1.3.2 Institutional Aspects of Regional Approaches

A regional facility entails an institutional arrangement that enables the

association of partnering municipalities to provide specific MSWM
services. Some of the attributes of a regional approach are the
following:4

 It is constituted specifically to provide a particular service (MSW

processing or disposal).
 It is governed by a board of directors, a council, or an executive body
which is unique to the organisation.
 It is usually not dependent on taxes for funding, but raises fund
through service tipping fees paid by partnering local bodies.
 It may or may not involve the participation of a private sector
service provider.
 It often requires special legislation and ordinances for its
establishment.

1.4.1.3.3 Implementation of Regional Municipal Solid Waste

Management Plans

Regional projects can be implemented through any of the following: 5

Inter-municipal agreements: These are contracts between two or

more municipalities who combine their resources to perform a specific
task together. The primary advantages of inter-municipal agreements
ments can be applied to establish a regional MSWM project
are flexibility and customisation. Inter-municipal agreements are often
better suited for limited regional projects. One of the challenges to
these agreements is the difficulty in obtaining capital financing because
each participating municipality might have to raise money for the
project individually.

Authorities, trusts, and special districts: These can be created by

governments dedicated to organise their regional programs. These
entities have the power to impose regulations, contract with private
companies, issue bonds, levy taxes or assessments, or use other means
to raise funds for specific projects.

Regional councils: These are another approach used for inter-

municipal cooperation to organise and manage all types of cooperative
projects. The council provides flexibility and helps in bringing public
and private partners together to make decisions.

Private sector participation: This can be used for different services

like transporting MSW to the regional landfill system, financing,
4 ‘Moving Towards the Regional Approach, Water and Sanitation Program’, Water and Sanitation Program (2007).
Available at http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/ publications/519200880608_SWM_dec_07.pdf
5 ‘Improving Solid Waste Management in India’, D. Zhu, et al., (2008). Available at: http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/swm_in_india.pdf
 construction, and operation. Regional organisations can enter into
binding agreements with businesses to provide specified and improved
services at less cost. Contracts between local governments and
businesses generally are governed by the public contracting laws of
the state.

Some of the guiding principles that should be taken into consideration

while planning, developing, implementing, and managing regional
MSW projects are discussed briefly below.

1.4.1.3.4 Land Allocation for Regional Municipal Solid Waste

Projects

Land for a regional MSW project can be provided through any of the
following mechanisms:
• provided and owned by the state government or by one of the
authorities participating in the regional MSW project;
• acquired by one of the participating authorities and allocated by
passing appropriate resolutions, without any state government
assistance; Land identified for a regional facility cannot be assigned to
• acquired by the state government the and
viability of proposed
vested MSWM facilities
with a particular
municipality or a group of municipalities; and
• provided by the private sector participant.

Before the selection of any site for the development of a regional MSW
facility, it should be ensured that the land use cannot be changed by
the competent authority for the duration of the project to ensure
bankability and viability of the project. Moreover, the following
should be noted:

• The area of land being provided should be sufficient to enable

the type of regional MSW facility intended to be developed using
specified technology.
• The location should enable optimum number of authorities to have
viable access to the facility.
• Land that is already within the possession of either the state
government or any authority may be preferred over lands that
require acquisition from private or other entities.
• Acquisition of privately owned land may be undertaken in cases
where no government land is available.
• Land that has been identified for development or implementation of
regional MSW projects shall be notified as having been allocated for
the purpose of regional MSW projects only.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 21

GUIDANCE
 • The state government should control land use in and around the
regional MSW facility in accordance with development controls to
prevent encroachment or development of habitations, structures,
etc.

1.4.1.3.5 Solid Waste quantity and Tipping Fee

• Depending on the type of waste processing facility to be

established, each authority shall have to assure a certain quality and
ments for collection of user chargesquantity of MSW it supplies to the project.
ensure financial viability of MSWM projects.
• The tipping fee should be structured so as to enable viable
implementation of the project depending on the circumstances and
the location of the project.
• In order to guarantee their ability to pay the tipping fee, each
participating authority shall make appropriate arrangements such
as imposing and collecting fees from within its jurisdiction for the
provision of MSW services. An escrow account and charge structure
with respect to the identified revenue streams may be created to
provide for security of payment of the tipping fee.
• State governments may also resort to an intercept mechanism
whereby, the State Government may provide the required payments
directly, for and on behalf of the Authority. Under the proposed
structure, the participating authorities will contractually agree to
the State intercept mechanism.

1.4.1.3.6 Collection and Transportation of Municipal Solid Waste

The authorities participating in a regional MSW project should

undertake to improve the efficiency of their MSW collection and
transportation systems in a phased and time-bound manner to ensure
that the minimum quantity of waste reaches the processing facility or
disposal site on a regular basis.
 Examples of Regional or Inter-Municipal Arrangements currently under Development6

Gujarat: Regional landfill sites have been identified in Gujarat: 45 sites

have been proposed for 161 municipalities; with a maximum transport distance
of 25 km. Proposals envisage private sector involvement and the Gujarat State
Waste Management Company will be the sole contracting agent. Memorandum
of understanding will be signed between the cooperating municipalities and the
state nodal agency. Nine sites are at an advanced stage of construction of
sanitary landfill facilities.

Kerala: A study conducted by Suchitwa Mission recommended that the 14

districts in the state be divided into 6 zones, each with its own landfill site for
receiving waste from all towns in that particular zone. The feasibility study for
construction of one regional landfill has commenced.

West Bengal: In the Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority area, six

municipalities propose to use one common landfill site. Regional landfills are
also being planned in other parts of the state such as the Asansol Municipal
Corporation and Durgapur Municipal Corporation. The municipalities of
Ranigunj, Jamuria, and Kulti, under the nodal Asansol Durgapur Development
Authority, have developed a regional engineered landfill facility. A public private
partnership was formed for project implementation.

Maharashtra: The Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Development Authority has decided

to develop a regional landfill facility to cater to 2,500 tons of waste with a
design period of 25 years. Urban local bodies (ULBs) in the metropolitan
region from six municipal corporations or councils are envisaged to use this
facility such as Kalyan– Dombivali, Bhiwandi–Nizampur, Ulhasnagar, Ambarnath,
and Kulgaon–Badlapur.

Orissa: The cities of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack have associated to commission a

common municipal solid waste management facility for treating approximately
600 tonnes of waste from both ULBs. The Orissa Industrial Infrastructure
Development Corporation is acting as transaction advisory to facilitate this
project. The selected concessionaire will be responsible for designing and
constructing the requisite transfer station; transporting waste from the transfer
station to the waste management facility; and identifying, designing, constructing,
and operating waste management facilities based on appropriate technologies
selected by the concessionaire.

Andhra Pradesh: The state government has developed a strategy and issued
comprehensive guidelines for setting up regional facilities. 124 ULBs have been
clubbed into 19 clusters. Five facilities were established and operated through
private sector concession agreements.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 23

GUIDANCE
 6 Adopted from “Moving Towards the Regional Approach, Water and Sanitation Program”, Water and Sanitation Program
(2007); and further updated by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15).

24 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 1.4.1.4 ROLE OF CENTRAL, STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

While the onus of providing MSWM services in urban areas lies with the
ULBs, central and state governments have a significant role to play in
defining the framework within which service provision can be planned
and executed by ULBs. The following are prescribed authorities and their
roles and responsibilities in relation to ensuring the implementation of
the provisions of the SWM Rules, 2016.

Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste
Management

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
Central • Legal & Policy Framework: The SWM Rules, 2016 by the Ministry of
Government Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) mandate provision of
MSWM services by municipal authorities in urban areas in the country.
Clause 5: Duties of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.-
(1) The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change shall be
responsible for over all monitoring the implementation of these rules in the
country. It shall constitute a Central Monitoring Committee under the
Chairmanship of Secretary, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change comprising officer not below the rank of Joint Secretary or Advisor
from the following namely,-
Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of
Chemicals and Fertilizers, Ministry of Agriculture, Central Pollution Control
Board, Three State Pollution Control Boards or Pollution Control Committees by
rotation, Urban Development Departments of three State Governments by
rotation, Rural Development Departments from two State Governments by
rotation, Three Urban Local bodies by rotation, Two census towns by
rotation, FICCI, CII, Two subject experts
(2) This Central Monitoring Committee shall meet at least once in a year to
monitor and review the implementation of these rules. The Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change may co-opt other experts, if needed.
The Committee shall be renewed every three years.
Clause 6: Duties of Ministry of Urban Development.- (1) The Ministry of
Urban Development shall coordinate with State Governments and Union
territory Administrations to,-
(a) take periodic review of the measures taken by the states and local bodies
for improving solid waste management practices and execution of solid
waste management projects funded by the Ministry and external agencies at
least once in a year and give advice on taking corrective measures;
(b) formulate national policy and strategy on solid waste management including
policy on waste to energy in consultation with stakeholders within six
months from the date of notification of these rules;
(c) facilitate States and Union Territories in formulation of state policy and
strategy on solid management based on national solid waste management
policy and national urban sanitation policy;
Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
(d)promote research and development in solid waste management sector
and disseminate information to States and local bodies;
(e) undertake training and capacity building of local bodies and other
stakeholders;and
(f) provide technical guidelines and project finance to states, Union
territories and local bodies on solid waste management to facilitate
meeting timelines and standards.
Clause 7: Duties of Department of Fertilisers, Ministry of Chemicals and
Fertilisers.-
(1) The Department of Fertilisers through appropriate mechanisms
shall,-
(a) provide market development assistance on city compost; and
(b) ensure promotion of co-marketing of compost with chemical fertilisers in the
ratio of 3 to 4 bags: 6 to 7 bags by the fertiliser companies to the extent
compost is made available for marketing to the companies.
Clause 8. Duties of Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.- The Ministry
of Agriculture through appropriate mechanisms shall,-
(a) provide flexibility in Fertiliser Control Order for manufacturing and sale of
compost;
(b) propagate utlisation of compost on farm land;
(c) set up laboratories to test quality of compost produced by local authorities or
their authorised agencies; and
(d) issue suitable guidelines for maintaining the quality of compost and ratio of
use of compost visa-a-vis chemical fertilizers while applying compost to
farmland.
Clause 9. Duties of the Ministry of Power.-The Ministry of Power through
appropriate mechanisms shall,-
(a) decide tariff or charges for the power generated from the waste to energy
plants based on solid waste.
(b) compulsory purchase power generated from such waste to energy plants
by distribution company.
Clause 10. Duties of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources- The
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
Sources through appropriate mechanisms shall,-
(a) facilitate infrastructure creation for waste to energy plants; and
(b) provide appropriate subsidy or incentives for such waste to energy
plants.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 25

GUIDANCE
Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
Clause 14: Duties of Central Pollution Control Board.-The Central Pollution
Control Board shall, -
(a) co-ordinate with the State Pollution Control Boards and the Pollution
Control Committees for implementation of these rules and adherence to
the prescribed standards by local authorities;
(b) formulate the standards for ground water, ambient air, noise pollution,
leachate in respect of all solid waste processing and disposal facilities;
(c) review environmental standards and norms prescribed for solid waste
processing facilities or treatment technologies and update them as and
when required;
(d) review through State Pollution Control Boards or Pollution Control Committees,
at least once in a year, the implementation of prescribed environmental
standards for solid waste processing facilities or treatment technologies
and compile the data monitored by them;
(e) review the proposals of State Pollution Control Boards or Pollution
Control Committees on use of any new technologies for processing, recycling
and treatment of solid waste and prescribe performance standards, emission
norms for the same within 6 months;
(f) monitor through State Pollution Control Boards or Pollution Control
Committees the implementation of these rules by local bodies;
(g) prepare an annual report on implementation of these rules on the basis of
reports received from State Pollution Control Boards and Committees and
submit to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the
report shall also be put in public domain;
(h) publish guidelines for maintaining buffer zone restricting any
residential, commercial or any other construction activity from the outer
boundary of the waste processing and disposal facilities for different sizes of
facilities handling more than five tons per day of solid waste;
(i) publish guidelines, from time to time, on environmental aspects of processing
and disposal of solid waste to enable local bodies to comply with the provisions
of these rules; and
(j) provide guidance to States or Union territories on inter-state movement of
waste.
State – The SWM Rules, 2016 indicate that the Secretary-in charge of the
Government Department of Urban Development or Local Self Government department of
the concerned State or the Union territory, as the case may be, shall have
the overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of these
rules in the metropolitan cities.
– The Urban Development Department in charge of municipal authorities in
the State or Union Territory shall:
Clasue 11: Duties of the Secretary–in-charge, Urban Development in the States
and Union territories.- (1) The Secretary, Urban Development Department in the
State or Union territory through the Commissioner or Director of Municipal
Administration or Director of local bodies shall:-
Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
(a) prepare a state policy and solid waste management strategy for the state
or the union territory in consultation with stakeholders including
representative of waste pickers, self help group and similar groups working in
the field of waste management consistent with these rules, national policy
on solid waste management and national urban sanitation policy of the
ministry of urban development, in a period not later than one year from
the date of notification of these rules;
(b) while preparing State policy and strategy on solid waste management, lay
emphasis on waste reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery and optimum
utilisation of various components of solid waste to ensure minimisation of
waste going to the landfill and minimise impact of solid waste on human
health and environment;
(c) state policies and strategies should acknowledge the primary role played
by the informal sector of waste pickers, waste collectors and recycling
industry in reducing waste and provide broad guidelines regarding integration
of waste picker or informal waste collectors in the waste management
system.
(d) ensure implementation of provisions of these rules by all local
authorities;
(e) direct the town planning department of the State to ensure that master
plan of every city in the State or Union territory provisions for setting up of
solid waste processing and disposal facilities except for the cities who are
members of common waste processing facility or regional sanitary landfill
for a group of cities; and
(f) ensure identification and allocation of suitable land to the local bodies
within one year for setting up of processing and disposal facilities for solid
wastes and incorporate them in the master plans (land use plan) of the
State or as the case may be, cities through metropolitan and district planning
committees or town and country planning department;
(h) direct the town planning department of the State and local bodies to ensure
that a separate space for segregation, storage, decentralised processing of
solid waste is demarcated in the development plan for group housing or
commercial, institutional or any other non-residential complex exceeding 200
dwelling or having a plot area exceeding 5,000 square meters;
(i) direct the developers of Special Economic Zone, Industrial Estate, Industrial
Park to earmark at least five percent of the total area of the plot or
minimum five plots or sheds for recovery and recycling facility.
(j) facilitate establishment of common regional sanitary land fill for a group of
cities and towns falling within a distance of 50 km (or more) from the regional
facility on a cost sharing basis and ensure professional management of such
sanitary landfills;
(k) arrange for capacity building of local bodies in managing solid waste,
segregation and transportation or processing of such waste at source;
(l) notify buffer zone for the solid waste processing and disposal facilities of

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 27

GUIDANCE
 more than five tons per day in consultation with the State Pollution Control
Board; and
(m) start a scheme on registration of waste pickers and waste dealers.

28 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
Clause:16: Duties of State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control
Committee.-
(1) The State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee shall,-
(a) enforce these rules in their State through local bodies in their
respective jurisdiction and review implementation of these rules at
least twice a year in close coordination with concerned Directorate of
Municipal Administration or Secretary-in-charge of State Urban
Development Department;
(b) monitor environmental standards and adherence to conditions as
specified under the Schedule I and Schedule II for waste processing and
disposal sites;
(c) examine the proposal for authorisation and make such inquiries as deemed
fit, after the receipt of the application for the same in Form I from the
local body or any other agency authorised by the local body;
(d) while examining the proposal for authorisation, the requirement of
consents under respective enactments and views of other agencies like the
State Urban Development Department, the Town and Country Planning
Department, District Planning Committee or Metropolitan Area Planning
Committee, as may be applicable, Airport or Airbase Authority, the
Ground Water Board, Railways, power distribution companies, highway
department and other relevant agencies shall be taken into consideration
and they shall be given four weeks time to give their views, if any;
(e) issue authorisation within a period of sixty days in Form II to the local
body or an operator of a facility or any other agency authorised by local
body stipulating compliance criteria and environmental standards as
specified in Schedules I and II including other conditions, as may be
necessary;
(f) synchronise the validity of said authorisation with the validity of the
consents;
(g) suspend or cancel the authorization issued under clause (a) any time,
if the local body or operator of the facility fails to operate the facility
as per the conditions stipulated: provided that no such authorization shall
be suspended or cancelled without giving notice to the local body or
operator, as the case may be; and
(h) on receipt of application for renewal, renew the authorisation for next five
years, after examining every application on merit and subject to the
condition that the operator of the facility has fulfilled all the provisions
of the rules, standards or conditions specified in the authorisation,
consents or environment clearance.
(2) The State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee shall, after
giving reasonable opportunity of being heard to the applicant and for reasons
thereof to be recorded in writing, refuse to grant or renew an
authorisation.
(3) In case of new technologies, where no standards have been prescribed by
the Central Pollution Control Board, State Pollution Control Board or Pollution
Control Committee, as the case may be, shall approach Central Pollution
Control Board for getting standards specified.
Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
(4) The State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control Committee, as
the case may be, shall monitor the compliance of the standards as
prescribed or laid down and treatment technology as approved and the
conditions stipulated in the authorisation and the standards specified in
Schedules I and II under these rules as and when deemed appropriate
but not less than once in a year.
(5) The State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control Committee may
give directions to local bodies for safe handling and disposal of domestic
hazardous waste deposited by the waste generators at hazardous waste
deposition facilities.
(6) The State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control Committee
shall regulate Inter-State movement of waste.
District/ Clause 12: Duties of District Magistrate or District Collector or Deputy
Region Commissioner.- The District Magistrate or District Collector or as the case
may be, the Deputy Commissioner shall, -
(a) facilitate identification and allocation of suitable land as per clause (f) of
rules 11 for setting up solid waste processing and disposal facilities to local
authorities in his district in close coordination with the Secretary-in-charge
of State Urban Development Department within one year from the date of
notification of these rules;
(b) review the performance of local bodies, at least once in a quarter on
waste segregation, processing, treatment and disposal and take corrective
measures in consultation with the Commissioner or Director of Municipal
Administration or Director of local bodies and secretary-in-charge of the State
Urban Development.
Municipal As per the 74th CAA, the SWM Rules, 2016 and the State Municipal Laws, ULBs
Authorities are primarily responsible for the provision of municipal solid waste management
services.

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities and village

Panchayats of census towns and urban agglomerations.- The local authorities and
Panchayats shall,-
(a) prepare a solid waste management plan as per state policy and strategy
on solid waste management within six months from the date of notification of
state policy and strategy and submit a copy to respective departments of State
Government or Union territory Administration or agency authorised by the
State Government or Union territory Administration;
(b) arrange for door to door collection of segregated solid waste from all
households including slums and informal settlements, commercial,
institutional and other non residential premises. From multi-storage buildings,
large commercial complexes, malls, housing complexes, etc., this may be
collected from the entry gate or any other designated location;
(c) establish a system to recognise organisations of waste pickers or informal
waste collectors and promote and establish a system for integration of these
authorised waste-pickers and waste collectors to facilitate their

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 29

GUIDANCE
 participation in solid waste management including door to door
collection of waste;

30 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
(d) facilitate formation of Self Help Groups, provide identity cards and
thereafter encourage integration in solid waste management including door to
door collection of waste;
(e) frame bye-laws incorporating the provisions of these rules within one year
from the date of notification of these rules and ensure timely
implementation;
(f) prescribe from time to time user fee as deemed appropriate and collect the fee
from the waste generators on its own or through authorised agency;
(g) direct waste generators not to litter i.e throw or dispose of any waste such as
paper, water bottles, liquor bottles, soft drink canes, tetra packs, fruit peel,
wrappers, etc., or burn or burry waste on streets, open public spaces,
drains, waste bodies and to segregate the waste at source as prescribed
under these rules and hand over the segregated waste to authorised the
waste pickers or waste collectors authorised by the local body;
(h)setup material recovery facilities or secondary storage facilities with
sufficient space for sorting of recyclable materials to enable informal or
authorised waste pickers and waste collectors to separate recyclables from
the waste and provide easy access to waste pickers and recyclers for
collection of segregated recyclable waste such as paper, plastic, metal, glass,
textile from the source of generation or from material recovery facilities;
Bins for storage of bio-degradable wastes shall be painted green, those for
storage of recyclable wastes shall be printed white and those for storage of
other wastes shall be printed black;
(i) establish waste deposition centres for domestic hazardous waste and give
direction for waste generators to deposit domestic hazardous wastes at this
centre for its safe disposal. Such facility shall be established in a city or
town in a manner that one centre is set up for the area of twenty square
kilometers or part thereof and notify the timings of receiving domestic
hazardous waste at such centres;
(j) ensure safe storage and transportation of the domestic hazardous waste
to the hazardous waste disposal facility or as may be directed by the State
Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control Committee;
(k) direct street sweepers not to burn tree leaves collected from street sweeping
and store them separately and handover to the waste collectors or agency
authorised by local body;
(l) provide training on solid waste management to waste-pickers and waste
collectors;
(m) collect waste from vegetable, fruit, flower, meat, poultry and fish market on
day to day basis and promote setting up of decentralised compost plant or
biomethanation plant at suitable locations in the markets or in the vicinity
of markets ensuring hygienic conditions;
(n) collect separately waste from sweeping of streets, lanes and by-lanes
daily, or on alternate days or twice a week depending on the density of
population, commercial activity and local situation;
Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
(o) set up covered secondary storage facility for temporary storage of street
sweepings and silt removed from surface drains in cases where direct
collection of such waste into transport vehicles is not convenient. Waste so
collected shall be collected and disposed of at regular intervals as decided
by the local body;
(p) collect horticulture, parks and garden waste separately and process in the
parks and gardens, as far as possible; (q) transport segregated bio-
degradable waste to the processing facilities like compost plant,
biomethanation plant or any such facility. Preference shall be given for
on site processing of such waste;
(r) transport non-bio-degradable waste to the respective processing facility or
material recovery facilities or secondary storage facility;
(s) transport construction and demolition waste as per the provisions of
the Construction and Demolition Waste management Rules, 2016;
(t) involve communities in waste management and promotion of home
composting, bio-gas generation, decentralised processing of waste at
community level subject to control of odour and maintenance of hygienic
conditions around the facility;
(u) phase out the use of chemical fertilizer in two years and use compost in all
parks, gardens maintained by the local body and wherever possible in other
places under its jurisdiction. Incentives may be provided to recycling initiatives
by informal waste recycling sector.
(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste processing
facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or with private sector
participation or through any agency for optimum utilisation of various
components of solid waste adopting suitable technology including the following
technologies and adhering to the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban
Development from time to time and standards prescribed by the Central
Pollution Control Board. Preference shall be given to decentralised
processing to minimize transportation cost and environmental impacts
such as-
a) biomethanation, microbial composting, vermi-composting, anaerobic digestion
or any other appropriate processing for bio-stabilisation of biodegradable
wastes;
b) waste to energy processes including refused derived fuel for combustible
fraction of waste or supply as feedstock to solid waste based power plants or
cement kilns;
(w) undertake on their own or through any other agency construction,
operation and maintenance of sanitary landfill and associated infrastructure
as per Schedule 1 for disposal of residual wastes in a manner
prescribed under these rules;
(x) make adequate provision of funds for capital investments as well as operation
and maintenance of solid waste management services in the annual budget
ensuring that funds for discretionary functions of the local body have been
allocated only after meeting the requirement of necessary funds for solid

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 31

GUIDANCE
 waste management and other obligatory functions of the local body as
per these rules;
(y) make an application in Form-I for grant of authorisation for setting up
waste processing, treatment or disposal facility, if the volume of waste is
exceeding five metric tones per day including sanitary landfills from the
State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control Committee, as the
case may be;

32 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
(z) submit application for renewal of authorisation at least sixty days before the
expiry of the validity of authorisation;
(za) prepare and submit annual report in Form IV on or before the 30th
April of the succeeding year to the Commissioner or Director, Municipal
Administration or designated Officer;
(zb) the annual report shall then be sent to the Secretary -in-Charge of
the State Urban Development Department or village panchayat or rural
development department and to the respective State Pollution Control
Board or Pollution Control Committee by the 31st May of every year;
(zc) educate workers including contract workers and supervisors for door to
door collection of segregated waste and transporting the unmixed
waste during primary and secondary transportation to processing or
disposal facility;
(zd) ensure that the operator of a facility provides personal protection
equipment including uniform, fluorescent jacket, hand gloves, raincoats,
appropriate foot wear and masks to all workers handling solid waste
and the same are used by the workforce;
(ze) ensure that provisions for setting up of centers for collection, segregation
and storage of segregated wastes, are incorporated in building plan while
granting approval of building plan of a group housing society or market
complex; and
(zf) frame bye-laws and prescribe criteria for levying of spot fine for persons who
litters or fails to comply with the provisions of these rules and delegate powers
to officers or local bodies to levy spot fines as per the bye laws framed;
and
(zg) create public awareness through information, education and
communication campaign and educate the waste generators on the
following; namely:-
(i) not to litter;
(ii) minimise generation of waste;
(iii) reuse the waste to the extent possible;
(iv) practice segregation of waste into bio–degradable, non-
biodegradable (recyclable and combustible), sanitary waste and domestic
hazardous wastes at source;
(v) practice home composting, vermi-composting, bio-gas generation
or community level composting;
(vi) wrap securely used sanitary waste as and when generated in
the pouches provided by the brand owners or a suitable wrapping as
prescribed by the local body and place the same in the bin meant for
non- biodegradable waste;
(vii) storage of segregated waste at source in different bins;
(viii) handover segregated waste to waste pickers, waste collectors,
recyclers or waste collection agencies; and
(ix) pay monthly user fee or charges to waste collectors or local
bodies or any other person authorised by the local body for
sustainability of solid waste management.
Table 1.2: Role of Central, State and Local Governments in Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

LEVEL OF ROLE
GOVERNMENT
(zh) stop land filling or dumping of mixed waste soon after the timeline as
specified in rule 23 for setting up and operationalisation of sanitary
landfill is over;
(zi) allow only the non-usable, non-recyclable, non-biodegradable, non-
combustible and non-reactive inert waste and pre-processing rejects and
residues from waste processing facilities to go to sanitary landfill and the
sanitary landfill sites shall meet the specifications as given in Schedule–I,
however, every effort shall be made to recycle or reuse the rejects to achieve
the desired objective of zero waste going to landfill;
(zj) investigate and analyse all old open dumpsites and existing operational
dumpsites for their potential of bio- mining and bio-remediation and
wheresoever feasible, take necessary actions to bio-mine or bio-
remediate the sites;
(zk) in absence of the potential of bio-mining and bio-remediation of dumpsite, it
shall be scientifically capped as per landfill capping norms to prevent
further damage to the environment.

1.4.1.4.1 Guidance on State and Urban Local Body Institutional

Linkages

Every state government and union territory shall constitute a state

level advisory body through the urban development department within
6 months from the date of notification of SWM Rules, 2016. The state
level advisory body shall meet at least once in 6 months to review
all the matters related to implementation of SWM Rules, 2016 and
implementation of state policy and strategy on MSWM, and to give
advice to state government regarding necessary measures for
expeditious and appropriate implementation of these rules. The copies
of the review report shall be forwarded to all the prescribed authorities
under the SWM Rules, 2016 for necessary action.

24. Annual report:-

(1) The operator of facility shall submit the annual report to the local
body in Form-III on or before the 30th day of April every year.
(2) The local body shall submit its annual report in Form-IV to State Pol-
lution Control Board or Pollution Committee and the Secretary-in-
Charge of the Department of Urban Development of the concerned
State or Union Territory in case of metropolitan city and to the Director
of Municipal Administration or Commissioner of Municipal
Administra- tion or Officer in -Charge of Urban local bodies in the
state in case of all other local bodies of state on or before the 30th day
of June every year
(3) Each State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee
as the case may be, shall prepare and submit the consolidated annual

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 33

GUIDANCE
 report to the Central Pollution Control Board and Ministry of Urban
De- velopment on the implementation of these rules and action taken
against non complying local body by the 31st day of July of each year in
Form-V.
(4) The Central Pollution Control Board shall prepare a consolidated
annual review report on the status of implementation of these rules
by local bodies in the country and forward the same to the Ministry of
Urban Development and Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, along with its recommendations before the 31st day of August
each year.
(5) The annual report shall be reviewed by the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change during the meeting of Central Monitoring
Committee.

25. Accident reporting-

In case of an accident at any solid waste processing or treatment or

disposal facility or landfill site, the Officer- in- charge of the facility
shall report to the local body in Form-VI and the local body shall
review and issue instructions if any, to the in- charge of the facility.

1.4.2 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN:

LINK TO SERVICE LEVEL BENCHMARKS

As a part of the on-going endeavour to introduce greater accountability

among urban local bodies to improve urban services, the MoUD has
prepared Service Level benchmarks (SLBs) at the national level for
service provision in 4 key sectors – water supply, sewerage, municipal
solid waste management and storm water management. Devolution of
the 13th Finance Commission Grants to ULBs has been linked to their
assessment and achievement of SLBs.

Current SLBs and future targets for improved service levels are to be
furnished annually by ULBs to the concerned departments in
pliance with prescribed SLBs andrespective
should determine milestones
States and notified in the Gazette. Release of performance
a specified timeline related grants is contingent on the assessment of SLBs by the
concerned state level department and the MoUD. Service Level
Benchmarking for all 4 core sectors is one of the nine reform
conditions (condition no.8) stipulated by 13 th Finance Commission, to
be fulfilled by the States and Urban Local Bodies every year, starting
from Financial Year 2010-11 to 2014-15.

Monitoring performance and improvements is envisaged as the goal of

the Service Level Benchmarking programme. Benchmarking should be
used as a tool for undertaking objective performance analysis by ULBs
to improve their activities. The benchmarking of services enables state
 level agencies and local level service providers to initiate a process of
performance monitoring and evaluation against agreed targets.

The following SLBs have been developed by MoUD for measuring and
monitoring provision of solid waste management services by ULBs.

Table 1.3: Service Level Benchmarks for Solid Waste Management 7

S.NO. INDICATOR UNIT & DEFINITION VALU

E
1. Household level As % of households and establishments that 100%
coverage of SWM are covered by daily doorstep collection
services system
2. Efficiency of MSW As % of total waste collected by ULB and 100%
collection authorized service providers versus the total
waste generated within the ULB, excluding
recycling or processing at the generation
point
3. Extent of MSW As % of segregated waste from households 100%
segregation and establishments (segregation should at
least be at the level of separation of wet and
dry waste at source)
4. Extent of recovered As % of waste collected (this is an 80%
MSW indication of the quantum of waste collected,
which is either recycled or processed)
5. Extent of scientificAs % of waste disposed in a sanitary landfill 100%
disposal of MSW sites versus total quantum of waste
disposed in all sanitary landfills and
dumping sites
6. Efficiency in As % of total number of SWM related 80%
redressal of complaints resolved in 24 hours versus total
customer complaints number of SWM complaints received within
the period
7. Extent of cost As % recovery of all operating expenses 100%
recovery in SWM related to SWM services that the ULB is
services able to meet from the operating revenues of
sources related exclusively to SWM
8. Efficiency in Current year revenues collected as a % of the 90%
collection of total operating revenues for the corresponding
SWM charges period

Detailed guidance on the measurement and evaluation of the Service

Level Benchmarks for SWM service provision are given in the SLB
Handbook of the MoUD.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 35

GUIDANCE
 7 “Handbook of Service Level Benchmarking”, Ministry of Urban Development (2008).

36 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

1.4.3 STEP 2: ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT SITUATION OR
STATUS AND GAP ANALYSIS

Figure 1.4: Step 2 in Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

STEP 2: ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT SITUATION AND GAP ANALYSIS

Step 1
Legal & Policy Framework Institutional & Financial Set Up
STEP 2
Technical Aspects
Step 3
Step 4 Community Participation Availability
MSW Generation, Collection & Suitability of Land for Processing & Disposal
& Transportation
Step 5 / Informal Sector Involvement
Step 6
Step 7
MSW Processing, Treatment & Disposal
Current Status of Dump Sites Environmental Concerns

The MSWM department in the ULB should collect baseline information

that needs to be assessed as indicated in Table 1.4. Baseline
information shall be gathered from ward level records, citywide MSWM
records, and field investigations as required (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5: An Overview of Baseline Information Required for Strategic

Planning
 The main objective of the baseline study is to understand the existing
solid waste system as accurately as possible; analyse system
deficiencies in the context of SWM Rules, 2016; and utilise that
information for further planning, implementation, and monitoring
processes. Local conditions shall be considered while assessing the
inadequacy of existing service and planning for the future with due
consideration of local demography, physical location, growth objectives
of the ULB, as well as social and environmental conditions.

1.4.3.1 GAP ANALYSIS

The assessment of information on the current status of waste

management in the ULB in relation to the requirements of existing
regulation, policies, guidelines, and identified service level benchmarks
(SLBs) will result in an identification of key shortfalls in achieving the
desired level of services and shall form the basis for preparing a plan to
improve the MSWM system. Figure 1.6 illustrates a schematic diagram
depicting the issues to be considered while assessing gaps in MSW
service provision.

Figure 1.6: Considerations for Gap Analysis

MSW Management Gap Analysis

MSW
MSW generation, collection & transport
AdministrationInstitutional Financial information
processing & disposal Policy
aspects

Types of tr& Financial

Population & demography data MSW
Organisational setup eatment rfor
equirement
generation rates Laws
processing facilities all
provision of
MSWM services

Adequacy of primary & Adequacy

secondaryofcollection
treatmentsystems
& processing facilities
Qualified manpower Property information Adequacy of existing funds
Rules

Adequacy of transportation systems Additional

Reporting mechanisms Monitoring & evaluation framework rof
equirement
funds through grants,user fees, taxes and PPP structuring

An indicative list of specific information to be collected and analysed

for establishing the baseline of SWM service provision is given in Table
1.4.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 37

GUIDANCE
Table 1.4: Matrix for Collection of Baseline Information
(including statutory requirements as per SWM Rules, 2016 and SLBs)

INFORMATION AT CITY LEVEL INFORMATION AT WARD IDENTIFICATION

LEVEL OF
STAKEHOLDERS
Administration
• Identify electoral and administrative • Ward level population
wards and zones within the ULB and demography
• Prepare a detailed city map showing details
total area in km2, ward boundaries, • Number and location of
and city slums (notified and non-
• level demographic details, roads, notified) and their
drainage network, and land use population
pattern • Identify number of MSW
• Depict on map areas served by door- generators in each ward
to- door collection, community bin (households, commercial
collection system, and areas not establishments, institutional
served or bulk generators,
• Details of jurisdiction area and industries, and markets)
decadal growth of the city in the (information on a map)
last 3 decades • Details of existing
• City level information on number of monitoring and reporting
households, non-residential premises, system including a complaint
institutional or bulk generators, redressal system
industries and markets (information
on a map)
• Number of election or administrative
wards
• Details of existing monitoring and
reporting system including a complaint
redressal system
Institutional Aspects
• Organisational structure of the ULB • Ward level human • Identification of
• Organisational structure of SWM resources details operators in
department in the city with full details • Number of junior engineers the city,
of incumbents and their numbers, roles, at ward level extent of their
and responsibilities coverage, the
• Number of chief user fees
• Number and level of engineers with sanitary inspectors or levied by
the municipal authority in relation to the officers them, and
SWM department • Number of sanitary inspectors level of their
• Number and level of sanitary performance
• Number of sanitary
workers employed by the ULB for • List of known
supervisors
street cleaning, drain cleaning, recyclers in
transportation, processing and disposal • Number of sanitary workers
the ULB
of waste (regular and contractual) • Provisions for workers
• Approximate
• Provisions for workers (access to (access to toilets, storage
number of
toilets, storage facility, linkages with facility, linkages with
waste pickers
community level crèches or community level crèches or
and persons
anganwadis, PPE, etc.) anganwadis, PPE, etc.)
involved in the
• Sweeper/road length ratio, sweeper/ • Sweeper/road length kabadi system
supervisor ratio, sweeper/population ratio, sweeper/supervisor within the ULB
ratio, sweeper/bin ratio ratio, sweeper/population jurisdiction
• Details of MSWM tasks ratio, sweeper/bin ratio
• Identification of
outsourced to external entities • Details of MSWM tasks NGOs,
through various contracting outsourced to external voluntary
procedures entities through various groups, SHGs
contracting procedures involved in
SWM
Table 1.4: Matrix for Collection of Baseline Information
(including statutory requirements as per SWM Rules, 2016 and SLBs) [contd.]

INFORMATION AT CITY LEVEL INFORMATION AT WARD IDENTIFICATION

LEVEL OF
STAKEHOLDERS
Natural Environment
• Climate, rainfall, temperature, wind • Climate, rainfall,
speed and direction, dispersion temperature, wind speed
conditions and direction, dispersion
• Topography and drainage conditions conditions

• Land use and land cover • Topography and

drainage conditions
• Soil type
• Land use and land cover
• Groundwater table
• Soil type
• Surface water sources
• Groundwater table
• Sensitive natural areas (mangroves,
eco- sensitive zones) • Surface water sources
• Sensitive natural areas
(mangroves, eco-sensitive zones)
MSW Generation, Collection and Transportation
• Total quantity of waste generation, waste • Quantity and characteristics • Role and
generation rates, seasonal fluctuations of waste generated and extent of
(TPD) collected per ward informal sector
• Total quantity of MSW collected (TPD) • Waste quantities from (waste pickers
• Extent of population practicing waste different generators or kabadi
storage at source and waste (residential, commercial, system)
segregation institutional, markets, bulk • Involvement of
• Extent of waste recycling or recovery generators and businesses) RWAs or
• Per capita waste collected per day • Quantity of construction SHGs in
• Details of primary waste storage and demolition waste collection of
facilities recyclables
• Quantity of E-Waste
• Number and type of community bins • Role of
and secondary storage depots, their • Quantity of Plastic waste market
location, and type of waste collected • Quantity of Biomedical associations
(segregated or nonsegregated) waste • Role of
• Coverage of population in daily • Status of at source institutions like
street sweeping waste collection universities,
• Extent of coverage of slums and cantonments,
• Door-to-door waste
informal settlements government
collection beat mapping
• Waste transportation: number of offices, etc.
(information to be marked on
vehicles and types of vehicles for a map) • Role of
primary, secondary, and tertiary commercial
• Door-to-door staffing involved
transportation (differentiated for enterprises, hotel
main waste types) • Waste collection frequency associations, etc.
• Details and route map for waste • Details of number and type
transportation in the city with of vehicles used for
identified service areas for different transportation and
routes or vehicles or door-to-door transportation routes
collection beats (information to be (information to be marked
marked on a map) on a map)
• Number of trips made by vehicles in • Number and identification of
each shift nuisance spots in the ward
• Quantity of solid waste transported by where waste is
each vehicle indiscriminately disposed of
• Percentage of waste collected each day (information to be marked

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 39

GUIDANCE
 • Frequency of collection from street bins on a map)
• Number and identification of nuisance
spots in the city where waste is
indiscriminately disposed of (information
to be marked on a map)

40 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 1.4: Matrix for Collection of Baseline Information
(including statutory requirements as per SWM Rules, 2016 and SLBs) [contd.]

INFORMATION AT CITY LEVEL INFORMATION AT WARD IDENTIFICATION

LEVEL OF
STAKEHOLDERS
• Number and type of bins for
secondary collection
• Number and type of handcarts used
for primary collection
MSW Processing, Treatment and Disposal
• Presence or absence of waste • Existing decentralised • Private sector,
treatment or processing and disposal waste processing and/ NGOs or RWAs
facilities in the ULB (location to be or disposal systems, their or SHGs, civil
marked on a map) size, and technology bodies,
• Land available (location and area) adopted individuals
for centralised and decentralised (information to be marked on involved in
systems for processing and treatment a map) MSW
• Land available (location and area) • Reject management processing at
for sanitary landfill and dumping systems from decentralised decentralised
waste (marked on a map) facilities and centralised
levels and extent
• Technology adopted in each of the • Material recycling facilities of their
facilities
• Land available (location coverage
• Percentage of MSW treated daily
and area) for
through the compost plants
decentralised processing
(decentralised and centralised), both
and treatment
windrow composting and
(information on a map)
vermicomposting
• RDF plants • Land available (location and
area) for dumping waste
• Waste to energy plants
(location and area marked on
• Special waste treatment facilities, if a map)
any
• Quantity and characterisation of
waste treated or processed in each
facility
• Quantity of products sold from
each treatment or processing
facility
• Total quantity of MSW disposed at
sanitary landfill (TPD)
• Total quantity of MSW disposed at
dumpsite (TPD)
• Quantity and characteristics of rejects
from each facility and their disposal
mechanism
• Capacity, design life, technology,
environmental management systems in
each of the processing or treatment
facility
• Waste disposal methods adopted
• Number of dumpsites and sanitary
landfills (location on a map)
• Sanitary landfill facilities and
dumpsites - current capacity, waste
disposed each day, expected life of
landfill, landfill facilities (location on a
map)
Policy
• Mandates or provisions of national, • Ward level monitoring
state, regional laws or rules, mechanism or regulations
regulations, and policies related to related to MSWM and status
MSWM and status of their of their implementation
implementation
• Existing monitoring and
evaluation mechanism for
assessing MSWM
Table 1.4: Matrix for Collection of Baseline Information
(including statutory requirements as per SWM Rules, 2016 and SLBs) [contd.]

INFORMATION AT CITY LEVEL INFORMATION AT WARD IDENTIFICATION

LEVEL OF
STAKEHOLDERS
Financial Information
• Annual revenue and capital incurred • User charge prescribed
by ULB for MSWM (direct expenditure for door-to-door collection
and contracting costs) service revenues (demand
• Costs per tonne of waste collected, and collection)
treated, processed, and disposed • Revenue generation from
• User charge prescribed for door-to- user charges or percent
door collection service revenues recovery
(demand and collection) • Location and number of
• Revenue generation from user charges households paying user
or percent recovery charges (location to be
marked on a map)
• Revenue generation from
resource recovery
• Operation & maintenance costs for
MSWM
• Cost recovery for MSWM services
• Revenue generation from sale of
products from various processing and
treatment technologies
• Location and number of households
paying user charges (location to be
marked on a map)

1.4.3.2 DATA COLLECTION METHODOLOGY

Detailed information for assessing the adequacy of MSWM services

may not be readily available with the ULB. Collection of data mentioned
in Table 1.4 could overburden smaller ULBs. Therefore, efforts may
be made to collect secondary data from previous surveys or studies
undertaken for other purposes. Some
Availability of data may also
authentic databe available
is a with for strategic planning an
pre-requisite
service providers, city planning departments, etc. Essential information
may also be collected from field level supervisors after imparting
requisite training on the type and manner of data to be collected from
their respective wards.

Primary data shall be collected only when authentic secondary data is

unavailable. Primary data may be collected through conducting surveys
and measurements at the point of generation using data collection
formats.

1.4.3.2.1 Representative Data

Where the collection of primary data from the entire planning area is
not possible, representative samples may be collected. The size of the
representative sample shall be guided by consideration of the

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 41

GUIDANCE
 variations

42 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 in demography and income levels in constituent areas and seasonal
variations.

1.4.3.3 qUANTIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF WASTE

As an essential requirement each ULB should assess the quantity and

composition of waste generated to plan for and design MSWM systems
effectively. The quantity and composition of MSW generated in the ULB
determine collection, processing, and disposal options that could be
adopted. They are dependent on the population, demographic details,
principal activities in the city or town, income levels, and lifestyle of the
community.

Waste generation is strongly dependent on the local economy, lifestyle,

and infrastructure. It has been well established that waste generation
of an area is proportional to average income of the people of that area.
It is also observed that generation of organic, plastic, and paper waste
is high in high income areas.

An assessment states that the per capita waste generation is increasing

by about 1.3% per year. With an urban growth rate of 3.0%–3.5%
per year, the annual increase in waste quantities may be considered
at 5% per year. Impacts of increasing ULB jurisdiction should also be
considered while assessing future waste generation rates.

Several studies were conducted by Central Pollution Control Board

(CPCB) over the last 2 decades to arrive at waste generation details
and composition of MSW generated in the country. Summaries of the
several findings are listed below:

 1996: The characterisation studies carried out by National

Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) in 1996
indicate that MSW contains large organic fraction (30%–40%); ash
and fine earth (30%–40%); paper (3%–6%); along with plastic,
glass, and metal (each less than 1%). The calorific value of refuse
ranges between 800 and 1,000 kilocalorie per kilogram (kcal/kg)
and carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio ranges between 20 and 30.
Study revealed that quantum of waste generation varies between
0.2 and
0.4 kg/capita/day in the urban centres and goes up to 0.5 kg/capita/
day in metropolitan cities. The study was carried out in 43 cities of
varying sizes, as detailed out in Table 1.5. The results were
presented in a report published by NEERI “Strategy Paper on Solid
Waste Management in India” (1996).
Table 1.5: Per-capita Waste Generation Rates from NEERI Study in 1996 8

POPULATION RANGE NO. OF CITIES AVERAGE PER CAPITA

(IN MILLION) SURVEYED It is VALUE (KG/CAPITA/DAY)
essential to consider socio-economic conditions w
0.1 to 0.5 12 direct impact on per capita waste generation and com
0.21
0.5 to 1.0 15 0.25
1.0 to 2.0 9 0.27
2.0-5.0 3 0.35
>5.0 4 0.50

 1999-2000: The study conducted by CPCB through Environment

Protection Training and Research Institute (EPTRI) in 1999–2000
in 210 Class I cities and 113 Class II towns indicated that Class I
cities generated 48,134 tons per day (TPD) of MSW while Class II
towns generated 3,401 TPD of MSW. The study revealed that waste
generation rate in Class I cities was approximately 0.34 kg/capita/
day while the waste generation rate in Class II towns was found to
be 0.14 kg/capita/day.
 2004-2005: NEERI’s study “Assessment of Status of Municipal
Solid Wastes Management in Metro Cities and State Capitals” in
2004–2005 assessed 59 cities (35 metro cities and 24 state capitals).
Studies have revealed that waste generation rate varies from 0.12 to
0.60 kg/capita/day. Analysis of physical composition indicates that
total compostable matter in the waste is 40%–60%, while recyclable
fraction is 10%–25%. The moisture content in the MSW is 30%–
60%, while the C/N ratio is 20–40.

Table 1.6: Physical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste9

YEAR COMPOSITION (%)

Biodegradables Paper Plastic/ Metal Glass Rags Other Inerts
Rubber
1996 42.21 3.63 0.60 0.49 0.60 - - 45.13
2005 47.43 8.13 9.22 0.50 1.01 4.49 4.016 25.16

 2010-2011: The survey conducted by the Central Institute of Plastics

Engineering and Technology (CIPET) at the instance of CPCB has
reported generation of 50,592 TPD of MSW in 2010–2011 in the
same 59 cities.
 2014-2015: As per CPCB, 1,43,449 TPD of MSW was generated for
34 states and union territories during 2013–2014. The average rate
of waste generation in India, based on this data, is 0.11 kg/capita/
day. Out of the total waste generated, approximately 1,17,644
TPD (82%) of MSW was collected and 32,871 TPD (22.9%) was
processed or treated.
8 National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Study (1996).
9 ‘Improving Solid Waste Management in India’, Zhu., D. et.al., (2008). Available at: http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/swm_in_india.pdf

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 43

GUIDANCE
 Other studies and observations indicate that waste generation rate is
between 200 and 300 gm/capita/day in small towns and cities with a
population below 2,00,000. It is usually 300–350 gm/capita/day in
cities with a population between 2,00,000 and 5,00,000; 350–400
gm/capita/ day in cities with a population between 5,00,000 and
10,00,000; and 400–600 gm/capita/day in cities with a population
above 10,00,000. However, these are only indicative figures which need
to be verified while planning city specific MSWM systems.

1.4.3.3.1 Waste quantification

Current practice: Waste generation rates are quantified by measuring

the load of waste in collection vehicles either at a municipal or private
weighbridge in the city. Alternately, the volumes of different vehicle
used for transportation of waste are considered and a rule of thumb of
400–500 kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m 3) is applied for determining
the quantity of waste transported per trip per type of vehicle. A
summation of the quantities of waste transported by each vehicle type
multiplied by the total number of trips to the landfill by similar vehicles
determines the total quantity of waste transported in the ULB. The
practice of an eye estimate of waste quantity transported is not reliable
as many times trucks carrying waste are half full or carry light
material.

Current Practice for Estimation of quantity of Transported Waste

Total Waste Collected = Quantity of Waste Transported by Each Vehicle x No. of Trips

The quantity of waste measured at transfer stations or processing or

disposal sites also does not accurately reflect waste generation rates,
since these measurements do not include:

 waste disposed at unauthorised places, vacant lots, alleys, ditches;

etc.;
 waste recovered by kabadi system;
 waste recovered by informal waste collectors or waste pickers from
the streets, bins, and intermediate transfer points, etc.

10 Adapted from “Strategic Planning Guide for Municipal Solid Waste Management”. Environmental Resources Management
(ERM), (2000), prepared for the World Bank, SDC and DFID by Waste-Aware, London; Available at:
http://www.worldbank.org/ swm/erm/start_up.pdf
 Sampling for Waste quantification

Municipal solid waste is very heterogeneous in nature and its

composition varies with place and time. Even samples obtained from
the same place
(sampling point) on the same day, but at different times may show totally
different characteristics.

Long term Planning: For the purpose of long term planning, the average amount
of waste disposed by a specific class of generators can be estimated only by
averaging data from several samples collected continuously for 7 days at multiple
representative locations within the ULB jurisdiction in each of the 3 main seasons
(summer, winter, and rainy seasons). Waste quantities should be aggregated over
the 7-day period, weighed, and averaged. These quantities can then be
extrapolated to the entire urban local body (ULB) and per capita generation
assessed.

This should be repeated once every 3–5 years at the time of the review of the MSWM plan.

Short term Planning: Select at least 100 representative sampling locations per
1,00,000 population including households of low, mid, and high income levels;
commercial establishments; institutional generators; hospitals and health care
establishments; small and medium-sized enterprises; hotels; function halls;
vegetable markets; sports complexes or facilities; places of worship (temples,
mosques, etc.); and other significant representative groups. Storage bags sufficient
for 3–7 days can be distributed to each waste generator who may be advised to
deposit all waste generated daily in the given bag which is to be handed over to
the specified waste collector on the subsequent day in the morning; the bags
so distributed may be collected daily for a minimum of 3–7 days continuously
and weighed immediately after collection using a sensitive weighing machine.
Record may be kept of the waste generated by different categories of waste
generators. The waste collected from each category may thereafter be mixed
categorywise and segregated component-wise, and each component may be
weighed separately to arrive at the waste composition in different categories of
waste generators. This representative waste quantity and quality when extrapolated
to the entire ULB and divided by the population will give the per capita waste
generation rates.

e sold directly by

ation of treatment and disposal facilities. Waste moving through the system should be quantified at multiple locations t
opriate sampling mechanism can be used (Sampling point A) given in the following figure. Entire waste collected from

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 45

GUIDANCE
 Waste Flow Diagram Depicting Points of quantification10

(B)
(C)
Segregated waste
Waste generated Waste arriving
Waste to secondary
(A) at processing Reject
collected storage or
facility - 1
processing facility
(centralised)
(F)
Waste
dispose
(D)
Waste arriving
Waste collected
at processing
and waste picked
facility - 2 Reject
up by waste
(decentralised
pickers
facilities)

(E)
Extraction for reuse and recycle Reject
(through formal recycling systems)

Larger cities may have more than one transfer station. In smaller cities where there may
not be any transfer station, the processing and disposal facilities may be the first
point where waste from the entire city is deposited. The sum of the waste quantities
recorded at transfer points or the quantity of waste deposited directly at the
processing facility and landfill site shall indicate the quantum of MSW that is to be
handled by the ULB (Sampling point B) on a daily basis. This figure cannot be taken as
waste quantity generated in the city, since certain quantity of waste is picked up from
the system by the informal sector or waste pickers to earn their living, or by the
agency entrusted with waste collection before the waste reaches the processing or
disposal site. Besides, some percentage of waste is not collected at all due to
system deficiencies.
The total waste generated in the city is a sum of waste deposited at the
processing facility, directly at the landfill site, waste segregated en route to
processing and disposal site, and the waste not collected at all. It is therefore
difficult to arrive at an exact figure of waste generation in the city
The following should be noted:
• Based on the processing or treatment scheme selected, segregated waste streams
may be sent to a single integrated waste management facility or more than one
facility, each handling a specific waste stream. Waste quantities that are
processed by each of such facilities shall be measured (e.g., Sampling points C,
D, E, F in waste flow diagram).
• By subtracting quantity B from quantity A, quantification of waste not entering into
the municipal waste management stream can be assessed (waste not collected,
littered, picked up by waste picker, or bought up by informal sector at the
generator).
• A weighbridge should be placed at a suitable location to weigh waste before
being transferred to different treatment or processing and disposal facilities.
• Quantities of rejects that are being sent to the landfill facility from each of the
processing facilities shall also be measured. For instance, in the waste flow
diagram above, a weighbridge at an appropriate location may be used to quantify
waste going to points B, C, D, and F. Waste collected by decentralized collection
centres has to be weighed at the decentralized facility (point D).
• Cities with population less than 2,00,000 should tie up with private weighbridges for
daily weighment of waste being managed by the ULB.
1.4.3.3.2 Determining Waste Composition

MSW composition and characteristics vary considerably, not only

between cities but also within a ULB; daily, seasonal, and temporal
fluctuations are usually observed. MSW is heterogeneous in nature and
consists of varied waste fractions, requiring multiple samples at multiple
locations.
The quartering and coning method (Figure 1.7) is one of the best
techniques for determining the composition and characteristic of
municipal waste. The sample is reduced to a more manageable size as
the actual classification is carried out by hand.
Selection of sampling sites is a critical first step in this process. The
following aspects shall be considered:
 Waste sampling sites and frequency of sampling shall be in
accordance with guidance given in Section 1.4.3.3.1.
 The sample collection sites should be representative and include
all major sources of waste generation including residential areas
(including slums), commercial, business, and market areas
(vegetable market, meat market, slaughterhouse, grain market,
etc.).
 Sample sites should also be representative of all income groups
within the ULB.

Quartering and Coning Sampling Procedure: Quartering and coning metho

well-established technique
• Take 10 kg of municipal waste mixed from outside and inside of the
for waste characterisation
waste pile, sourced from random entities in an identified sampling
location.
• Samples from all heterogeneous sampling points shall be mixed
thoroughly.
• The sample is placed as a uniform heap.
• The heap is divided into four portions using straight lines
perpendicular to each other.
• Waste from opposing corners of the divided heap is removed to
leave half of the original sample. The remaining portions are again
thoroughly mixed and the quartering process is repeated until a
desired size is obtained (10 kg of waste can be handled or
segregated efficiently).
• The last remaining opposing fractions of waste shall be mixed and
analysed for identifying physical and chemical properties of the
waste.
• Chemical analysis of the waste sample follows the physical
constituent analysis and shall be performed in a laboratory
accredited by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 47

GUIDANCE
 Change (MoEFCC).11

11 ist of accredited laboratories by Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC),
(2013); available at http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/env_lab.htm

48 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Figure 1.7: Characterisation of Municipal Solid Waste through quartering Method 12

1/4
1/4 1/4 1/8 1/8 1/8
Mixing
1/8
1/4
1/8 1/8
1/4 1/4

1 1/2

Proportion of Waste Constituents: The size distribution of waste

constituents in the waste stream is important because of its
significance on the selection of appropriate collection, transportation,
processing, treatment, and disposal practices. The waste
characterisation method mentioned above shall be followed to assess
proportions of waste constituents.

1.4.3.3.3 Physical Characteristics of Municipal Waste

1. Density of Waste

The density of waste (mass per unit volume, kg/m 3) determines the
appropriate processing technology storage
are:and transportation
waste quantity andvolume requirements. MSW density in India
isture, calorific value, toxicity etc.
is typically around 450–500 kg/m3.

ty wastes (e.g., packaging wastes,

2.5:1 is achievable. Compactors offer little or no advantage and are not cost-effective for transportation of wastes with

Method for Bulk Density Measurement

Materials and Apparatus:

 Wooden box of l m3 capacity

 Wooden box of 1 ft3 capacity
 Spring balance weighing upto 50 kg.

12 Adapted from “Toolkit for Solid Waste Management” JnNURM, (2012) and Manual on MSWM (First Edition), CPHEEO
(2000) available at: http://jnnurm.nic.in/ toolkits-report-primers.html
 Procedure: A composite sample of MSW collected from different parts
of the heap should be taken in the smaller 1 ft 3 box and weighed with
the help of a spring balance. After weighing, contents of this smaller
box (1 ft3) should be emptied into the bigger 1 m3 box. This is repeated
until the larger box is filled to the top. Once the larger box is filled,
the weight of the waste is noted. The waste should not be compacted
by pressure. Repeat the entire procedure thrice and take the average
weight to arrive at the weight per cubic meter.
Municipal solid waste with high moisture content results in hig
2. Moisture Content

Moisture content of MSW is usually expressed as the weight of

moisture per unit weight of wet material.

Wet weight – dry weight Moisture Content (%) =100

Wet weight

Note: Wet weight: initial weight of sample with moisture content

Dry weight: weight of the sample after drying the sample to remove moisture

A typical range of moisture content is 20%–45%, representing the

extremes of waste characteristics in an arid climate and in the wet
season of a region having large precipitation. Values greater than 45%
are however not uncommon. Moisture increases the weight of MSW,
and therefore the cost of collection and transportation also increase. To
prevent an increase in weight, waste should be insulated from rainfall
or other extraneous water.

Moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility

of incineration processes since energy (i.e., heat) must be supplied for
Determining calorific value of waste is important to determine the potential for recovering RDF fr
evaporation of water and in raising the temperature of the water
vapour. Moisture content is generally found to be high in wastes
containing a higher proportion of food wastes.

3. Calorific Value

Calorific value of waste is defined as the amount of heat generated from

combustion of a unit weight of the waste, expressed as kilojoule per
kilogram (kJ/kg). The calorific value is determined experimentally
using a bomb calorimeter, in which the heat generated from the
combustion of a dry sample is measured at a constant temperature of
25°C. Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water, the
combustion water remains in the liquid state. However, during
combustion the temperature of the combustion gases remains above
100°C, so that the water resulting from combustion is in the vapour
state.

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GUIDANCE
 4. Bio-Chemical Characteristics

Chemical characteristics of waste are essential in determining the

te determine efficacy of any treatment process.

ormation to select the most appropriate

 Chemicaltreatment process These include pH; nitrogen, phosphorus,
characteristics:
and potassium (N-P-K); total organic carbon; C/N ratio; and calorific
value.
 Biochemical characteristics: These include carbohydrates,
proteins, natural fiber, and biodegradable factor.
 Toxicity: Toxicity profile of MSW includes heavy metals, persistent
organic pollutants, pesticides, and insecticides. Toxicity
characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) is used for ascertaining the
toxicity profile of MSW.

1.4.4 STEP 3: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION FOR

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
PLANNING

Figure 1.8: Step 3 in the Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

Step 1
Step 2

STEP 3: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION FOR MSWM PLANNING

STEP 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7

1.4.4.1 DEPARTMENTS INVOLVED IN MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNING (INTERNAL
STAKEHOLDERS)

The main responsibility for preparing an MSWM plan lies with the
ULB, specifically the SWM division. A core team or advisory team, also
called the internal stakeholders, should be constituted for developing
d external stakeholders helps in developing an inclusive and
the MSWM plan.

1.4.4.1.1 Plan Preparation – Core Team

The core team or internal stakeholder group consists of the following:

1. Commissioner or chief executive of the ULB

2. Head of the SWM department
3. Environmental engineer in the SWM department
4. Head of the town planning department
5. Heads of the water supply, public health or sanitation, and sewerage
departments
6. Head of the accounts department
7. Ward level officials in the SWM department, including sanitary
inspectors, technical officers, and engineers

Specific responsibilities of each of these officials are given below:

 Commissioner or chief executive of ULB

– Responsible and accountable for MSWM plan preparation and
implementation

 Head of the MSW management department in the ULB

– Responsible for establishing the baseline and analysing gaps in
MSWM service provision
– Responsible for coordinating various departments and
stakeholders to be involved in development of MSWM plan
– Responsible for assessing options and suggesting viable
alternatives to be ratified by the stakeholders

 Environmental engineer (if appointed by the ULB) and ward level

officials of the SWM department
– Inform the planning process with field level consultations and
information.

 Head of town planning department

– Responsible for identifying viable locations for establishing
SWM facilities and ensuring appropriate land use controls

 Heads of water supply, public health or sanitation, and sewerage

departments
– Explore potential cross-linkages and advise the MSWM plan
process
 Head of accounts department.
– Advice on potential revenues, costs, and implementing practices
for appropriately recording SWM revenue and expenditure

Key persons to be consulted by core team before finalisation of the draft

plan:

 Political head or mayor or chairman of ULB: Advising on the MSWM

plan process with local level concerns and ensuring that the plan
equitably addresses local MSWM issues

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GUIDANCE
  Representatives of the SWM cell at the state level and CMA/DMA
level to ensure that the planning process is in line with policies
and strategies of the state, and to ensure the potential of exploring
opportunities for regional level planning for MSWM service
provision
 District magistrate or collector of the district in which the ULB is
located: Responsible for allocation of land, ensuring implementation
of regional level strategies, and identifying synergies with other
ULBs in the region
 Representative from State Pollution Control Board: Responsible for
ensuring compliance with SWM Rules, 2016 and compliance with
other related statutory provisions for establishing and operating
MSWM facilities
 Heads of concerned parastatal agencies related to urban service
provision or city planning and land use issues

1.4.4.1.2 Advisory Role

The municipal authority may also take advice from the following:

 Academicians and practicing professionals with SWM related

expertise shall be involved.
 Where an environmental engineer is not hired by the ULB, an
environmental engineer or planner may be co-opted in an advisory
role.

1.4.4.1.3 External Stakeholders

The first step for the local body is to define a methodology for reaching
out to all stakeholders in an equitable manner at various stages of the
der Consultations to be held at MSWM planning and implementation. Informing and involving the
e while preparing the MWSM Plan
community and creating channels for all stakeholders to participate
in decision making are all very important steps for successful
implementation of SWM strategies.

Typical stakeholders for an MSWM system include households,

businesses, industries, informal sector, local government, NGOs,
community-based organisations (CBOs), self-help groups (SHGs),
women’s groups, secondary school and college students, or members
of other institutions who may have a role to play in ensuring the
involvement of the community.

Stakeholders are to be consulted at least twice during the MSWM plan

preparation, initially in defining the objectives and goals of the plan
and later (Step 6) to discuss the proposed plan and seek their inputs
 and approval. The ULB may constitute a stakeholder committee for
the purpose, with members representing all concerned groups. These
groups would need to represent the interest of men, women, youth,
and marginalised or vulnerable groups who are all part of the MSWM
process. Specifically, the involvement of women’s groups during the
planning phase is essential.

The initial consultation process (Step 3) should identify the following:

 the ability and willingness of stakeholders to cooperate in the

operation and management of the service;
 the demand of stakeholders for different type of services like door
to door collection, source segregation, etc., and frequency of service;
 their attitude toward participating in experiments or pilot projects,
particularly projects relating to source segregation, reuse, recycling
of waste, and final treatment and disposal;
 their willingness to work with different sections of society, such as
waste pickers, municipal workers, and entrepreneurs; and
 their willingness to pay for the services, the mode of payment, and
the frequency of payment.

1.4.4.2 DEFINING THE GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF

THE MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT PLAN

Once the framework at national, state, and ULB level is defined and
the stakeholders mapped, the next step will be for the ULB and the
stakeholder group to define the goals and objectives of the MSWM
plan.

ste management plan) is a ratified document that defines the goals and objectives of municipal solid waste managemen

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GUIDANCE
 1.4.5 STEP 4: PREPARATION OF DRAFT MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN

Figure 1.9: Step 4: Preparation of Draft Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

STEP 4: PREPARATION OF DRAFT MSWM PLAN

Future Projections
Population Forecast
Anticipated Lifestyle Changes
Step 1 Change in Socio-economic Status
Step 2
Step 3
Rules, Regulations & Municipal Bye-Laws
STEP 4
Community
Step 5 Participation/IEC
Step 6
Institutional
Step 7 & Financial Structuring

Storage, Collection (Door-to-Door & Street Sweeping), Transportation

Identification of Land & Inclusion in City Master Plan/City Development Plan

Selection of Process & Best Available Technology for Processing & Disposal

cal term development plans, National policies

The MSWM andcannot
plan strategies. It
be developed in isolation. It has to consider
ry 2-3 years objectives of other planning processes in force in the ULB. Objectives
of the master plan and the city development plan shall be considered.
Linkages with the city sanitation plans and National Urban Sanitation
Policy (NUSP) shall also be ensured.

Depending on the existing plans for the urban area and the size of the
area that the MSWM plan is prepared for, it is desirable to review the
plan once every 2–3 years, with the objective of continuous
improvement towards meeting service delivery standards.

The plan may be developed by considering several factors such as

future population and waste generation projections, applicable laws
and policies, institutional and financial structuring, inclusive and
equitable community involvement, technical considerations in
collection and transportation, availability of land, and best suited
technologies for handling waste generated in the ULB, based on the
ISWM hierarchy.

1.4.5.1 FUTURE PROJECTIONS

Estimating future waste generation quantities and composition is

critical for developing MSWM plan. Planning horizons for MSW
processing, treatment, or disposal projects typically extend to 20–30
years, depending on the nature of the facility. Forecasting future MSW
generation is dependent on various factors, such as:
 1. future population forecasts;
2. anticipated lifestyle changes; and
3. change in socio-economic profile of the ULB.
Short term plan: 5 years
Long term plan: 20-25 years
While preparing a MSWM plan, the following design periods (time-
Mid term review: between 2nd an
frame) have to be decided depending on the plan’s necessity:

(i) Short term plan: 5 years

(ii) Long term plan: 20-25 years
(iii) Mid term review between 2nd and 3rd year

1.4.5.1.1 Forecasting Waste Generation

Future waste generation = Per capita waste generation x Projected population

1.4.5.1.2 Population Projection

Population projection is dependent on factors governing future

growth and development in the considered jurisdiction. Growth in
all development sectors should be considered. Special factors causing
sudden immigration or influx of population should also be foreseen to
the extent possible. Population growth can be estimated using multiple
methods which are suited for cities of different sizes and stages of
growth:

i. Arithmetic Increase Method: If there has been a constant increase

in population (in absolute numbers) over the past few decades, then
for the purpose of future projection, arithmetic increase method
could be used. In this method the increase of population per
year/decade is calculated from past records and the average
increase is added to the present population to find out population in
next years/decade. This computation is suitable for historical, well
settled and established cities.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 55

GUIDANCE
 Population projection using the arithmetic increase method:

Formula: P = P1 + k (t - t1)

Arithmetic rate of growth:

P2 – P1
Ka =
t –21t
P = population for projected year
P1 = population in year a (base year)
P2 = current population t1 = base year
t2 = current year
t = period of the projection in decades k = population growth rate (constant)
Example: If population of a city is 5,000 in 1971 and 7,050 in 2011, then projected populati
P1 = 5,000
P2 = 7,050
t1 = 1971
t2 = 2011
K = (7,050-5,000)/ (2011-1971) = 51.25
P = 5,000 + (51.25)*(2021-1971) = 5,000 + 2562.5 = 7,562.5

se method are the two most commonly used population projection methods

ii. Geometrical Increase Method: In this method the geometric mean

of decadal averages is considered to be the rate of growth. This
method is used for new and growing cities, which may have
irregular growth patterns.

If the population growth rate is not available for a city, population

growth trend has to be determined first. This could be done by
comparing the population growth for the last 5 decades. If the decadal
increase in population (in absolute numbers) is not constant, then the
growth rate has to be determined first.
 Population projection using the geometrical increase method is calculated using
the equation:

Formula: Pb = Pa (1+r)t
Pb = population of the year for which projection is to be
made Pa = population of the base year
r = the rate of growth divided by 100
t = the number of years between ‘a’ and ‘b’
Example: If population (2011) of a city is 1,000 with a growth rate of 1.8%, then
projected population for 2021 is 1,195.
P2021 = P2011 x (1 + 1.8/100)10
= 1,000 x 1.195
P2021 = 1,195

In case decadal increase in population is not constant, then the growth rate has to be
determined first
Determination of Decadal Population Growth Rate
(Geometric) The population for (5 decades):

YEAR CENSUS POPULATION GROWTH RATE

1971 5,000
1981 6,095 2%
1991 7,430 2%
2001 9,146 2.1%
2011 11,250 2%
2021 13,590

Formula for calculating growth rate:

r = {(P1981 / P1971)1/t – 1} x 100
(here t = 10)
r = growth rate
After finding out the average growth rate (in percent), future projection
could be done using the growth rate in the geometric increase method, as
described above.

iii. Incremental Increase Method: In this method the increment in

arithmetical increase is determined based on the past decades, and the
average of that increment is added to the average increase.
Population projection using the incremental increase method is calculated using the equation:

Pn = Population after
Formula: (n)0 +
Pn =P decades
nX + n from present
(n+1)/2 (i.e last known census)
x Y where
P0 = Population in base year
n = Period of projection in decades
X = Average increase of population of known decades
Y= Average of incremental increases of the known decades

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 57

GUIDANCE
 iv. Graphical Method: The graph between time and population is
plotted from the available data and the curve is plotted. There are
two approaches that could be adopted:
a. Graphical method based on single city: In this method the
population curve of the city (i.e., present population vs. past
decades) is smoothly extended for getting future value. This
extension has to be done carefully. The line of best fit may be
obtained by the method of least squares.
b. Graphical method based on cities with similar growth pattern:
In this method the city in question is compared with other cities
that have already undergone the same phases of development,
which the city in question is likely to undergo. Based on this
comparison, a graph between population and decades is plotted.

v. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method: This method is applicable

only in cases where the population growth rate shows a downward
trend. In this method it is assumed that growth rate decreases, and
the average growth rate decrease is calculated. Then the percentage
increase is modified by deducting the decrease in growth rate.

vi. Logistic Method: The ‘S’-shaped logistic curve for any city gives
complete growth trend right from the beginning to the saturation
limit of population.

1.4.5.2 PER CAPITA WASTE GENERATION

Per capita waste generation rates are to be established for each city
based on the procedure specified in section 1.4.3.3.

1.4.5.3 RULES, REGULATIONS AND MUNICIPAL BYE-LAWS

The ULB shall consider all existing national and state rules and policies,
identified in Step 1 and Step 2 of the planning process. Local bye-laws
governing waste management, if any, shall also be considered. The
framework for the plan shall be defined by these existing directives.
The plan shall, at a minimum, seek to meet the objectives of all such
policies and guidance. If applicable, due consideration shall be given to
any legal directives on specific service provision, which may be time
bound.

1.4.5.4 PLANNING FOR AN INSTITUTIONAL

STRUCTURE (TO BRIDGE THE GAPS)

For planning an efficient and advanced MSWM system, it is essential

to have an efficient institutional structure besides having adequate
infrastructure and equipment. MSWM is both a managerial problem
 and a technical issue. An effective institutional setup capable of
It is crucial
designing, to institutionalize
implementing, within the ULB
and monitoring a dedicated
the MSWM SWM
system department
needs to or cell having staff
be established within the local authority. Currently, in many small and
medium towns, sanitary inspectors look after MSWM. Whereas in many
of the cities, the health officer, usually a medical doctor who does not
have adequate exposure to technical and logistic practices in MSWM,
heads the SWM department. It is therefore strongly recommended that
ULBs should have an SWM cell or SWM department having staff with
technical and managerial skills specific to MSW management.

The ULB shall follow their respective state government norms for
staffing the SWM department (please refer to Annexure 2 for former
Andhra Pradesh’s staffing for SWM departments in ULBs).

However, in view of developments in the SWM sector, the Supreme

Court then appointed an expert committee to look into all aspects
of SWM. With a view to improve the situation, the Supreme Court’s
expert committee report on SWM recommended hiring professionals
in MSW services to scientifically manage the waste issues. It is also
recommended that in the cities where health officers are looking after
MSWM or part thereof, in addition to their principal function of taking
preventive health measures, they may be gradually made free from this
responsibility and replaced by public health or environmental
engineers.

The recommendations from the expert committee report are given

below:

1.4.5.4.1 Towns below 1 Lakh Population

 One experienced Junior Engineer, if the population is more than

50,000 or in places with high floating population.
 One qualified sanitation diploma holder or Chief Sanitary Inspector
or as Sanitary Officer if the population is more than 50,000.
 One qualified Sanitary Inspector per 50,000 population.
 One qualified Sanitary Sub-inspector per 25,000 population.
 One Sanitary Supervisor per 12,500 population.

1.4.5.4.2 Cities between 1 and 2.5 Lakh Population

 One experienced graduate engineer or Equivalent Health Officer.

 One experienced Junior Engineer per 1 lakh population.
 Qualified sanitation diploma holder Chief Sanitary Inspector or
Sanitation Officer to look after the collection, transportation,
processing and disposal of waste: 1 per 1 lakh population or part
thereof; or 1 per 2 Sanitary Inspectors, whichever is less.

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  Qualified sanitation diploma holder Sanitary Inspector: 1 per 50,000
population or part thereof; or 1 per 80 sweepers, whichever is less.
 Qualified sanitation diploma holder Sanitary Sub-inspector: 1 per
25,000 population or part thereof; or 1 per 40 sweepers, whichever
is less.
 Sanitary Supervisors (a person who can read, write, and report): 1
per 12,500 population or part thereof; or 1 per 20 sweepers,
whichever is less.

1.4.5.4.3 Cities between 2.5 and 5 Lakh Population

 Public Health or Environmental Engineer or Civil Engineer having

training in environmental or public health engineering in the Grade
of Assistant Executive Engineer to be in charge of SWM department.
 Public Health or Environmental Engineer in the grade of Assistant
Engineer to look after the transportation, processing and disposal of
waste.
 One experienced Junior Engineer, per 2.5 lakh population.
 Chief Sanitary Inspector or Sanitary Officers to supervise storage,
street sweeping, and primary collection of waste per 1 lakh
population.
 Sanitary Inspectors, Sanitary Sub-inspectors, Sanitary Supervisors
as per yardstick indicated in Section 1.4.5.4.2 above.

1.4.5.4.4 Cities between 5 and 20 Lakh Population

 Public Health or Environmental Engineer or Civil Engineer having

training in environmental or public health engineering of the level of
Executive Engineer to be in-charge of SWM department.
 Public Health or Environmental Engineer or Civil Engineer having
training in environmental or public health engineering of the level of
Assistant Executive Engineer per 5 lakh population.
 Public Health or Environmental Engineer or Civil Engineer having
training in environmental or public health engineering of the level of
Assistant Engineer per 2.5 lakh population.
 One experienced Junior Engineer, per 2.5 lakh population.
 Chief Sanitary Inspector or Sanitary Officers, Sanitary Inspectors,
Sanitary Sub-inspectors and Sanitary Supervisors as per yardstick
indicated in Section 1.4.5.4.2 above.

1.4.5.4.5 Cities between 20 and 50 Lakh Population

 Public Health Engineer or Environmental Engineer or Civil Engineer

having training in environmental or public health engineering of the
level of Superintending Engineer to be the Head of SWM
Department.
  Public Health or Environmental Engineer or Civil Engineer having
training in environmental or public health engineering of the level of
Executive Engineer. One Executive Engineer per 20 lakh population
or part thereof.
 Rest of the supervisors and staff as per the yardstick already
indicated in Section 1.4.5.4.2 to 1.4.5.4.4 above.

1.4.5.4.6 Cities above 50 Lakh Population

 Public Health Engineer or Environmental Engineer or Civil Engineer

having training in environmental or public health engineering of the
level of Chief Engineer to be in charge of SWM department.
 Superintending Engineer per 40 lakh population or part thereof.
 Rest of the officers, supervisor’s etc. as per yardsticks already
indicated in Section 1.4.5.4.2 to 1.4.5.4.5 above.

and municipal commissioners to create two separate wings in the ULBs and to clearly demarcate the roles of health and

1.4.5.5 TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING

There is an urgent need to train and enhance the capacities of staff in

MSWM activities. Professionalising the MSW sector Capacity
will not only buildof staff is essential
building
the capacities of workers to perform more effectively forand efficiently
enhancing in skills in monitoring MSW
their
the existing conditions, but will also inculcate a sense of responsibility
and pride towards their profession. Provision of hygienic and safe
working conditions for workers and encouraging the use of personal
protective equipment (PPE) should also be part of this effort. The
positive impact of such actions on the well-being of all workers
(specifically the women) is far-reaching. These efforts will also lead to
an improvement in service delivery and hence better management of
activities.

It is important that the approach to capacity building in MSWM should

not only focus on technology but also on different aspects including

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 61

GUIDANCE
 governance, financing, planning, and improved service delivery. Figure
1.10 explains various capacity building approaches that can be adopted
for different stakeholders based on the ULB’s requirements.

Figure 1.10: Capacity Building Approaches for Different Stakeholders13

Training and capacity building activities for MSW staff include:

Senior Officers
Collection Staff Transportation
1. Field level Staff
1. Door to door
implementation collection 1. Transportation of
2. Monitoring field segregated
2. Collection of
activities waste
segregated waste
3. Onsite separately 2. Synchronization
supervision between
3. Regular and
secondary
4. Welfare of timely collection collection and
field staff 4. Use of PPEs transportation
5. Feedback
5. Co-operation to ULBs 3. Vehicle routing
or reporting
innovations 4. Preventive
6. Capacity maintenance
building of field 5. Safe and
and hygienic waste
administrative
staff Capacity
building
in
MSWM

NGOs / CBOs
Elected Representatives Staff at Processing Plant
1. Community
1. Policy formation, 1. Quantification of
mobilization
plan preparation waste received
2. Community and legislation at plant
capacity
2. Infrastructure 2. Analysis of
building
development waste received
through IEC
3. Supervision 3. Process design
3. Capacity
and 4. O&M of
building of
monitoring plant
collection crew
and waste 4. Continuous machinery
generators improvement 5. Disposal of
5. Human resource waste that is
development not being
6. Budgeting and proceed
finance 6. Fire, health,
7. Ensure co-operation safety and
of citizens environment

• Special training: The following should be trained: (i) unqualified

staff and sanitation workers; (ii) ground level staff like sanitary
supervisors (or equivalent); and (iii) sanitary inspectors, junior
engineers, and senior officers. All officers and supervisors must be
trained in skills required for an effective and efficient MSWM sector
13 Toolkit for Solid Waste Management (2012), Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India. http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/SWM-toolkit.pdf
 including instructing the sanitation workers. Best practices adopted
by different cities in the state, country, and internationally should be
made known to senior staff.
• Refresher courses for supervisory staff: Refresher courses should
be conducted for officers and supervisors at least once every 5
years.
• Study visits: Learnings can be enhanced by visiting institutions or
places where good practices have already been well established.
• Professional growth opportunities: Adequate professional growth
opportunities should be built into the MSWM hierarchy to encourage
supervisory staff members to remain in the department and hence
avoid attrition.

1.4.5.6 FINANCIAL IMPLEMENTATION STRUCTURE

1.4.5.6.1 Overall Cost Assessment (Full Cost Assessment)

The planning for an advanced MSWM system should be based on

accurate financial calculations, taking into authorities
Municipal consideration alltorelevant
need be aware of the full costs and re
costs including hidden costs and revenues. This important task within
the planning process is to ensure financial viability of the MSWM
system and its sustainability in the long run.14,15

ULBs generally fund their MSWM activities through a combination

of government grants and internal revenues from property tax and
non-tax revenues; some ULBs finance projects through public private
partnership (PPP) arrangements. Very few ULBs resort to taking loans
for MSWM services. Revenues from MSWM service provision and
expenditure on various components of MSWM are usually not properly
accounted for. Segregated financial information pertaining to MSWM
service is required to assess the financial viability of service provision.

Full cost accounting (FCA) (Figure 1.11) provides a systematic

framework for identifying and evaluating all costs associated with the
integrated waste management options for ULBs as mentioned above.
MSWM services are traditionally financed thr
 Front-end costs: These include the pre-operativeofinvestments
governmentand
grants and revenues
expenses necessary to implement MSW services.
 Capital costs: These include one-time fixed costs for plant and
machinery and any cost of capital.
 Operating costs: These include daily expenses of managing MSW,
refurbishment costs, and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs.

14 “Full Cost Accounting for Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Handbook”, EPA, (1997), available at:
http://www.epa.gov/ waste/conserve/tools/fca/docs/fca-hanb.pdf
15 “Analysis of the Full Costs of Solid Waste Management for North Carolina Local Governments”, DEHNR, (1997), available
at http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/ 01/00369.pdf

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 63

GUIDANCE
  Back-end costs: These comprise expenditure required to wrap
up O&M of MSW facilities at the end of their useful lives.
 Contingent costs: These include costs that might or might not be
incurred at some point in the future, e.g., remediating future release
of pollutants.
 Environmental costs: These are the implications on the
environment that might occur due to MSW transportation,
treatment, and disposal activities (e.g., costs for mitigating
contaminated soil, polluted surface and groundwater bodies, and
poor air quality due to indiscriminate burning of MSW).
 Social costs: These are costs incurred to mitigate adverse impacts
on health and well-being of local community, on account of improper
MSWM. In India, such impacts are generally not compensated.
Impacts of MSW storage depots, as well as MSW treatment and
disposal facilities on the health, quality of life, and value of property
in the neighbourhood are considered. An assessment and
consideration of these impacts is required before selecting waste
management options, even though they are not easily quantifiable.

Figure 1.11: Elements of Full Cost Accounting

Front-end Costs Capital

Operating
Costs Costs Contingent Costs
Land FixedDebt service cost Remediation costs
acquisition Operation
cost for andmachinery
plant and maintenance
Liability
costscosts
involved
(e.g.,inproperty
daily activities
damage personal inju
Permits Cost Cost
of capital
of refurbishment
Building ConstructionIEC activities
he real costs of the MSWM system:
IEC Activities

Back-end
Environmental
Costs Costs Social Costs
Site closure Quality
Costs involved in mitigating adverse effect on environment (costs of life
for implementing Environmental
Building
Management
and equipment
Plan [emp])
decommissioning Aesthetic impacts
al Retirement
Downstream
and health
impacts
benefits for current employees Community image
Effects on property values

These categories together cover the life cycle of MSW activities from
the “cradle” (Front-end costs) to “grave” (back-end costs). FCA provides
accurate and complete information on the real costs of managing
municipal solid waste. It tends to uncover hidden and overlooked costs
and allocates all costs to the specific activity. This helps decision-
makers
 to compare present and proposed services accurately, predict future
costs reliably and evaluate privatisation options thoroughly.

Other Advantages of Full Cost Accounting

 ULBs can use FCA as a planning tool for preparing budgets and
determining future direction.
 FCA helps the ULBs to examine various financial scenarios and their
resulting impacts in the future.
 FCA can also be used while analysing costs in the long term.
 FCA results can also be used for maintaining transparency between
the ULBs and the general public. The results can be presented to
the public through media (e.g., newspaper). However, FCA does not
address non-monetary costs and benefits like social costs and public
expectations. Results from FCA should be considered in conjunction
with non-monetary costs to help ULBs to make better informed
decisions for MSWM.
Description of elements of full cost assessment: The following
section provides schemes on how to calculate and document the total
costs of a stand-alone fully compliant MSWM system.

Front-end Costs: Front-end costs include pre-operative activities that

are required before implementing any MSWM system (e.g.,
investigation costs such as topographical surveys; geotechnical,
geological, hydrogeological investigations; environment impact
assessment; etc.). Table 1.7 gives an overview of front-end costs
involved in a typical MSWM system.

Table 1.7: Indicative Front-end Costs in a Typical Municipal Solid Waste

Management System

SL. NO DESCRIPTION NOS. UNIT AMOUNT

RATE
1 Obtaining permit for land
2 Topographical survey
3 Geotechnical investigation
4 Geological investigation
5 Hydrogeological investigation
6 Waste characterisation
7 Waste quantification
8 Detailed design
9 Environmental impact assessment
10. Others

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 65

GUIDANCE
 Capital Costs: Capital costs are one-time fixed costs associated with a
project which may include the price of purchased assets such as land,
vehicles, equipment, or other supplies. The capital costs involved in
MSWM systems can be further divided based on activities:

 Collection and transportation costs: These include purchase of

collection tools, storage bins, transportation vehicles, construction
of transfer stations. An indicative format for assessing capital costs
for collection and transportation is given in Table 1.8.
 Processing and disposal costs: These include cost of land
buildings, plant machinery, process equipment, material handling
equipment, pollution control equipment (electrostatic precipitators,
bag filters, and other dust control equipment), transport vehicles,
material recovery facilities, construction of sanitary landfill,
laboratory facilities, rainwater drainage management, electrical
equipment, backup of power, green belt, etc. An indicative format for
assessing capital costs for processing and disposal is given in Table
1.9.

Table 1.8: Indicative Format for Assessing Capital Costs for Collection and Transportation
System for Municipal Solid Waste Management

S. DESCRIPTION DTD SS SC & CM TOTA 15% CON- UNIT AMOUNT

NO & T L (A) TINGENC RATE
DC Y (B) (INR)
(A+B)
1 Pushcart bins (6 per
pushcart)
2 Pushcarts
3 Tricycle
4 Tricycle bins (8 per
tricycle)
5 Auto tipper (1 m3)
6 Metal tray, metal plate
7 Tipper trucks
8 1.0 m3 container with strips
(dumper bins)
9 3.0 m3 skips (dumper bins)
10 4.5 m3 skips (dumper bins)
11 Dumper placers
12 Refuse compactors
13 Drain cleaning or jetting
machine
14 Mechanized sweeper trucks
(large or small)
15 Others

(DTD: Door to Door, SS&DC: Street Sweeping and Drain Cleaning, SC&T: Street Collection and
Transportation, CM: Cleaning of Markets)
Table 1.9: Indicative Format for Assessing Capital Costs for Establishing
Processing and Disposal Systems for Municipal Solid Waste
Management

S.NO. DESCRIPTION NOS. UNIT AMOUNT

RATE
1 Land
2 Buildings
3 Process equipment (trommel,
sieves, separators)
4 Material handling (conveyors,
loaders, elevators)
5 Pollution control equipment
6 Transport (tippers, tractors)
7 Material recovery facility
8 Sanitary landfill
9 Rainwater management (drains,
ponds)
10 Diesel Generator set, transformer
yard, cables
11 Weighbridge
12 Security
13 Office, management information
system, or laboratory
14 Others

Operation & Maintenance Cost: Operations and maintenance

(O&M) cost is an ongoing cost and shall include all costs incurred
in daily operation of the facility. It shall include labour and salaries;
administrative and management cost; maintenance of vehicles and
equipment; fuel or tyres; etc. Table 1.10 gives an overview of estimated
O&M cost incurred in MSWM.

Table 1.10: Indicative Format for Assessing Capital Costs for Collection and
Transportation System for Municipal Solid Waste Management

S.NO DESCRIPTION qUANTIT UNI TOTAL

Y T AMOUN
RAT T (RS)
E
(RS)
I Collection and transportation vehicles and
equipment
All equipment (metal tray, brooms,
personal protective equipment [PPE],
etc.)
Fuel
Vehicle maintenance cost (%) of vehicle
cost
Cost of spares, tires, etc.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 67

GUIDANCE
 Others

68 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 1.10: Indicative Format for Assessing Capital Costs for Collection and Transportation System
for Municipal Solid Waste Management [contd.]

S.NO DESCRIPTION qUANTIT UNI TOTAL

Y T AMOUN
RAT T (RS)
E
(RS)
II Salaries of workers for collection
and transportation
Supervisor
Sweepers, loaders, sanitary workers
Driver
Others
III Salaries of workers at processing
and disposal facility
Plant in charge
Plant supervisors
Fitters
Electrician
Vehicle maintenance-in-charge
Stores-in-charge
Landfill-in-charge
Weighbridge operator
Office-in-charge
Yard operation-in-charge
Others
IV Salaries of laboratory staff
Quality assurance chemist
Other lab staff
Others
V PPE
Face mask
Gum boot
Hand gloves
Uniform
Others

Some of the other costs that need to be considered are:

 Working capital costs: These include interest on at least 2

months receivables and revenue from tipping fee, electricity sale,
compost sale, and any other product sold. In addition, at least 2
months O&M costs have to be built in.
 Finance costs: These include depreciation, interest on debt, income
taxes, sinking fund for refurbishment, insurances, bank guarantees,
post-closure monitoring, etc.
1.4.5.6.2 Financial Viability of Municipal Solid Waste Management
System

MSWM should be planned in a manner that it meets all statutory

requirements. The level of sophistication could vary depending on
Financial viability of the MSWM Plan can be ensured th
the financial capability of the municipal authority. Sustainable design
of several cost recovery mechanisms:
and implementation of systems should user be ensured. MSWM
fees, sale of endprojects
products, municipal funds and g
should be made viable by ensuring cost recovery
State andthrough
Centrallevy of user
Governments, loans and funding fro
fees from the beneficiaries, prescribing appropriate fees or tipping fees
for the services rendered, sale of end products from the processing
of waste, allocation of funds from municipal internal resources and
government grants, viability gap funding from the government (if any),
and introducing public private partnerships (PPPs) for efficiency and
attracting private sector investments.

MSWM services are sustainable only if they are financially viable on

a stand-alone basis. Therefore, the assessment of financial viability is
an important step in planning MSWM system. The deficit in funding
planned services, if any, should be estimated. Table 1.11 gives a format
for assessing deficits over a time period.

Table 1.11: Format for Assessing Financial Deficits for Provision of Municipal
Solid Waste Management Services

S. NO DESCRIPTION YEAR 01 YEAR 02 YEAR 03

YEAR…. YEA
(RS) (RS) R 20
Variable user charges are based on the quantity of waste gene
(RS)
1 Total cost
2 Revenue
Deficit (total cost-
revenue)

1.4.5.6.3 Identification of Sources for Finance

The extent of service provision by the ULBs is determined largely by

the availability and allocation of finances to different services and
functions. ULBs are empowered to derive their income from several
sources such as taxes, fines, penalties, and remunerative enterprises.
Apart from the above mentioned sources, ULBs also depend on grants
and loans to meet their financial needs.16,17

The traditional sources of financing MSWM activities include:

 local taxes, e.g., property tax, water tax, conservancy tax,
development fee, etc.;

16 “Environmental Fiscal Reforms in India: Where and How?”, GIZ and TERI (2011).
17 “Economic Instruments in the Waste Management Sector”, GIZ (2010).
Available at: http://www.giz.de/de/downloads/gtz2010-en-foes-economic-instruments-waste-management.pdf

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 69

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  user charges;
 rents from properties, license fees, and other non-tax revenues;
igher charges for commercial, bulk generators etc. should be considered.
ge of all classes of tax payers will
 fetch
grantshigher
from revenues
state and central government, e.g., Swachh Bharat
Mission, state finance commission grants;
 loans from capital market, government, and financial institutions,
e.g., Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) and
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD);
 loans from international agencies, e.g., Asian Development Bank
(ADB), Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC), German
Development Bank (KfW) and the World Bank;
 PPPs;
 Municipal bonds or debentures;
 revenue from sale of products from waste processing plants (if
owned by the ULB);
 tipping fees from the private operator.

(a) Property Taxes

Traditionally, property tax in India is the single largest internal

source of revenue to the ULBs, contributing as much as 25%–
30% to their total revenue. Government grants are another
major source of revenue, mainly utilised for paying wages to
employees and for undertaking specific projects. Most of the
ULBs use a sizable part of the property tax to support MSWM
activities. However, since the assessment and collection of
property tax is poor, ULBs are unable to allocate adequate funds
for MSWM services. Further, the lumpsum approach of the
property tax does not impose any incentive for at-source waste
minimisation as discussed in Section 2.1 of Part II.
Rationalisation of the property tax is required to ensure financial
sustainability of these services.

(b) User Charges18

The following basic principles may be considered by ULBs for
levying user or service fee for MSWM services.

 “Polluter pays” principle: Those responsible for waste

generation should pay for its collection and safe disposal.
 Proportionality: The user fees should be in proportion to the
quantity of waste generated and level of service provided to
waste generators. Households generate much less waste as
compared with commercial, institutional, and industrial
establishments; and among the households, the poor generate
less waste as
18 “Economic Instruments in the Waste Management Sector”, GIZ (2010).
Available at: http://www.giz.de/de/downloads/gtz2010-en-foes-economic-instruments-waste-management.pdf
 compared with the rich households. Therefore, variable rate may
be prescribed for different categories of waste generators
keeping in mind their waste generation potential. At least three
categories of service charge may be prescribed for:
i. households;
ii. commercial, institutional, industrial waste generators; and
iii. bulk waste generator such as hotels, function halls,
restaurants, and large commercial, institutional, and
industrial establishment, etc.
 Capacity to pay: Affordability of the taxpayer may be kept in
mind while fixing user charges. A fair service charge tariff will
facilitate better compliance. Moderate rate, least exemptions,
and wider coverage of all classes of taxpayers will fetch higher
revenues.

The following criteria may be considered for enhancing the tax base
in an ULB:
 Subsidy for the poor: The element of cross-subsidisation may
be introduced to give relief to the poor and disadvantaged to
Efficient administration of service fee d
ensure that they are not deprived of basic services.Accountability
 Higher rates from nonresidential establishments:
Acceptability
Higher
Affordability
rates may be prescribed for commercial, institutional, and
industrial establishments and bulk waste generators as they
produce substantially more waste than households and usually
better capacity to pay.
have a
 Willingness to pay: People are usually willing to pay for a good
service. However, it is desirable to ascertain their willingness to
pay for different levels of services. Citizens may prefer a higher
level of service and be willing to pay more for the same. This
consultation will promote better compliance.
 Introducing higher service fees: From an assessment of the
current scenario of MSWM service fees levied on ULBs, it does
not seem practical to immediately introduce higher rates of
service fees that may be required to make MSWM services self-
sustaining. User fees may be increased gradually, synchronous
with the provision of MSWM services. Efforts should be made
to reach the level of full sustainability in 5 years. The service
fee structure may be so devised that it is commensurate with
the level of service provided and may be increased gradually
with improved level of services, increasing the level of
acceptability among citizens and ensuring their compliance. As
an immediate action, SWM service fees may be increased by
ULBs to cover the O&M cost in 3 years. Within the same ULB,
where the level of service differs in different wards or areas,

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 71

GUIDANCE
 differential rates may be charged in

72 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 different areas in accordance with the level of service. Uniform
rates may be applied to currently underserved areas, when full\
coverage is provided to these areas. However, services to the
poor may continue to be subsidised, even when full service levels
are achieved in such areas.

hich are typically used to finance public services.

al body (ULB). User fees may be levied to cover full operation and maintenance (O&M) cost of collection and transporta

Steps for Determining Service Fee

Determining MSWM fee involves several considerations such as

(i) capital and O&M cost of services, (ii) number and type of waste
generators, (iii) level of service to be provided, (iv) willingness and
ability to pay for the service, (v) levels of targeted subsidy, (vi) required
establishment cost of the institutional arrangement for service delivery
and cost recovery, etc. Evidence of the rationale used for defining
ervice fee, the capital, O&M, institutional,
MSWM fees political
could be a key factor in securing political commitment to
should be considered regulate and enforce user fee collection.

The following steps may be taken by ULBs to determine service fee

structure:
1. Understand tariff or fee base.
2. Set norms of tariff fixation.
3. Communicate with consumers.
4. Set method of collection of SWM service fees.

Step 1: Understand tariff or fee base: The first step of tariff setting
is to understand the target for base of MSWM tariffs. ULBs need
to understand the number and type of waste generators to estimate
volumes and types of waste generated and MSWM expenditure. ULBs
also need to identify service options. These considerations will form
the basis for determining the tariff rate.
The following analysis is required to estimate levels and costs of
service provision which are required for determining tariffs for
different levels of customers:

a) Classifications of waste generators

Classify waste generators into different categories such as

households, commercial, and institutional establishments and
determine their numbers. This will help the ULBs in understanding
the number and type of waste generators to be served and the
frequency of service required. The following information may
therefore be gathered from each of the waste generator groups:

 Household consumers
– Current number of households in each settlement area such
as ward
– Status of collection service in different types of settlements
such as door-to-door collection, community bin collection,
or none
– Frequency of collection
– Level of service desired by the households; and willingness
of the households to practice the 3R approach (reduce,
reuse, recycle), to segregate the waste at source, to do home
composting, etc.
– Willingness to pay and ability to pay
 Commercial and institutional establishments
– Number of shops and establishments
– Number of institutions (offices, schools and colleges, temples)
– Hospitals, hotels, restaurants, guesthouses, etc.
– Number of industries (manufacturing industries)
– Status of collection service such as door-to-door collection,
community bin collection, or none
– Frequency of collection
– Level of service desired
– Willingness to practise 3Rs and segregate the waste at source
– Willingness to pay and ability to pay

The data may be analysed and classified into different groups such
as: (i) poor and non-poor households; (ii) small and medium shops
and establishments (less than 200, 500, 1000 ft2 in area); (iii) large
commercial establishments (more than 1,000 ft 2); and (iv) bulk waste
generators.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 73

GUIDANCE
b) Estimates of waste generation:

It is essential to have a fair estimate of the amount of waste generated

in the city or town that will help in estimating the staffing and the
vehicles and equipment required for primary collection, transportation,
treatment, and disposal of waste.

 Households: ULBs should collect data on domestic waste generated

per capita per day by different households in the city and its
composition (organic and inorganic waste). Generally, higher
income households generate more non-biodegradable and
recyclable waste such as packaging materials, glass, metal, etc.
 Non-residential premises: ULBs should collect data on waste
generated by shops, offices, workshops, hotels, marriage halls, malls,
restaurants, etc.; and on non-hazardous health care and industrial
waste generated daily in the city.
 Bulk waste generators: ULBs should collect data on estimated
waste from public places, parks and gardens, large hotels,
commercial establishments, non-residential complexes, vegetable
and fruit markets, meat and fish markets, daily street cleaning and
drain cleaning activities, and unauthorised disposal sites in the city.

The data will help in scientifically determining the variable rates for
different categories as mentioned above. It will also give an indication
of the actual cost incurred by the ULB in providing services. The
scientific method for estimating waste generation rates in a city is
given in section
1.4.3.3.1 of this chapter.

c) Cost estimates
An analysis of costs for various levels of service provision is necessary
to determine the fee structure. Cost components for MSWM services
are the following:

 Collection
– Types of collection vehicles and technology used
– Staffing required for providing collection service
– Capital cost of storage bins, collection vehicles
– Cost of fuel, labour, materials, safety measures, maintenance,
personal protective equipment (PPE), depreciation
– Cost per tonne of waste collected per day
– Overhead costs
 Transportation
– Transportation cost from door-to-door collection site to the
treatment or disposal site; or from community bins, transfer
stations, or material recovery facility (MRF) to treatment or
disposal site
– Cost of transportation vehicles and equipment required
– Cost of transfer station
– Cost of fuel, labour, maintenance, safety measures, PPE,
depreciation
– Cost per tonne of waste transported
– Overhead costs
 Processing
– Type of processing technology adopted
– Cost of construction of processing facility
– Cost of O&M of the processing facility
– Residual financial burden on the ULBs, including tipping fee (if
PPP mode is adopted)
– Cost per tonne of waste treated
– Overhead costs
 Disposal
– Land cost or lease cost
– Sanitary landfill construction cost
– Vehicles and equipment cost
– Environmental protection costs in affected areas
– Sanitary landfill O&M cost
– Labour, fuel, amenities cost
– Closure, monitoring & rehabilitation costs, capital and
recurring cost of per tonne waste disposal
– Overhead costs
 Administrative overheads
– Daily office or staff expenditure
– Billing and revenue collection charges
– Public awareness
– Information system and data collection or management
information system (MIS)
– Overhead costs

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 75

GUIDANCE
d) Service options

Service levels selected to cater to user’s requirements, e.g., types of

tools, equipment, and vehicles to be used; frequency of service to be
provided; etc. will determine the cost of service. ULBs need to
decide on the level of service it desires to provide keeping in mind
the cost of services and its capability to recover the cost. Service
levels need to be determined prior to fixing service fee. The
followings are the options for the ULB:

 Consumers
– Residential consumers in urban areas: Door-to-door collection
of MSW from households on a daily basis may be considered
necessary.
– Non-residential consumers:
a. Door-to-door collection from commercial establishments
and offices or curbside collection on a daily basis may be
considered as an adequate service level.
b. For bulk waste generators such as hotels, restaurant, and
large complexes, waste collection service can be given on a
demand basis. The service levels may be determined
contractually keeping in mind the amount and type of waste
generated.
c. For vegetable and fruit market waste and construction waste
generating sites, the ULB should provide waste storage
containers and transport them on a regular basis as per
contractual terms.

 Public Places
– ULB is required to clean all public places and roads in residential
and commercial areas, including street sweeping and cleaning of
surface drains.
– Special cleaning services could be provided on chargeable basis
during or after special events in public places.

Step: 2 Norms of fee fixation

Key considerations for prescribing a fee structure for provision of

MSWM services:

 Surveys have indicated that urban poor generate about 100

g/capita, whereas the rest generate above 200 g/capita/day. This
justifies the variable charges for the different strata of society.
Because they generate less quantity of waste and have lower
capacity to pay, urban poor may be charged 50% lower fees than
other income groups on the basis of equity.
 Criteria for Giving Subsidy to Urban Poor
Identification of urban poor is essential to enable access to urban services at a subsidized rate. The follo
identifying poor and vulnerable sections of the community to administer lower MSWM charges:

The economic status of families may be determined based on the type and size of dwelling units or local

 The commercial, institutional, and industrial establishments

generate larger quantities of waste. The rate could be kept
higher for large commercial establishments and bulk waste
generators, considering the large quantity and volume of waste
generated by them.
 A minimum of 50% of door-to-door collection costs (including
O&M costs) should be recovered from households initially and
100% in case of non-residential premises.
 ULBs may charge higher rates in areas with higher levels of
service and should aim at achieving 100% cost recovery within 3
years. In case of institutional, commercial, and industrial buildings,
100% O&M cost recovery may be made from the very beginning.

Rationale for Determining Tariff for Door-to-door Collection Service

xed on the basis of volume and quantity of waste generated per day; fees should recover 100% of the O&M cost and sh
aces.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 77

GUIDANCE
Step 3: Communication with consumers

To gain popular acceptance of MSWM service fee by the users, it

is important that the process of determining the fee is transparent
and communicated to all stakeholders. ULBs may organise public
consultation to have citizens’ views on the proposed service fee
structure and levy of lower rates on the poor. This will facilitate better
acceptance and payment of user fees.

Step 4: Mechanisms for recovery of municipal solid waste

management user charges

Presently, the use of economic instruments for recovery of SWM costs

in India is not well established, although some instruments are used
to a limited extent. However, the use of environmental fiscal reform
through appropriate economic instruments for financing MSWM can
fill some of the gaps that have been identified by the ULBs. Some of the
possible methods for recovering MSWM charges are tabulated below
in Table 1.12.
 Table 1.12: Mechanisms for Recovery of Municipal Solid Waste Management User Charges 19

MECHANISM ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS: TAx AND SOCIAL EFFECTS: ENVIRONMENTAL REVENUE GENERATION POLITICAL
DATA COLLECTION , MONITORING , VERTICAL AND EFFECTS: LINKAGES AND POTENTIAL COST AND PUBLIC
IDENTIFICATION OF USER CHARGES HORIzONTAL TO WASTE RECOVERY ACCEPTANC
EqUITY; LINKAGES GENERATION AND E
WITH ABILITY TO INCENTIVE TO
PAY REDUCE WASTE
• Levy of • Shift to ABS will result in • Cross • Generation based • Solid waste tax • Unit ABS
SWM tax simple and transparent tax subsidisation solid waste tax can only be revised is already
along with administration system. can reduce the would lead to bulk along with ac- cepted
property tax burden of waste generators property tax, and
• making monitoring easier.
taxes, de- poorer paying higher which is revised 5 currently
termined • This will result in clear households. charges than yearly. in place
on the identification of small and large smaller generators. in
• This can be • This will depend on
basis of waste generators and their many states.
horizontally the existing
the unit categories.
equitable if collection efficiency • Any
area base • This will facilitate collection of
M
U
amount paid of property tax increase in
system SWM charges along with annual
NI is linked to which is very low, SWM tax
CI (ABS) property tax, thereby minimising
PA the but is expected to rates will-
L (household cost of tax recovery.
SO service levels and increase with the need to be
or
LI the quantity of shift to unit ABS of justified and
D commer-
W waste generated. property taxation. will require
AS cial estab-
TE political
M lishments).
A support for
N implementa-
A
G tion.
E
M
EN
T
PL
19 “Environmental Fiscal Reforms in India: Where and How?”, GIZ and TERI (2011).
A
N:
ST
EP
-
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SE

79
80

M
an
ua
l
on
M
un Table 1.12: Mechanisms for Recovery of Municipal Solid Waste Management User Charges [contd.]
ici
pa
l
So
MECHANISM ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS: TAx AND SOCIAL EFFECTS: ENVIRONMENTAL REVENUE GENERATION POLITICAL
lid DATA COLLECTION , MONITORING , VERTICAL AND EFFECTS: LINKAGES AND POTENTIAL COST AND PUBLIC
W
aS IDENTIFICATION OF USER CHARGES HORIzONTAL TO WASTE RECOVERY ACCEPTANC
te E
M EqUITY; LINKAGES GENERATION AND
an
ag
WITH ABILITY TO INCENTIVE TO
e PAY REDUCE WASTE
M
en • Levy of • This will add to the cost of tax • This can be • This provides • Collection efficiency • This needs
t
sep- arate ad- ministration as a separate verti- cally and incentives for will be important political
solid arrange- ment and will have to horizon- tally waste reduction in determining the support in
waste be made for collection of user equitable if and supports cost recovery. introducing
user fee. If the respon- sibility of amount paid is the user fees in
• Administrative
charges collection of user fees is linked to the proportionality addition to
costs for direct
and using passed on to the PPP partner, unit area based principle (the property
collection need to
direct the municipal administration cost ser- vice levels more you tax. The
be deter- mined.
collection may reduce but actual cost may and the quantity generate, the user fee
or “pay as not as collection cost may be of waste more you pay). • Flat rate charges structure-
you throw added by the contractors in generated. and variable rate needs to be
systems”. their tipping fees. Besides, the charges generate designed
• This can be
concessionaires, not having less variabil- ity in scientifically,
verti- cally
legal powers may not be in revenue. and
equitable
a position to collect from • If based on service increas- ing
if charges levied
defaulters and this will level or on quantity the charges
vary with socio-
necessitate enforce- ment of waste delivered, from year to
economic status:
measures by the local authori- ties this may encourage year could
reduced rates for
to recover dues from defaulters. illegal dumping, since be dif-
poor households
people may not ficult.
• “Pay-per-bag” systems may and higher rates
pro- vide incentives to minimise for rest. want to pay higher
waste generation or littering. This charges.
 Table 1.12: Mechanisms for Recovery of Municipal Solid Waste Management User Charges [contd.]

MECHANISM ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS: TAx AND SOCIAL EFFECTS: ENVIRONMENTAL REVENUE GENERATION POLITICAL
DATA COLLECTION , MONITORING , VERTICAL AND EFFECTS: LINKAGES AND POTENTIAL COST AND PUBLIC
IDENTIFICATION OF USER CHARGES HORIzONTAL TO WASTE RECOVERY ACCEPTANC
EqUITY; LINKAGES GENERATION AND E
WITH ABILITY TO INCENTIVE TO
PAY REDUCE WASTE
• Levy of • This can be an efficient and • Will be • Provides no • Collection efficiency • Linking of
user cost- effective system in horizontally incentives for of user fees will the MSWM
charge recovery of user charges, as and waste reduction increase substantially charge to
linked defaulters will have vertically but does have and help ULBs in the already
to utility a fear of disconnection of utility equitable. inbuilt equity. paying the existing
(water and service in case of failure to pay. concessionaire on utility billing
electricity) Administration cost will also go time and make PPP system will
bill. down substantially as user fees service sustainable . require
will get collected monthly or negotiations
bimonthly along with utility with utility
M
U charges. This will also result in company.
NI maintaining a cash flow to
CI • Political
PA ensure timely payment to the
L and public
SO service provider.
LI acceptance
D • Willingness of concessionaire is may be a
W
AS necessary to undertake this problem.
TE
M respon- sibility on payment of a
A
N small fee; administration cost of
A ULB will thus be very low.
G
E • Some cost may be incurred in
M
EN the transfer of funds from the
T
PL ULB to the concessionaire.
A
N:
ST
EP
-
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81
 (c) Municipal resources that include taxes and duties

Traditionally, property tax in India has been the main source of

revenue for ULBs to finance municipal services including MSWM.
Rationalisation of the property tax is required to ensure financial
sustainability of these services.

(d) Grants from central or state government

It has been widely recognised that ULBs are unable to meet the
expenditure for their activities solely by internal resources. Hence,
ULBs require substantial financial support from the central and
state government in the form of grants and funds. Some of the grants
and funds available to ULBs are:

• finance commission grants;

• central government grants (e.g., JnNURM, Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan); and
• state finance commission grants allocated by the state to local
authorities once every 5 years to support administrative,
governance, and municipal service delivery.

(e) Subsidies:

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been

promoting waste to energy projects—refuse derived fuel (RDF),
biomethanation, biogas, and gasification—by providing financial
incentives to proponents. The incentives are given to both private
and public sector entrepreneurs and investors. The subsidy has
been Rs15 million–Rs30 million per MW. For commercial projects,
financial assistance is provided by way of interest subsidy to reduce
the rate of interest to 7.5% capitalised with an annual discount rate
of 12%. The assistance or subsidy is routed through financial
institutions.

• Financial assistance up to 50% of capital cost of the project

limited to Rs 3.00 crore per MW is provided to the project
proponent for demonstration projects.
• In addition to the above, financial incentive at Rs. 15.00 lakh per
MW is given to municipal corporations or ULBs for supplying
the garbage free of cost at the project site and providing land on
a long term lease (30 years and above) at a nominal rent.
• State nodal agencies are given an incentive at Rs. 5.00 lakh per
MW of power for promotion, coordination, and monitoring of
projects.

82 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 • There is also a provision for financing 50% of the preparation
cost of detailed project reports (DPRs) or techno-economic
feasibility reports, subject to a maximum of Rs. 2.00 lakh per
report to the project proponent.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change

(MoEFCC) and the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) have subsidised
compost plants up to 50% of the capital cost. The purpose of the
subsidies has been to promote technologies which might otherwise
not be taken up on purely financial grounds.

(f) Loans from capital market or from government or financial

institutions

ULBs can also approach capital markets either directly or through

an intermediary. The ULBs can also take advantage of funding for
SWM from financialPrivate sectorwhich
institutions participation is a beneficial
charge relatively loweroption
rates for financing municipal s
of interest. Some of the financial institutions include the following:

• Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO)

• Infrastructure Development Finance Company (IDFC)
• Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services (IL&FS)
• National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD)
• Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)
• Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI)
• Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI)
• Commercial banks, suppliers, creditors, and private venture
capital funds

(g) Loans and grants from bilateral and multilateral Donors

ULBs could also consider the opportunity of funds from bilateral and
multilateral donors like ADB, KfW, the World Bank, etc. for soft loans
and grants for infrastructure projects, after due approval from the
State. States could also access these funds and provide them to the
ULBs.

(h) Public private partnerships

Private sector joining hands with the public sector has become
essential for providing MSWM services and creating infrastructure for
collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal of waste, resulting in
efficient maintenance and cost-effective provision of services.
 Private sector participation (PSP) brings in efficient technology,
financial
s on the three necessary conditions resources, trained staff, managerial autonomy, and efficiency
of competition,
bility in operation at a relatively low cost along with accountability and
flexibility in bringing about a change as and when required.

Public private partnership has distinct advantages and challenges

which must be taken into consideration while embarking on the PPP
mode of service delivery. The advantages include flexibility, increased
efficiency, and contestability:

Flexibility:

 the private sector can easily hire qualified staff members and pay
the salaries as per expertise.
 salaries and bonuses can be linked to staff performance, thereby
providing incentives for efficiency and good work.
 employee can be easily terminated when performance is unsatisfactory.
 administration is more effective due to fewer bureaucratic
responsibilities.
 there is less political interference with private sector involvement.
 decision-making process is faster and simpler.

Increased efficiency:

 new equipment or spare parts for equipment maintenance can be

easily acquired.
 the private sector is more open to technology and expertise.
 the private sector has easy access to financial resources for new
investments.
 full cost accounting is used.
ance of the private entity against predefined performance criteria by
 incentives for good performance and efficiency are offered.
projects.

Contestability:

Competition between the private and public sectors is effective in

improving cost-effectiveness.

Some of the challenges for effective PPP implementation include:

 performance monitoring,
 customer satisfaction, and
 accountability to the beneficiaries for services rendered.

84 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

The ULB should ensure that the private sector player is selected
through a transparent selection process after carefully prescribing
minimum qualification and experience needed to perform the function
effectively and the contract documents are prepared professionally.
The ULB also has an obligation to ensure that the private sector partner
adheres to the local, regional, and national legal requirements which
entail workers’ rights, workers’ equitable remuneration, and other
legal requirements or factors such as bonuses, maternal or paternal
leave, annual leaves, clauses for termination with proper notice
periods, setting up of staff committees, sexual harassment committees
(now mandated by law), and other labour rights based units.

Management of PPPs is another critical issue, which will ultimately

determine the success of the project. A well-defined action plan,
including a plan to monitor specific indicators is essential to evaluate
the performance of any project. The ULB should have appropriate
inhouse capacity to regularly review the performance of all PSP or PPP
projects. Further details on contract monitoring are included in section
5.4.7 of Part II.

(i) Municipal bonds and debentures

This is a good source of raising finance from the market and very
popular in several developed countries. Tax-free municipal bonds
Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation is one of the
can be issued for raising finances from the market for infrastructure
municipal bonds and debentures
development. Such bonds can be issued by ULBs having good
financial health and good credit rating to attract investors to invest
in municipal bonds. The amount invested is redeemable after a
specific period with a definite rate of interest. Presently, the concept
of municipal bonds is at a nascent stage in India and only a few
ULBs with a large and buoyant revenue base (credit rating) have
been successful in raising funds through them (e.g., Ahmedabad has
raised funds several times through tax-free bonds and have been
able to raise money for infrastructure development very swiftly).

(j) Revenue from sale of products derived from waste processing

ULBs can minimise expenditure by seeking PSP. For waste

processing, private sector entities can be entrusted with the
responsibility of processing the municipal waste at their own cost,
by allowing them to set up the waste processing facilities on
municipal land and giving them the agreed quantity of waste at
designated site for a fixed contract period. ULBs may set up such
facilities at their own cost and carry out its O&M through expert
agencies and earn revenues from the sale of end products like
compost, RDF, or electricity.
 (k) Tipping fee, solid waste tax

This could be another source of revenue. The fee may be prescribed for
large waste generators for processing and disposal of their waste at the
landfill. This could be in the form of fixed monthly fee for providing
access to the processing and disposal facility.

1.4.5.6.4 Deficit Management

The ULB should endeavour to recover 100% of the total costs of

services as estimated above through levy of user charges on “polluter
pays” principle. This should include costs of door-to-door collection,
transportation, processing, and final disposal of waste at the landfill.
The cost of street sweeping, its transportation, and disposal should be
met from the municipal general budget. Since it may not be
immediately achievable to recover the costs of service indicated above
through user fees, however it is important to initiate the process of
recovering at least 100% of the cost of collection and transportation
(O&M costs only) through levy of user fees within 3 years;
subsequently the user fees may be gradually raised to cover the gap in
recovery of processing cost and O&M costs. Table 1.13 indicates a
format for recording the revenue required to bridge the financial
viability of providing MSWM services.

Table 1.13: Format for Assessing the Gap and Bridging the Financial Deficit for
Municipal Solid Waste Management Services

S. NO DESCRIPTION YEA YEA YEA YEA YEA

R R R R R
01 02 03 ….. 20
1 Deficit
2 Target % to be met by user
fee
3 Municipal fund
4 State subsidy or other
sources

Mechanisms for collecting user fees need to be put in place, and the
user fee collection system should be institutionalised. If necessary, the
Municipal Act 1872, needs to be suitably amended to enable these
actions. A detailed cost recovery report should be prepared covering
the whole gamut of MSWM. The ULB should allocate only the required
resources as planned and attempt to work within the earmarked and
identified resources. Any excess staffing or vehicles available or
deployed should be phased out, resulting in a reduction of actual
costs.

86 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

1.4.5.7 ANALYSIS OF APPROPRIATE PUBLIC
PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP CONTRACT
MODELS

ULBs should first assess whether they are able to provide MSWM
services on their own or will need to outsource due to considerations
of limited capacity, staffing, and other resources. In the latter case, the
services to be outsourced should be deliberated upon and defined in
sufficient detail and should fit into the larger MSWM plan for the ULB.
ULBs may contract private service providers for specified solid waste
collection, transportation, treatment, processing, and disposal services.

A contract between a public and private entity is an arrangement

between two parties where the private party is paid a fee for investing
ULBs should play a critical role
in necessary infrastructure, vehicles, and equipment various
in monitoring or for managing
contractual arrangements to avoi
an existing asset or business as well as providing the desired services.
Management contracts transfer limited responsibilities and risk to
the private party, whereas contracts like design–build–own–operate–
transfer (DBOOT) put significant responsibility on the contractor. The
contracts have to be structured in a way that they bridge the financial
and institutional gap which ULBs cannot fill easily from internal
resources and capabilities.

Contracting models should be performance-based and the payments

made to private partners should be linked to outputs reflecting the
service quality levels which are predefined in the contract.20

Table 1.14: Key Characteristics of Contracts in Municipal Solid Waste Sector 21

MSW CHARACTERISTICS RELEVAN IMPLEMENTIN

MANAGEMEN T G ULB
T& CONTRAC
OPERATION T
MODELS
Collection and • Large and diverse Service contracts; Bangalore,
Transportation workforce, vehicles Surat, Chennai,
Management
and equipment Ahmedabad, etc.
contracts;
• Intensive logistics
• Citizen interface Concession
• Investment ranges contracts
widely depending on
scope of work
Street • Labour intensive Service contracts Delhi, Hyderabad,
sweeping • Minimal investment in Chennai, Rajkot,
tool and equipment Surat etc.
• Limited technical skills
• Logistics intensive
 Transport • Capital intensive Concession Bangalore, Delhi,
• Fleet management skills contracts Chennai, Surat,
Ahmedabad, etc.

20 Draft National Public Private Partnership Policy, Government of India (2011).

21 Subject to compliance with Contract Labour Regulation Act (CLRA) (1996).
 Table 1.14: Key Characteristics of Contracts in Municipal Solid Waste Sector [contd.]

MSW CHARACTERISTICS RELEVAN IMPLEMENTIN

MANAGEMEN T G ULB
T& CONTRAC
OPERATION T
MODELS
Processing / • Capital intensive Concession Surat, Pune,
disposal • Technically skilled staffing contracts (Design Delhi, Hyderabad,
required Build Operate Coimbatore, etc.
[DBO], Build Own
• Experience of technology
Operate (BOO),
deployed
Design Build
Own Operate
Transfer (DBOOT)

Table 1.14 summarises relevant contracts for specific MSWM activities.

While each of the operations have a distinct scope and can be handled
under separate contracts, various models exist for efficient MSWM,
which revolve around a combination of these operations. Some of the
possible combinations of contracts include:

1. separate contracts for collection, transportation, processing, and

disposal activity (four contracts);
2. collection and transportation contract, processing contract, and
disposal contract (three contracts, as in Shimla);
3. collection and transportation contracts in one package and
processing and disposal contracts in another package (two
contracts, as in Bengaluru); and
4. one integrated contract for all four activities (as in Raipur,
Guwahati, Jodhpur, Lucknow, Kanpur, Allahabad, etc.).

Each of the above options has certain advantages and disadvantages

and may be adopted with checks and balances in the contracts to
minimise the risks. In each successive model, the level of responsibility
on the private player is relatively higher, with the fourth model
allocating the highest responsibility to the private entity. The ULB plays
the role of a client and a monitoring agency. Through this model, a high
degree of accountability and better compliance is achieved, as the
private agency is a professional player liable to the ULB.

The Government of India in cooperation with ADB elaborated a“Toolkit

for Public Private Partnership frameworks in Municipal Solid Waste
Management”22 which supports ULBs within a four-step approach
to establish a PPP system adequate to the conditions in the respective
city. It is strongly recommended to apply this toolkit for establishing a
‘hand-tailored’ PPP system.

22 Toolkit for Public Private Partnership frameworks in Municipal Solid Waste Management Volume I–III. Ministry of

88 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Urban Development (MoUD).
 Table 1.15: Contracting Models and Private Sector Responsibilities 23

OPTION GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AIM OF HAVING OPERATIONS AND CAPITAL RESPONSIBILIT CONTRAC
PRIVATE SECTOR MAINTENANCE INVESTMEN Y T
PARTICIPATION T AND DURATIO
ASSET N
OWNERSHIP
Service The private sector provides a Increase efficiency of Shared Public Public 1-2 years or
Contract clearly defined service to the public particular public service 5-8 years
partner.
Management The private partner is responsible Increase efficiency of Private Public Public 3-5 years
Contract for operating and maintaining the service, with improved
system. management structures
Design– The private contractor is responsible Enhance commitment Private Public Shared 5-8 years
Built– for designing, constructing, and level because of full
Operate infrastructure developments. responsibility
(DBO)
M Lease The private partner is fully Increased responsibility Shared Public Public 8-15 years
U
NI responsible for operation and
CI
PA maintenance.
L
SO
Build-Own- The private partner builds a To transfer the responsibility Private Private Private 15-30 years
LI Operate facility that is based on a defined of investment and
D
W (BOO) design and owns and operates it. management in a cost-
AS
TE The private partner charges a effective manner with all
M
A
tipping fee to recover its cost. risks on the private
N partner
A
G
E
M
EN
T
PL
A
N:
ST
23 Adapted from Cointreau-Levine (1994); International Consortium, GTZ-ERM-GKW (2004); World Bank (2004)
EP
-
WI
SE

89
90

M
an
ua
l
on
M
un
ici
pa Table 1.15: Contracting Models and Private Sector Responsibilities [contd.]
l
So
lid OPTION GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AIM OF HAVING OPERATIONS AND CAPITAL RESPONSIBILIT CONTRAC
W
aS PRIVATE SECTOR MAINTENANCE INVESTMEN Y T
te PARTICIPATION DURATIO
M T AND
an ASSET N
ag
e OWNERSHIP
M
en Build–Own– The private partner builds a Obtain private sector Private Private Private 15-30 years
t
Operate– facility that is based on a defined investment with operating
Transfer design and owns and operates it. and management risks
(BOOT) The private partner charges a on the private partner and
tipping fee to recover its cost. The eventual asset transfer to
private company then transfers the public.
asset to the public partner.
Build– The private partner is responsible To transfer all risks to Private Private Private 20-30 years
Operate– for constructing, financing and the private partner
Transfer operating the facility during the
(BOT) contract period. After the contract
period, the facility is transferred to
the public.
Concession The private partner is fully To create competition in the Private Private Private 25-30 years
(including fee responsible for operation, market
collection) maintenance and investment.
1.4.5.8 PLANNING FOR CENTRALISED AND
DECENTRALISED FACILITIES

Conventionally, MSWM systems were planned for and implemented

at the city level, with centralised systems catering to the entire ULB.

Resource, technology, and capital-intensive MSWM services are best

planned and executed at the city level; centralised systems are
preferred for waste processing and treatment plants like RDF plants
and municipal sanitary landfills, which can benefit from economies of
scale and for easy management and environmental monitoring.

Decentralised waste management systems or community level waste

management systems reduce the burden of handling large volumes of
MSW at a centralised location, with a corresponding reduction in costs
of transportation and intermediate storage. Especially for
decentralised facilities, their success depends on segregated doorstep
collection. All decentralised schemes should be assessed for long term
sustainability and their impact on the overall MSWM system of a city
should be identified and considered while planning for citywide waste
management facilities.

Interactive planning along with the community is required to decide

the extent of centralised and decentralised MSWM systems for
continued efficiency.

Advantages of centralised systems include (i) economies of scale, (ii)

single monitoring point, (iii) high-end technology, and (iv)
environmental controls.

Limitations of centralised systems include (i) larger tract of land, (ii)

fund limitations, (iii) experience of ULBs in managing large contracts,
(iv) high potential for environmental failure of systems where
environmental controls are not in place or monitored.
Decentralised systems require a higher degree of com
as their participation is crucial in ensuring the sustaine
1.4.5.8.1 Role of Decentralised Municipal Solid Waste Management
performance of these systems
Systems

Decentralised waste management systems or community level waste

management systems reduce the burden of handling large volumes of
MSW at a centralised location, with a corresponding reduction in costs
of transportation and intermediate storage.

Decentralised MSWM solutions are suitable in the following scenarios:

 Suitable land for waste management facilities (composting organic
waste, recyclable sorting facilities) is available in neighbourhoods;

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 91

GUIDANCE
 There is no local resistance against siting the plant;
 Local expertise or non-government organisations (NGOs) handhold
the process in an environmentally acceptable manner;
 Municipality has in-house capacity of effectively monitoring
decentralised systems;
 Markets for compost and recyclables are accessible;

Some of the advantages of decentralised MSWM are the following:

 Decentralised systems allow for lower level of mechanisation than

the centralised solutions. They provide limited income and job
opportunity for informal workers and small entrepreneurs;
 Decentralised options can be tailor made for the local waste stream,
climate, social, and economic conditions;
 Decentralised systems reduce the cost incurred for the collection,
transportation, and disposal of waste by the ULBs;

However, some of the limitations to the implementation of

decentralised waste management systems include:

 scarcity of land in most urban neighborhoods;

 lack of availability of technically qualified staff to ensure scientific
and hygienic operations;
 difficulty in ensuring periodic check on product quality; and
 difficulty in ensuring financial viability of decentralised projects,
specifically when qualified staffing is required.

While planning for decentralised systems, adequate care should be

taken to ensure that these systems are an integral part of the larger
MSWM plan of the city. Other centralised waste processing and
treatment systems should not consider waste volumes which are
already being processed and treated in decentralised facilities.

Local material recovery and recyclable sorting facilities, decentralised

compost plants, biomethanation (biogas) plants, vermicomposting,
windrow composting, and bin-composting are all easy to establish at
the community or institutional level. Sizes can vary from small
backyard composting to plants processing 3–20 tonnes per day (TPD)
of organic waste. Material take-back and recycling facilities can also be
established at the local community level to increase efficiency of
collection.
Dry waste collection centres run by various agencies in Bengaluru in coordination with the Bruhat Benga
selling it to recycling centers. Bulk collection through informal sector results in larger returns and more j

Decentralised Waste Management System for Apartment Complexes- A Public

CASE
STUDY
Private initiative in Kochi

Year of start: 2007

Main players: Cochin Municipal Corporation (CoC), Confederation of Real Estate

Developers’ Associations of India (CREDAI)

Approach: Kochi witnessed rapid urbanisation in the last decade with various
developmental and infrastructural projects, and consequently faced the
problems of waste management and its disposal. The garbage crisis of 2007
deteriorated the condition of Kochi, as the city had no dedicated site for waste
disposal. In order to address the problem of garbage disposal in residential
colonies with focus on health, hygiene, and safety, CoC carried out a joint
initiative with Kerala Builders Forum later called CREDAI. To manage solid waste,
the following approaches were adopted in highrise apartments to implement an
eco-friendly solid waste management system:

• A suitable technology was identified and approved by Clean Kerala

Mission, Government of Kerala. In 2007, CoC implemented this
decentralised system of waste management in few apartment complexes
on a trial basis.
• Strategy was planned and formulated and a dedicated team for implementation
of the decentralised system was set up for the-high rise apartments.
• CoC set up source segregated door-to-door collection system of waste in
each of the apartment complexes.
• Bio-bin system was established to process biodegradable waste to produce
and utilize the compost on-site within the apartment complex.
• A recycling and plastic shredding unit was established by CoC and managed
by CREDAI.
• Dry or recyclable material was collected and sold to generate revenue for
the CREDAI workers.
• CoC promoted regular skill development and awareness programs for the
workers and citizens through print and mass media.

Outcome:

• Currently, 350 apartment complexes in Kochi are covered under this initiative.
• Decentralised system in apartment complexes led to employment
opportunities for economically weaker sections, especially women, for
operationalising and monitoring the unit.

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 • Monitoring was effective and complaint redressal (e.g., during unit failure) was timely.

94 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Success Factors

• Legal framework making the system mandatory for all apartment

complexes
• Proactive role of CoC to decentralize waste management within all
apartment complexes and regular monitoring by the officials
• Capacity building of the workers
• Regular monitoring by CREDAI at the premises

Overall Sustainability

The initiative of CREDAI in the apartment complexes is a self-sustainable

working model showcasing the viability of decentralised waste management
systems. On-site operation and maintenance of the composting system as well as
other expenditures are being met by the collection of user charges at the rate of
Rs. 100–150 and by the sale of recyclables. In order to further strengthen and
ensure sustainability of the system, Local Self Government Department
(Government of Kerala) issued an order in 2012 making it mandatory for all
apartments, through the building associations or firms, to manage waste within
the apartment complexes using different technologies for composting and for sale
of recyclable material.

gy for generating biogas from organic waste. Small plants operating 0.5–5.0 tonnes per day (TPD) can be set up at an a

1.4.5.8.2 Management and Monitoring of Decentralised Municipal

Solid Waste Facilities

A decentralised facility at the household level need not be registered;

however, all other decentralised facilities operating more than 1 TPD of
waste should be registered with the local authority. Appropriate norms
for operation and maintenance (O&M) should be prescribed for the
facility, which should be monitored by both the local authority and the
pollution control board.

Decentralised MSWM facilities may be funded through community-

based cooperatives, local NGOs, PPP mode or municipal funds.
Community ownership of decentralised systems is critical for their
success and continued operation. The four management models for
decentralised waste management systems are tabulated in Table 1.16.
The relevance of different models is dependent on local conditions
and cultural backgrounds. All the decentralised models are equally
beneficial to the ULB by reducing overall waste management costs.
 Table 1.16: Management Models for Decentralised Waste Management 24

OPTIONS PURPOSE MAIN ACTORS ROLE OF CITY ADVANTAGES CONSTRAINTS

GOVERNMENT OR
MUNICIPALITY
Model 1: • Reducing cost of • Municipality • Investment • Cost saving in transportation, • Lack of suitable land
Municipality transportation, provider centralised processing, and • Objection from
owned– centralised disposal of waste
• Implementing the
Municipality treatment, and and monitoring • Profitable use of waste neighbourhood
operated disposal of waste agency • Job opportunities for the • Occasional problems of
in landfills odour
unemployed youth
• Local employment • Operating inefficiency and
• Entrepreneurship development
opportunity lack of marketing
potential
• Lack of coordination
between departments
M
regarding the use of the
U compost products within
NI
CI the ULB
PA
L
Model 2: • Community • Municipality, • Making capital • Cost saving in transportation • Lack of community
SO Municipality involvement in local investments and centralised processing and awareness and interest
LI
D owned– management community, • Supporting disposal in decentralised
W community
AS of primary NGOs RWAs communities • Profitable use of waste project
TE operated waste in finding
M • Job opportunities for the • Lack of informal leader
A collection and or allotting among the community to
N unemployed youth
A treatment land lead the cause of the
G • Entrepreneurship development
E • Capital cost borne • Collection and project
M
disposal of • Reduction in municipal burden due
EN by local body • Lack of skilled labour
T residual waste to community participation.
PL • Local employment and entrepreneurs
A • Monitoring • Improvement of MSWM
N: opportunity
ST agency through voluntary
• Entrepreneurship
EP
-
participation
WI
development
SE
• Nonprofit seeking
model
95
24 Adapted from: “Decentralised Composting for Cities of Low and Middle Income Countries” pp 33. Waste Concern, (2006), Dhaka, Bangladesh,
96

M
an Table 1.16: Management Models for Decentralised Waste Management (Contd.)
ua
l
on OPTIONS PURPOSE MAIN ACTORS ROLE OF CITY ADVANTAGES CONSTRAINTS
M
un GOVERNMENT OR
ici MUNICIPALITY
pa
l Model 3: • Profit seeking • Municipality, • Funding capital • Reduction of municipal burden • Lack of community
So
lid
Municipality model Private expenditure of waste management through awareness and
W owned– • Full cost recovery secto, NGO • Identify and private sector participation interest
aS privately
te (from collection allot land • Know-how and efficient • Need for a reliable and
operated for
M
an
fees and compost management through private skilled partner with sense
ag sales) composting, sector of entrepreneurship
e • Contracts
M • Cost reduction • Partnership with • Inefficient
out the
en through lower private entrepreneurs contract
t operation and
transportation management
maintenance
and disposal
• Monitors
costs
performance
of contractors

Model 4: • Profit seeking • Private • Selecting a • Reduction of the municipal burden • Lack of private land
Privately enterprise based sector private of waste management through • Lack of vital compost
owned– on compost operator private sector participation markets
privately market conditions through a • Investment of funds and know-
operated (Income transparent how through private investors
is generated through process
sale of products • Formulation • Partnerships with
like compost and of transparent private entrepreneurs
through collection of regulations for
• Creation of employment and
charges) PPP
business opportunities
• Cooperation
in supply of
raw waste
and disposal
of residues
• Synchronising
centralised and
decentralised
systems
 Decentralised Model of Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management in
CASE
STUDY
Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Year of Start: 2006

Location: Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Main Players: Muskan Jyoti Samiti (MJS), Saharanpur

Municipal Corporation (SMC), Imperial Tobacco Company
of India Limited (ITC).

Approach:

Saharanpur is one of the growing urban centres of the

western region of Uttar Pradesh, with a population of more
than seven lakh (0.7 million). The city generates huge
amounts of municipal solid waste, but SMC was unable to
provide adequate and efficient services. This led to the joint
initiative by MJS and ITC to provide an integrated waste
management facility comprising of segregation, collection,
transportation, processing, and disposal of municipal solid
waste. Economic viability, environmental sustainability, and
continuity are key features of the initiative. During the
course of the intervention, MJS facilitated formation of a
labour cooperative society, which is now managing the entire
operation. The approaches adopted under this initiative
are briefly discussed below:

• A well-defined system that reduces burden of

municipal solid waste disposal by 80%–90% is
established.
• Effective and efficient collection and transportation
mechanism is enforced, which includes collection of partly
segregated waste and transportation of waste directly for
processing.
• Primary segregation of waste into wet, dry (recyclables),
and inert is carried out at household level, while
secondary segregation takes place at processing site.
• A dedicated team of 112 people is set up for
ensuring a smooth functioning of the system. Each
waste collector covers 200–225 households and
reports to the supervisor in-charge.
• Routing of each vehicle is optimized so that the
collected garbage is directly transferred from trolley
to truck to avoid spillage of waste.
• Organic waste is processed into manure through
windrow composting for garden waste, and aerobic and
drum composting for organic waste from households.
• Tie up with the recycling units or vendors is

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GUIDANCE
 e maintenance of logbook, as well as laboratory testing of
s compost to ensure its quality.
t
• For smooth system functioning, the supervisor-in charge
a
does regular inspection and maintenance of
b
attendance register of workers.
l
i • User charges are introduced to ensure public participation
s and financial sustainability of the overall system.
h • The Labour Cooperative Society is wholly owned and
e managed by waste collectors and workers. The
d cooperative provides front-end waste management
services that include door-to-door collection,
f composting, and recycling.
o
r

s
e
l
l
i
n
g

o
f

r
e
c
y
c
l
a
b
l
e

w
a
s
t
e
,

p
r
o
p
e
r

98 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Profit from Waste

• Approximately 2,078 tonnes of waste is collected from 9,000 households in

2013– 2014.
• The waste comprises 1,437 tonnes (69%) organic, 376 tonnes (19%)
recyclable, and only 248 tonnes (12%) inert.
• 360 tonnes of organic manure is produced from the collected organic waste.
• The initiative has created direct employment for 112 persons from
economically weaker sections.
• Besides covering entire operational cost, the initiative has also generated 12.5%
of operational profit in the reference year.

Outcomes

• Overall improvement is achieved in the environment and aesthetic value of the city.
• About 360 tonnes of organic manure is made available for local farmers. It
directly contributes in reducing the usage of chemicals in agriculture and in
saving of about Rs. 90.00 lakh, which would otherwise have been spent on
purchase of chemical fertilisers.
• The system has reduced burden of waste disposal by 88%, and thus also
contributes in saving valuable land, fuel, and other costs.

Success Factor

• More than 90% of households directly covered by waste collection.

• Decentralised system.
• Strategic assessment of the existing situation and planning for the
collection and safe disposal of the waste.
• Regular monitoring by the team in-charge for ensuring smooth functioning
of the system.
• Capacity building of the workers.
• Willingness of citizens to pay a stipulated amount as solid waste collection service.

Overall Sustainability

The integrated waste management initiative of MJS is a self-sustainable

model, showcasing the viability of decentralised waste management systems. The
operation and management costs are recovered from the user charges collected at
Rs. 20–30 per household as well as from the income from sale of recyclable
material and manure produced from processing of organic waste.

ITC provided the initial investment as seed money for carrying out this
initiative. The SMC, Government of Uttar Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh State
Industrial Development Corporation have provided land for the processing unit and
a mini truck for transportation of waste, further strengthening the system.
 Waste Management Cycle

Drum Composting Aerobic Composting Normal

Composting

Source: MJS

1.4.5.9 ARRANGEMENTS FOR INFORMAL SECTOR INTEGRATION

The informal sector, constituting of both kabadi system and waste

pickers, plays an important role in the MSWM value chain by
The informal sector (kabadi system
recovering valuable material from waste. It helps reduce
and waste pickers) is the backbone of the MSWM
environmental impacts by improving resource in recovery and reducing
India, recovering nearly 50% of recyclables g
disposal requirements. The integration of the informal sector into the
formal SWM system will contribute to the reduction of the overall
system costs, provide support to the local recycling industry, and create
new job opportunities. The waste pickers have significant expertise in
sorting municipal waste and are an asset for processing and material
recovery facilities.

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 Integrating the Informal Waste Sector: Policy Directives

The integration of the informal waste sector into formal waste

management systems is made possible through a set of formal or
informal arrangements between waste pickers or organisations of
waste pickers or organisations
working with waste pickers and the local authorities, in their operational area.
The integration process would typically result in the accrual of social benefits to
waste pickers.”25

Some of the salient features of the policies or regulations pertaining to

municipal solid waste management (MSWM) as they relate to the informal waste
management sector are the following:
• National Environment Policy, 2006. It acknowledges the informal waste sector
and states, “Give legal recognition to, and strengthen the informal sector
systems of collection and recycling of various material. In particular
enhance their access to institutional finance and relevant technologies.”
• National Action Plan on Climate Change, 2009. It stresses the need for
giving legal recognition to the informal sector, which it recognizes as the
“backbone of India’s highly effective recycling system.”26
• National Labour Commission, 2002. It “recognises the useful role played by
the scrap collectors both in helping recycling activities as well as in
maintaining civic hygiene. It is, therefore, essential that they should be
protected from insecurity of various forms. The measures that could be
thought of in this regard are providing identity cards, receipts for
transactions, minimum wages when they are employed by contractors or other
employers, health facilities, creation of welfare funds, prohibition of child
labour from the activity and the likes. The Commission fully endorses the
suggestions made by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
and the International Labour organisation (ILO).”27
• SWM Rules, 2016 recognises the role of informal sector in waste management,
and emphasise on establishing a system for integration of these waste
collectors in order to facilitate their participation in SWM.

Progressive regional legislation that facilitates integration of the informal waste

sector into formal systems has been made in some of the Indian states like
Maharashtra.
rmal sectors, if existing, should be encouraged, while ensuring environmental, health and safety safeguards

There are various political, legal, cultural, and social conditions that
determine the best possible approach to informal sector integration.
Local, regional, and national legislative frameworks for informal
workers should be considered.

Certain enabling conditions and supportive actions for promoting the

integration of the informal sector include:

25 Adapted from Recycling livelihoods – Integration of the Informal Recycling Sector in Solid Waste Management
 in India Chikarmane, P. L. Narayan, and B. Chaturvedi (2008) and study prepared for GTZ´s sector project
“Promotion of concepts for pro-poor and environmentally friendly closed-loop approaches in solid waste
management” (unpublished).
26 National Action Plan on Climate Change (2009).
27 Second National Labour Commission (2002). Ministry of Labour, Government of India.
  organising informal sector into recognised membership-based
associations or cooperatives, with true representation of women as
part of their leaders and members;
 recognising these associations for MSWM service delivery;
 creating a policy framework for informal waste sector recognition
and an inclusive framework to facilitate their participation in the
delivery of service;
 promoting social security and health benefits to members of these
associations;
 encouraging informal sector, NGO, and CBO through linkage to
National Urban Livelihoods Mission;
 providing low-interest loans to organisations of waste pickers
seeking to bid for tenders and contracts;
 providing exemptions on fees and deposits for participation of
informal sector associations in bidding for MSWM contracts;
 providing basic amenities and facilities for the informal workers to
work effectively such as timely wages and bonuses, proper facilities
for women to be able to leave their children during work and
linkages with community centres or anganwadis, safety and security
including PPE, proper redressal mechanisms (for formal complaints,
sexual harassment, etc.);
 encouraging informal sector involvement in waste collection and
sorting services;
 reserving land in development plans for decentralised processing of
biodegradable wastes and collection of recyclables; and
 supporting capacity development programs for informal sector
associations (see box below).

gement Activities

facility
ke-back or buy-back facilities supported by adequate and appropriate skill enhancement arranged for by the urban loca
onveyor)

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GUIDANCE
 Capacity Building and Training of Informal Sector for Providing Municipal Solid Waste Management Serv

Improvement of managerial skills (business management, accounting, marketing, negotiat

Maintenance of work ethics and organisation or team work
Training in sorting, processing, recycling techniques, and value added services
Formalisation requirements for waste worker organisations
Environmental and health aspects of waste management activities
Occupational hygiene and safety
Business support services linked to large scale formal recycling industries

1.4.5.10 SEGREGATED COLLECTION (DOOR-TO-DOOR

COLLECTION, STREET SWEEPING AND DRAIN
CLEANING), STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION

Door-to-door collection of segregated waste is mandatory as per SWM

Rules, 2016. Collection of segregated waste (wet waste, dry recyclables,
and domestic hazardous waste), sanitary, horticulture, constuction &
demolition from residential, commercial, and institutional areas is to
be planned by ULBs. Frequency of waste collection is dependent on
the quantum of waste generated by each of these groups and the level
of segregation of waste. While residential waste is to be collected daily,
waste from market area, commercial establishments and institutions
may be collected twice a day. The quantum of waste generated and
collected also determines the mode of transportation used to collect
waste at doorstep. Segregated containers are required for collection of
different fractions (wet, dry and domestic hazardous); at a minimum,
ULBs shall collect wet and dry waste separately.

Waste collected from doorstep may either be stored in a secondary

collection point or transferred directly to secondary collection vehicles
(bin-less cities). The feasibility of choosing between secondary storage
or direct transfer to secondary collection vehicles is to be ascertained
based on the availability of secondary collection vehicles, extent of
collection area, and timing of collection. Where waste from all
residential areas is collected during morning hours and transferred
directly from primary collection vehicles to secondary collection
vehicles, the requirement for secondary collection vehicles will be
much higher as compared to staggered timings of collection. Wet, dry
and domestic hazardous waste should be transported in segregated
manner.

The establishment of intermediate transfer stations is determined by

the distance between secondary waste collection points and the final
 treatment and disposal point. If the distance from the city jurisdiction
to the final treatment and disposal points exceeds 15 km, transfer
stations may be established.

The choice of secondary collection vehicles is to be synchronised with

the design of secondary collection bins and storage containers in the
transfer station. Compactors may be used to haul waste from transfer
stations to the waste disposal site.

Details on segregated collection and transportation, and choice of

containers and transportation systems are given in Section 2.2 and 2.3
of Part II.

1.4.5.11 IDENTIFICATION OF LAND AND INCLUSION IN

CITY MASTER PLAN OR CITY DEVELOPMENT
PLAN

Availability of suitable, encumbrance-free land within the ULB’s

jurisdiction for waste processing and treatment facilities is the biggest
challenge faced by the ULBs, which requires detailed deliberation (as
mentioned in Table 1.17).

Planning for MSW treatment and processing facilities should begin with
the identification of suitable land duly allowing adequate buffer areas,
as indicated in Table 1.17. The city master plan and town planning
or spatial planning maps should identify and reserve such land for
MSWM facilities. The requirement of land is to be calculated based on
a tentative assessment of possible disposal options available to the
ULB. Land clearance from concerned authorities for establishment of
MSWM facilities is to be obtained by the ULB at the earliest possible
instance, thereby avoiding inadvertent delays during the
implementation process. Siting of MSW processing and disposal
facilities should be based on environmental considerations.

Table 1.17: Criteria for Identifying Suitable Land for Sanitary Landfill Sites

S.NO PLACE MINIMUM SITING DISTANCE

1 Coastal regulation, wetland, Sanitary landfill site not permitted within
critical habitat areas, sensitive these identified areas
eco-fragile areas and flood plains
as recorded for the last 100
years
2 Rivers 100 m away from the flood plain
3 Pond, lakes, water bodies 200 m
3 Non-meandering water (canal, 30 m
drainage, etc.)

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 Table 1.17: Criteria for Identifying Suitable Land for Sanitary Landfill Sites [contd.]

S.NO PLACE MINIMUM SITING DISTANCE

4 Highway or railway line, water 500 m from center line
supply wells
5 Habitation All landfill facilities: 500 m
6 Earthquake zone 500 m from fault line fracture*
7 Flood-prone area Sanitary landfill site not permitted
8 Water table (highest level) The bottom liner of the landfill should
be 2 m above from the highest water
table
9 Airport 20 km**
km = kilometer, m = meter, MSW = municipal solid waste, TPD = tonne per day.
* The urban local bodies in seismic zone 4 and zone 5 should consult the seismic fault
map before finalizing the site for the sanitary landfill to ensure that seismic factors are
taken into consideration in determining the stability of the landfill structure.
** In a special case, landfill site may be set up within 10–20 km away from the airport or
airbase after obtaining no objection certificate from the civil aviation authority or air
force as the case may be.

1.4.5.12 PROCESS SELECTION AND BEST AVAILABLE

TECHNOLOGY FOR PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL

Designing and implementing new waste management systems and

ss unproven technologies and consult the SPCBs
optimising to ones should consider aspects of resource recovery,
existing
unds for environmental soundness, financial sustainability, stakeholder
ablished technologies involvement and institutional capabilities, in addition to technical and
technological appropriateness of systems for handling and disposing
waste. This implies that the selection of best MSWM options for a
particular ULB goes far beyond a technology selection.

The selection of waste management processes and technology shall be

based on the five-tier ISWM hierarchy, which is explained in Section 1.2
of this chapter. The corresponding illustration of the ISWM hierarchy is
reiterated in Figure 1.1 for easy reference.

The selection of technology should be based on defined selection

criteria and local conditions, subject to a detailed due diligence study.
The criteria are listed in Table 1.18 and applied to a number of common
strategy and technology options.

In cases where municipal authorities feel challenged to ensure

appropriate selection processes, they may seek external expertise to
ascertain the most viable solutions.
 Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies 28

CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION INTEGRATED SANITARY

COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- LANDFILL
G POSTING + RDF)
TECHNICAL CRITERIA
Facility To be located To be located as To be located as per To be locate To be located as To be located Landfill sites
Location29,30 as per the per the buffer zone the buffer zone criteria as per the per the buffer as per the must be
buf- fer zone crite- ria mentioned men- tioned below. buffer zone zone criteria buf- fer zone located at
criteria below. criteria mentioned below. criteria least
mentioned below. mentioned mentioned below. 500 m away
below. from residen-
tial areas and
should abide
by the criteria
mentioned in
MSW Rules
and state level
guidelines.
Buffer 500 m for facilities dealing with 100 TPD or more of
Zone (No MSW 400 m for facilities dealing with 75–100 TPD
Development
Zone) of MSW
M
U 300 m for facilities dealing with 50–75 TPD of
NI
CI MSW 200 m for facilities dealing with 10–50
PA
L TPD of MSW
SO
LI No buffer zone for facilities dealing upto 5 TPD of MSW
D
W No buffer zone for decentralised plants handling less than 1 TPD of MSW (but adequate environmental controls are required)
AS
TE
M
A
N
A
G
E 28 Adopted from various sources (JnNURM, World Bank, Task Force Report on Waste to Energy, Planning Commission of India – 2014).
M 29 Site selection criteria specified by the EIA Notification 2006 and its amendments shall be considered.
EN 30 CPCB Guidance on Criteria for Site Selection for Landfills shall also be considered.
T
PL
A
N:
ST
EP
-
WI
SE

10
10
6
M
an
ua
l Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies [contd.]
on
M
un CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION INTEGRATED SANITARY
ici
pa COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- LANDFILL
l G POSTING + RDF)
So
lid Natural Composting in Composting in Should be
W
aS
environment coastal/high rain- coastal/high rainfall avoided in
te fall areas should areas should have marshy land
M
an have a shed to a shed to prevent and in condi-
ag prevent waste waste from tions where
e
M becoming the
en from becoming excessively wet and ground water
t
excessively wet thereby to control table is 2 m
and thereby to leachate generation. from the base
control leachate of the liner. In
generation. marshy land,
apart from
ground and
surface water
contamination
potential, there
could be huge
risks due to
structural safety
of the landfill
(slippage and
complete break-
down).
Land For 300 TPD ofFor 20 TPD of For 300 TPD of For 300 TPD For 1000 TPD of For 300 TPD For 300 TPD of
segre- segregat-
Requirement segregated/pre- gated/pre-sorted: ed/pre-sorted MSW: 2.5 of segregated/ mixed waste: 5 of segregated/ MSW: 30 ha of
ha
sorted MSW: 5 1.25 ha. ha of land is required. pre-sorted of land including presorted MSW: land is
ha 6 required
of land including MSW: 2 ha buffer zone ha of land (Note: for 20 years.
buffer zone is of land is Many of the
required. required. processing units
are shared).
 Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies [contd.]
CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION INTEGRATED SANITARY
COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- LANDFILL
G POSTING + RDF)
Waste 500 TPD 1 TPD to 20 TPD. 1 TPD at small scale 100 TPD of 1000 TPD and 500 TPD and 100 TPD
Quantity Higher capacities to 500 TPD at larger seg- regated above of mixed above (economi- inert and
which can be can also be scale waste and waste (smaller cally sustainable above.
managed by a planned if above plants are not above 500 TPD Smaller
single facility. adequate land is techno eco- plant size) landfills are
available along nomically viable, not techno eco-
with other given the cost of nomically
necessary required environ- viable
arrangements. mental control
equipment and
boiler technology
Requirement High Very high Very high High High – Feed Moderate be- Only inert
for Segrega- stock should be cause both dry waste may
tion prior to free from inerts and wet fractions be placed in
technology and low on are utilized landfills as per
M moisture SWM Rules
U
NI content
CI
PA Rejects About 30% in- About 30% including About 30% from Around 30% Around 15%** Approximately No rejects
L cluding inerts if inerts* mixed waste* from 15-20%***
SO
LI only composting mixed
D
W
is done.36 15%* waste**
AS rejects with RDF,
TE
M if located in the
A same plant
N
A Potential for No No Yes No (feed stock Yes Yes Not as per
G
E Direct Energy for energy SWM Rules
M Recovery recovery)
EN
T
PL
A
N: 36 In cases of an integrated facility of composting and RDF, 15% rejects from mixed waste stream is expected
ST
* Rejects from mixed waste fundamentally depends on the presence of non- biodegradable material which are taken out during pre-sorting stage
EP
- ** For incoming mixed waste for RDF & Incineration Non combustible material is taken out during the sorting stage
WI *** Process rejects from segregated waste should be less than 10%
SE

10
7
10
8
M
an
ua
l
on
M
un
ici Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies [contd.]
pa
l
So
CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION INTEGRATED SANITARY
lid COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- LANDFILL
W
aS
G POSTING + RDF)
te Technology Windrow Community scale Feasibility for Quality of RDF Technology is Composting and Sanitary landfill
M
an Maturity composting projects are biodegradable waste is should be available. However RDF combined is a proven
ag
e
technique is successful proven. In case of mixed based on end constraints of facility is an method for
M well low
en
t
established waste, appropriate use, no clear calorific value, upcoming safe disposal
of
presorting has to be consensus high moisture phenomenon. waste, practiced
carried out. on quality content and high Utilisation of world over.
requirements. proportion of inert rejects from However it has
Burning of waste should be compost environmental
RDF
below 850°C considered while plants as input implications
for less than undertaking material for RDF and efforts
have
2 seconds the project production and to be made
residence commercially. sale. Rejects to minimize
time can from integrated waste going to
pose serious system are 15- landfills. MSW
problems of 20% as Rules only
opposed
health and to 30-40% from permit inert
environment. individual system. wastes to be
Rules landfilled.
regulating
characteristics
of RDF and
guidelines for
appropriate use
not prescribed
by concerned
authority.
 Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies [contd.]

CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION INTEGRATED SANITAR

COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- Y
G POSTING + RDF) LANDFIL
L
FINANCIAL CRITERIA
Indicative Typically 15-20 1 Cr. per 20 TPD Typically 75-80 Cr for Typically 17-20 Very high capital, Typically 25-30 High
Cr 500
Capital for 500 TPD TPD plant Cr for 500 operating and Cr for 500 TPD
plant TPD
Investment37 plant maintenance plant) without a
costs. 15 Cr. mechanical Hot
per MW power Air Generator
production (HAG) for dry-
ing However,
moisture can be
reduced by bio-
drying with
much
M
U less cost but
NI
CI
slightly reduced
PA efficiency.
L
SO Market for Quality compost Good market poten- So far, there is no Good market Good potential of Quality No potential,
LI
D
product/ By- compliant with tial in Urban and appro- priate system for potential for energy generation compost since it is
W Product FCO 2013 has Rural areas. However pricing biogas. The RDF. if power purchase compliant with stipulated by
AS
a good market. it is not adequately system of pricing agreements are FCO 2009 has the SWM Rules
TE In small cities,
M IPNM Task Force explored for bulk according to kero- sene made reflecting a good that only inert
A RDF plants
N (vetted by Su- marketing. equivalent puts bio- gas true cost of pro- market. wastes are to
only become
A
preme Court, 1 at a disadvantage. duction including be disposed in
G feeders of RDF Good market po-
E Sep 2006) has O&M costs landfills
M At present, there is lot to large RDF tential for
recommended
EN of interest in conversion based power RDF.
T co-marketing
PL of biogas into plants and
A of 3-4 bags In small cities,
automotive fuel by cement plants.
N: of RDF plants only
ST stripping CO2. In this
EP compost with 6- become feeders
- case, equivalent pric- ing
WI 7 bags of of RDF to large
with power/CNG again
SE inorganic RDF based
puts biogas at a disadvan-
fertiliser. power plants and
10 tage because of scale cement plants.
9 of economy.
37 Toolkit for Solid Waste Management (2012), Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/SWM-
toolkit.pdf
11
0
M
an
ua
l
on
M
Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies [contd.]
un
ici CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION SANITARY
pa
INTEGRATED
l COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- LANDFILL
So G
lid POSTING + RDF)
W MANAGERIAL CRITERIA
aS
te Labour Labour intensive Labour intensive Less labour intensive Labour Non labour Labour intensive
Only inert
M
an
Requirement intensive intensive but but requires wastes are to
ag (based on requires considerable be deposited in
e
M current considerable technical sanitary land-
en practice). technical capacity, capacity. fills. Labour
t
intensive but
requires consid-
erable technical
expertise
as well.
Predominant Technically Technically Technically qualified and Technically Technically Technically Technically
skills for qualified and qualifiedand experienced staff. qualified and qualified and qualified and qualified and
Operation andexperienced, experienced, and experienced experienced staff. experienced staff experienced,
Management. and semi-skilled Semi-skilled staff38. staff. and semi-skilled. and semi-
staff.. skilled staff.
ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERIA
Concerns The final The product is The final product is - - The final -
product product
for toxicity is generally ap- generally safe as generally applied to is generally ap-
of soil
product plied to soil and worms cannot as a soil conditioner. plied to soil and
Can
used as endure significant contaminate the food used as
manure. manure.
Can contaminate contamination of chain if compost is not Can contaminate
the food chain if raw materials. FCO meeting FCO norms. the food chain if
compost is not Standards are to be compost is not
meeting FCO met with meeting FCO
norms. norms.

38 On-site training is required for unskilled labour, as a minimum requirement for efficient operation
 Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies [contd.]

CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION INTEGRATED SANITAR

COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- Y
G POSTING + RDF) LANDFIL
L
Leachate Potential exists. Insignificant High if not Low High potential of Potential exists Polluted surface
Pollution quantities at low treated leachate at the for compost runoff during
Varies with the waste volumes per appropriately receiving pit. wet weather,
climate of area vermi-pit. Varies with the groundwater
and seasonal climate of area contamination
variation. In and seasonal due to leachate
relatively dry variation. In infiltration
seasons, leachate relatively dry
Moderate to
can be recircu- seasons, leachate
high
lated can be
depending
into the recirculat- ed
upon the
windrow to into the wind-
leachate
contain row to contain
recycling
M loss of loss of
U and
nutrients and nutrients and
NI
control
CI also pollution also pollution
PA systems.
L potential. potential.
SO Leachate
LI management
D In high In high
W during
rainfall areas, rainfall areas,
AS monsoons
TE the wind- rows the wind- rows
M requires
A need to be need to be
special
N
covered either covered either
A attention
G temporarily or temporarily or
E
M permanently to permanently to
EN control leachate control
T
PL generation. leachate
A
N:
However, the generation.
ST de- sign of the However, the
EP
- shed should be de- sign of the
WI such that good shed should be
SE
natural such that good
11 ventilation is natural
1 maintained. ventilation is
maintained.
11
2
M
an
ua
l
on Table 1.18: Indicative Criteria for Selection of Appropriate Technology or Combination of Technologies [contd.]
M
un
ici CRITERIA WINDROW VERMICULTURE BIOMETHANATION RDF INCINERATION INTEGRATED SANITARY
pa COMPOSTIN SYSTEM (COM- LANDFILL
l
So G POSTING + RDF)
lid
W Atmospheric Low (dust, Low. Low. Low to Very high if Moderate, re- Air pollution
aS
te
pollution aerosol etc.). Odour issues. Leakage of biogas. moderate (dust, emis- sions not quire appropriate and problems
M
Odour issues. aerosols). man- aged emission control of odour
an Odour issues. properly. systems (Air and
ag Very high if
e Fly ash should emission include methane
M RDF is not
en be disposed acid gases, diox- emissions if
burnt at
t safely in an ins and furans). not managed
required
engineered properly.
temperature.
landfill.
(Emissions due to
Odour issues.
incomplete com-
bustion of munici-
pal refuse contain
a number of toxic
compounds, di-
oxins and furans,
requiring appro-
priate emissions
control systems)
Other Fire and safety Fire and safety Fire and safety issues Presence of Disposal of bottom Presence of Spontaneous
issues to be issues to be taken to be taken care of inappropriate ash/ slag. inap- propriate ignition due to
taken care of care of material in the Fire and safety mate- rial in possible meth-
RDF (chlorinat- issues to be the RDF ane concentra-
ed plastics). (chlorinated plas- tion.
taken care of.
tics).
Fire and Fire and safety Fire and safety
safety issues is- sues to be issues to be
to be taken taken care of. taken care of.
care of.
*Actual planning and implementation will also depend on engineering and installation of plants
Further detailed information on the different technologies and their implementation requirements are to be found in sections 3.2 to check 3.5 of chapter 3 of Part II of this
manual.
 1.4.5.13 PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY
PARTICIPATION THROUGH INFORMATION, EDUCATION
AND COMMUNICATION

An efficient waste management program, regardless of the strategy,

requires significant cooperation from waste generators and active
community participation.

Information, education, and communication (IEC) is a multilevel tool

for promoting and sustaining risk-reducing behaviour change in
Strategic planning, significant cooperation and support
individuals and communities. The decision to adopt new ideas or
for successful implementation of the MSWM plan
behaviour is the result of a complex process and takes place only over a
period of time Development and implementation of an IEC campaign
involves planning and implementing a comprehensive, strategic set of
interventions and activities to change behaviour at many levels to
achieve the objectives of the MSWM plan.

Awareness and education campaigns are essential to bring about a

behavioural change among the citizens in managing their waste. The
IEC campaign should not only target households, shops, and
commercial and institutional premises, but also all other stakeholders
such as municipal officials, elected representatives, schools, non-
government organisations (NGOs), the informal sector, media, etc. to
ensure their participation in managing city waste by discharging their
role effectively.

An IEC campaign is not a single time activity; on the contrary,

depending on the stage of planning or implementation, constant
communication with the community and all relevant stakeholders is
IEC campaigns need to be sustained through regular and targeted
necessary.

A sustained campaign of targeted messages, relevant to the ongoing

planning or implementation phase specific to each considered social
group, will result in bringing about a significant change in behaviour
patterns.

nicipal Solid Waste Management

ecycling;
water bodies;
adable (wet) and nonbiodegradable (dry) waste, ensuring that other wastes belonging to the ‘special’ category are han
sident welfare associations (RWAs), self-help groups (SHGs), non-government organisations (NGOs), or individual wast
ing initiatives; and
management (MSWM) services for low-income populations.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 113

GUIDANCE
1.4.5.13.1 Communicating the Municipal Solid Waste Management
Plan

Successful implementation of the MSWM plan is dependent on its

ownership by multiple actors. Periodic and timely dissemination of
various facets of the MSWM plan would bring a significant change in
human behaviour. This in turn will improve the standard of cleanliness
in the city and give a better quality of life to the citizens.

Rapid assessment of the existing MSWM situation in city’s ward

or community enables ULBs to identify key community behaviour
patterns that could aid or impede the implementation of the plan. The
communication campaign should seek to change undesirable practices
and strengthen complimentary habits.

Strengthening and clarifying the roles of key actors within and outside
the ULB should be a key outcome of a communication plan (Table
1.19).

All households, commercial establishments, and other institutional

premises have to be reached through IEC campaign to cooperate with
the municipal authority in managing their waste. This can be achieved
through intermediaries such as resident welfare associations (RWAs),
community-based organisation (CBOs), non-government organisations
(NGOs), self-help groups (SHGs), and social organisations along with
the elected representatives and municipal officials. Impacts of gender
vulnerability and issues of poverty are essential dimensions that must
be considered in all communications.

Modes of communication chosen for the IEC campaign should be

accessible by the target audience, easily replicable, and cost-effective.
Several modes of communication should be simultaneously used to
communicate the plan. The integrated use of multiple modes increase
the coverage, frequency, and impact of communication messages.

Typical Modes of Communication

Print Medium:

While the print medium is more appropriate for the literate class,
visual impact of the print medium should also be used to reach out to
all sections of the community. For the illiterate, messages can be
conveyed pictographically in print. The messages conveyed should be
clear and easily comprehensible. Messages on product reuse, recycling,
and disposal can be printed on all products used by the community.
Table 1.19: Stages of Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan Implementation –
Objectives and Target Audience

MSWM ISSUE TARGET AUDIENCE OBJECTIVE

Generation All waste generators in the • Reduce amount of waste generated
city including informal • Promote reuse and recycling
settlements and floating
population
Littering Community Prevent open littering by communicating
penalties for littering
Burning of ULB staff, community, • Prevent burning of waste as a
waste floating population (focus on disposal option
informal workers, low • Dissuade and prevent open burning
income group localities) of waste for heating (in cities with
harsh winters)
Waste All waste generators: • Communicate importance of
segregation households, commercial waste segregation in ensuring
establishments, institutions, sustainable management of waste,
ULB staff performance of processing and
treatment systems, and health and
environmental aspects
Door-to-door • Waste generators • Provide information on level of
collection serviced by door-to- segregation required
door collection (e.g., • Provide information on waste
households, commercial collection schedule for different
establishments, markets, waste fractions (where applicable)
institutions, etc.) • Provide information on timings
• ULB staff, NGOs, of collection
RWAs, etc. responsible
for door- to-door
collection
Secondary • Agencies involved in •
Ensure segregated transportation of
collection transportation of waste as per MSWM plan
waste • Ensure adoption of best practices,
• Sanitary inspectors efficient transportation of waste to
and other MSWM avoid illegal dumping and
department staff malpractices
Transportation Agencies involved in • Ensuring segregated transportation
transport of waste, sanitary of waste as per MSWM Plan
inspectors and other solid• Ensuring adoption of best practices
waste management to ensure efficient transportation of
department staff involved waste, avoiding illegal dumping and
in providing or monitoring mal- practices in waste
these services transportation
Waste • Community Dissemination the following:
treatment or • MSWM department staff • Information on need for segregation
processing • Agencies, NGOs, for improved efficiency of waste
and formal and treatment and processing
informal recyclers • Information on planned treatment
• involved in solid and processing facilities
waste processing oof • Information on environmental
treatment safeguards in MSWM treatment and
processing
• Information on monitoring
requirements
• Periodic information on analysis
of monitoring data
Waste disposal • Community • Disseminate the following:
• MSWM department staff • Information on waste disposal plans of
• Agencies, NGOs, and the ULB
formal and informal • Information on environmental
recyclers involved in safeguards in MSWM disposal

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 115

GUIDANCE
 solid waste disposal facilities
• Information on monitoring
requirements
• Periodic information on analysis
of monitoring data

116 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Audiovisual Medium:

Audiovisual communication has a large coverage and long-lasting

impact; it has proven successful in influencing attitudes and motivating
behaviour change. A sustained campaign on sanitation and hygiene-
related issues is possible through partnerships with local radio and TV
stations. The electronic media tends to overcome all barriers of
illiteracy. Catchy jingles on specific issues tend to grab the attention of
the audience and have a higher recall compared with conventional
advertisements.

Internet:

Interactive websites can prove to be an effective mode to communicate

with children, college students, and the working class. Interactive
websites focused on sanitation and hygiene can be hosted by the local
authority. Such websites should:
 highlight services offered by the local authority;
 showcase extended producer responsibility (EPR) initiatives;
 include frequently asked questions (FAQ) in question and answer
format;
 accept queries or comments;
 provide information about various waste management workshops
in the city;
 host existing waste regulations in a form easily understood by
common people;
 host a facility for lodging complaints;
 highlight innovative waste management or waste to resource
initiatives;
 provide links to research for more information on certain waste-
related topics, which can keep on changing according to the stage of
the MSWM plan implementation in the local authority;
 provide guidance documents and case studies of best practices; and
 provide inventory of recyclers and waste management solution
providers, as applicable.

Social Media:

Social media is being effectively used by progressive ULBs for

interacting with the community and communicating city level waste
management practices. ULBs, through their presence on interactive
social media such as Facebook and Twitter, encourage the community
to report on specific issues, include visual representations of issues,
communicate with the community in real time, and provide updates
once the issue is resolved. Such tools assist ULBs in easy and quick
identification of local issues and encourage fast resolution of issues.
 Interpersonal:

Interpersonal communication involving persuasive dialogues and

discussions with individual members of the household especially
Interpersonal communication is the most effective communication tool, e.g., individual counselling,
during door-to-door
peer education, visits
and door-to- hasvisits
door been the most effective communication
tool within the IEC framework. Local SHGs, slum level federations, town
level federations, and sanitation workers should be involved in such
communication.

Sanitation workers involved in door-to-door collection have proven

to be the most important link in sustaining the efforts for segregating
waste e.g., Pune and Kochi. All new residents coming to a city should be
educated in the MSW system prevalent in the city as they tend to spoil
the segregation chain due to lack of knowledge.

Others:

Organising rallies, walkathons, or local contests will raise media

interest and help carry sanitation messages to communities. Possible
formats like Swachhta Shapath (cleanliness pledge), Cleanliness Drive,
and other similar events may also be used to raise awareness. Special
annual events can be created to refresh awareness or to award
communities or households for their performance. Tools of
communication like musical or dance dramas, puppet shows, street
plays, etc. may also be used.

Awareness activities for school children bring about the longest impact
and result in quickly visible and sustained changes in the society.
Children are active communicators
Schooland have should
children convincing powers.
be primary It of IEC campaigns, as t
targets
is also easier to modify behaviour of children through information
sharing, increasing knowledge base, and motivation. Regular meetings
should be held with school authorities for organising school activities
on hygiene and sanitation issues. Appropriate activities as per age and
class of children may be taken up in schools. Activities which engage
both young boys and girls should be encouraged, as these activities
contribute significantly to healthy socialisation. Negative gender roles
and stereotypes must be discouraged.

Once the target group and mode of communication is selected, a

detailed action plan—including an exact timeframe, stakeholders,
financial outlay, and proposed outcomes of the awareness campaign—
should be developed, implemented, and monitored. The ULBs can use
the work plan to monitor activities and the progress of its
awarenessraising campaign. Resources (institutional and financial)
should also be identified to support plan implementation. The
programme should be monitored through an assessment of indicators
for behavioral change and other targeted impacts.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 117

GUIDANCE
Developing Capacities for Implementing Awareness-Raising Campaigns
The following are some ways to develop capacities of urban local body (ULB) staff, non-governm
Indicate the issues to be covered as per social and cultural needs or requirements.
Draft messages for selected media.
Field-test draft material and finalize material with selective target groups (including women, y
Train the field workers or ULB staff.
Train NGOs and SHGs in facilitating municipal solid waste management (MSWM).
Monitor progress in the field.

Package of Information, Education, and Communication Material 39

The following information, education, and communication (IEC) tools are

suggested in municipal solid waste management (MSWM):
• Dance, drama, puppetry, and street plays can be used as part of long term strategies.
• These can also be used for information dissemination in residential colonies.
• Short films clearly indicating do’s and don’ts with respect to municipal solid
waste management can be prepared for the benefit of citizens and MSWM
department staff .
• A wall magazine or poster can be prepared for information and dissemination in
schools and offices.
• Drawing and essay competitions on MSWM for school students should be arranged
with prize incentives.
• Programs should be arranged by involving celebrities. Female celebrities can
bring about specific awareness on women-related issues, sanitary issues,
etc.
• Cooperation of spiritual leaders should be sought for propagation of the
messages for proper MSWM.
• Municipal agencies, while licensing fairs and festivals, etc., should insist on
the organizers to provide the banners with MSWM messages.
• All hoardings should carry a prominent line seeking cooperation of the citizens
in maintaining the city clean.
• A logo, mascot, or slogan regarding the importance of keeping cities clean
should be coined or framed with the help of expert agencies. This should be
widely adopted.
• Literature on best practices should be prepared and distributed to the citizens.
• Notebooks for school children printed through government agencies should carry
the message of cleanliness campaigns.
• Small booklets to serve as a ready reckoner on MSWM should be prepared.
• Magic shows or simple magic programme should be popularized to propagate the ideas.
• Messages can be widely distributed by printing them on milk pouches, T-shirts, etc.

Source: Government of India, Ministry of Urban Development, Central Public Health and
Environmental Engineering Organisation. 2005. Report of the Technology Advisory Group on Solid
Waste Management. New Delhi.

39 Report of the Technology Advisory Group on Solid Waste Management (2005).

1.4.6 STEP 5: SCHEDULE FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Figure 1.12: Step 5: Schedule for Implementation

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3 STEP 5: SCHEDULE FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Step 4
Timeline
Manpower Requirement
STEP 5
Financial Viability

Step 6
Step 7

The MSWM Plan should address short term (5 years) and long term
planning periods (20-25 years). The short term plan shouldShort lead term
to (5 years) plans should
the achievement of the long term plan. Each short term plan should
to the achievement of the long ter
be reviewed every 2-3 years, to ensure higher success of implementing
all plan activities. Based on the identification of service levels to be
achieved during the short term, a detailed time plan should be
prepared for actions to be undertaken in each year. The
implementation plan should also include a detailed estimate of
required human resources and investments.

Figure 1.13: Components of the Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

Short Term Plan (Year 6-10)

Short Term Plan (Year 11-15)
Action plans Action plans
Implementation schedule Implementation schedule
Long term (20–25 years) plan typically const
planning cycles

Short Term Plan (Year 1-5) Short Term Plan (Year 16-20)
Action plans Action plans
MSWM Long Term Plan (Years 20-25)
Implementation schedule Implementation schedule

The long term plan should be further drilled down to identify short
term action plans associated with time lines for implementation. Each
long term plan will typically consist of 4–5 short term planning cycles.
Actions to be undertaken in each of these planning cycles should be
clearly identified.

The five-year short term plan (Figure 1.14) may be broken up into
specific action plans covering various aspects such as institutional

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 119

GUIDANCE
 strengthening, community mobilisation, waste minimisation initiatives,
waste collection and transportation, treatment and disposal, and
other policy changes as may be deemed necessary. The financial outlay
required for each action plan should be elaborated, and sources of
finance ascertained in the planning phase. Financial planning also has a
direct impact on the contracting mechanisms to be adopted.

Multiyear actions should be further elaborated yearly, with a cost

attached to each year’s implementation. Clear definition of the roles
of various stakeholders and adequacy of requisite staffing should be
ascertained.

ULBs may need to enhance the technical capacity of MSWM staff

to execute the MSWM plan in a financially viable and sustainable
manner. A detailed yearly and equitable staffing capacity and training
requirement should be prepared, and any identified gaps should be
filled before action plan implementation.

Figure 1.14: Components of a Short term Plan

SHORT TERM
PLAN

Financial Viability and

Time Lines Manpower Requirement
Contracting Mode

ACTION
PLANS

IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE

1.4.7 STEP 6: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION FOR

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
VALIDATION

Figure 1.15: Step 6: Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste

Management Plan Validation

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5

STEP 6: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION FOR MSWM PLAN VALIDATION

STEP 6
Step 7
 The draft MSWM plan, complete with action plans and an
implementation schedule, is to be presented to and accepted by the
stakeholder committee which provided inputs to the draft plan (Step 3
of the planning process).

Based on the feedback of the stakeholder team, further revisions to the

plan may be required.
City council ratification of the MSWM plan, along
1.4.8 STEP 7: MUNICIPAL COUNCIL with anFOR
APPROVAL agreed implementation schedule, is vital

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN

AND PLAN IMPLEMENTATION INCLUDING
PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP

After due consideration of the recommendations of the stakeholder

committee, the revised plan is to be submitted to the city council of the
ULB or equivalent body for its validation and adoption as an official
plan.

The city council should concur with the provisions of the plan
including proposed tariff and revenue collection mechanisms, modes
of engagement of private sector, implications on existing and proposed
municipal staff, and proposed locations of waste management facilities.

Changes to any of these elements of the plan would have larger

implications on the viability of the plan and should be duly noted and
addressed before finalisation of the plan. The final plan should be
clearly communicated and presented to the council for final
ratification.

Figure 1.16: Step 7 in Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6

STEP 7: MUNICIPAL COUNCIL APPROVAL FOR MSWM PLAN AND PLAN IMPLEMENTATION INCLUDING PPP
STEP 7

Subsequent chapters give details of technical aspects required for

developing and implementing an MSWM plan. Further details of plan
implementation and monitoring of service provision are detailed in
Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 121

GUIDANCE
 1.4.9 ACTION POINTS FOR AWARENESS GENERATION
THROUGH INFORMATION, EDUCATION, AND
COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES FOR MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
IMPLEMENTATION BY THE URBAN LOCAL BODY

Citizen’s involvement in MSWM plan preparation through a formalised

usinesses, industries, informal sector,
stakeholder committee is necessary. Ensuring community participation
canother
college students, and members of be done through:
relevant institutions
 willingness of stakeholders to cooperate in the operation and
management of MSWM services;
 awareness on the type of service and frequency;
 knowledge of source segregation (number of waste fractions, issues
of collection of recyclables, reuse, etc.);
 awareness of final treatment and disposal information;
 inclusion of different sections of society such as rag pickers,
municipal workers, and entrepreneurs; and
 dissemination of information on service charges or user fees, the
mode of payment, and the frequency of payment.
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN: STEP-WISE 123
GUIDANCE
124 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent
 2

Technical Aspects:
Chapter 1:
Segregation,
Municipal Solid
Collection and
Waste Management
Transportation
Plan: Step-Wise
Guidance
IN THIS SECTION

2.1 Waste Minimisation (At Source Reduction and Reuse) 127

2.2 Source Segregation 134
2.3 Collection and Transportation 155
2.4 Street Cleaning 189
2.5 Action Points for Awareness Generation Through Information,
Education, and Communication Activities for Efficient Segregation,
Collection and
Transportation 206
 2. TECHNICAL ASPECTS:
SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND
TRANSPORTATION
2.1 WASTE MINIMISATION (AT SOURCE
REDUCTION AND REUSE)
2.1.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES,
2016 - REqUIREMENTS ON WASTE
MINIMISATION

As per the SWM Rules, 2016, the ULB should create public awareness
for minimising waste generation and reusing waste to the extent
possible. Source reduction is the most preferred tier in the ISWM
hierarchy because of its potential to directly reduce the quantity of
waste generated and hence reduce associated financial and
environmental costs.

2.1.2 WASTE MINIMISATION IN INTEGRATED SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

The ISWM (Integrated Solid Waste Management) hierarchy of waste

management prioritises waste minimisation (reduction at source and
reuse) as the most preferred waste management strategy (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Waste Minimisation in the ISWM Waste Hierarchy1

Most Preferred
Waste minimisation and sustainable use/multi use of products (e.g. reuse of carry bags/packaging jars
At Source Reduction & Reuse

Processing non-biodegradable waste to recover commercially valuable materials (e.g. plastic, paper, metal, glass, e-was
Recycling

Processing biodegradable waste to recover compost (e.g.minimisation

Waste windrow composting,
includesin-vessel composting,
activities vermi
that reduce com
waste
Composting
as a result of product creation and use. It also
encompasses those activities that increase product durab
ering energy before final disposal of waste (e.g. RDF, biomethanation, co-processing of combustible non-biodegradable dry fr
Waste to Energy

Landfills
Safe disposal of inert residual waste at sanitary landfills after recycling and reuse to the maximum extent po
Least Preferred

Waste minimisation results in reducing the amount and toxicity of the

wastes produced. Minimisation is the most preferred waste
management strategy in the hierarchy as it reduces the quantity of
waste to be handled, the cost associated with its handling, and its
environmental impacts.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 127

TRANSPORTATION
 1 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

128 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 2.1.3 NEED FOR AND BENEFITS OF WASTE MINIMISATION

Of the 1,43,449 tonnes per day (TPD) 2 of MSW generated in 2014–

2016 in India, 40%–60% is organic and 10%–20% recyclable. The
associated cost for processing and disposing is 80% 3. This is assuming
that 20% is recycled and does not enter the MSW stream to be
processed. This waste, at an average cost of Rs. 1,000 per tonne, is
approximately Rs. 10.7 crore per day. Waste minimisation results in
savings, which accrue through avoided collection, treatment, and
disposal costs.

Reduction in the use of environmental and material resources accrues

as a result of waste minimisation programmes. In addition, the rapidly
decreasing land bank in urban areas, rising costs of procuring land for
processing and disposal, and associated environmental impacts are all
significant reasons to promote waste minimisation. Disposal of waste
results in large scale emissions of greenhouse gases like methane and
carbon dioxide. Waste minimisation would lead to a reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions and associated climate change impacts.

2.1.4 STRATEGIES FOR WASTE MINIMISATION

Waste minimisation strategies require policy interventions at the

National, State and local level, depending on the type of the
intervention and the scale at which the intervention needs to be
initiated for effective implementation. For example introduction of the
national deposit system on beverage packaging, buy-back mechanisms
for reusable or recyclable packaging material, promoting the use of
refill containers etc. Initiatives which require a behaviour change in the
community need to be supported by consistent awareness
programmes.

2.1.4.1 WASTE MINIMISATION STRATEGIES

REqUIRING A NATIONAL OR STATE LEVEL
incentives and eco-labelling. Establishment
DIRECTIVEof eco industrial parks with adequate emphasis

Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is a policy approach wherein a

producer is held responsible for the post-consumer stage of a product,
typically for defined tasks of separate collection (e.g., for hazardous
waste components like e-waste), reuse (e.g., deposit–refund systems
for bottles), recycling (e.g., for used cars), and storage and treatment
(e.g., for batteries). EPR programmes require a national or state level
directive. They are commonly made mandatory through legislation, but
can also be adopted voluntarily (i.e., retail take-back programmes).
2 Status report on MSWM (2014-15).
3 This is assuming that 20% is recycled and does not enter the MSW stream to be processed.
 The advantages of EPR systems include:
 reduction in natural resource demands of packaging and product
containers;
 creation of incentives for environmentally friendly product designs;
 reduction in waste disposal costs for ULBs; Typical EPR tools include
Deposit refund systems
 provision of a monetary incentive to the consumer to return the Quotas
product or package; and Product bans
Product
 creation of infrastructure for collection and recycling of material.
charges
Collection
EPR is currently practised for waste fractions generating from systems
electronics, batteries, packaging, and consumer durables (e.g., home
appliances, electronics, and home and office furniture) for their
appropriate and safe disposal. EPR policies are usually legislated at
state and national levels.

Typical EPR Tools4

Deposit–refund systems. These are required in the beverage container

deposit legislation or “bottle bills”. Producers charge the consumers
an
additional disposal fee, which is refunded upon receiving the used container. In
the beverage industry, the manufacturers collect from the consumers used glass
bottles and aluminium cans (e.g., soft drink cans and glass bottles and large
mineral water containers) and refund the deposit. The manufacturers also take
back lead acid bat- teries through the deposit–refund system. In 2003, Germany
introduced a mandatory deposit–refund system for certain one-way beverage
packaging, which is defined as ecologically disadvantageous, to discourage
this packing in the market.
 quotas. Government authorities stipulate that a certain percentage of
product content or packaging should be from recycled material. For
instance, Germany has set a requirement in its previous packaging
ordinance that 72% of beer and soft drink containers should be refillable. If
the quota is not achieved, a mandatory deposit system will be enforced.
“Godrej” has an
Through a ‘No PackagingofPolicy’
amendment the for refrigerators’.
ordinance, The company
most beverage one-wayensures that the packaging, in
containers are subject to the mandatory deposit system.
 Product bans. The threat of product bans motivates producers to phase out
unde- sirable materials, design for recyclability, and ensure high rates of
reuse or recy- cling. For example: In Sweden, the voluntary deposit system
for aluminium cans results in achieving the government mandated recycling
rate. The driver behind Sweden’s successful voluntary deposit system for
aluminium cans is the “can ban” that may ensue if the rates fall below the
recycling rate set by government.
 Product charges. Product charges influence the choice of materials used. An
eco- tax levied on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in Belgium increased the cost
and reduced consumption of this polymer.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 129

TRANSPORTATION
 4 “Extended Producer Responsibility: Container Deposit Legislation Report”, Zero Waste New Zealand
(2002). http://www.zerowaste.co.nz/assets/Reports/Beveragecontainers.pdf

130 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

  Collection systems. Producers and the retail trade can be made responsible
for taking back packages and used products such as batteries and
compact fluores- cent lamps (CFLs). Germany, in 1991, adopted the first
packaging ordinance which makes industry responsible for collecting
packages.

In India, the informal sector (kabadi system or scrap dealer) is largely

involved in collection of recyclables and material recovery. EPR
initiatives, which encourage informal sector participation in collection
of recyclables from consumers, benefit from the increased collection
efficiency that this sector is able to achieve, which may then result in
lower supply chain costs (collection costs).

Additionally, the National or State Government can promote initiatives

which would encourage adoption of waste minimisation oriented
practices:

• Promotion of voluntary action by encouraging business groups

to reduce volumes of packaging, while maintaining the requisite
strength.
• Authorising urban local bodies to frame rules and local bye-laws
and enact local ordinances banning use or sale of certain types of
products and packaging that cannot be reused, repaired, recycled,
or composted. National or State level legal frame work and policy
should also mirror such ordinances, to better enable local
authorities to enforce such ordinances, laws and rules.
• Develop eco-labeling standards based on potential for waste
reduction due to product packaging and potential for recycling and
reuse.
• Promote development of eco-industrial parks, which are industrial
areas where in material and resource exchange synergies, are
established between businesses and industries. Such parks might
operate facilities for recycling and product reuse processes.

en the Government of Himachal Pradesh passed a legislation on banning their use. The state government has also enfo
 2.1.4.2 WASTE MINIMISATION INITIATIVES REqUIRING
URBAN LOCAL BODIES SUPPORT

• Promoting and implementing awareness and education

programmes addressing different stakeholders e.g., residential,
commercial and industrial educational programmes that increase
public awareness and participation, in at source reduction
programmes.
• Developing and promoting at source reduction programmes in the
community, e.g. domestic composting programmes that reduce the
volume of food waste, leaves and garden trimmings entering the
collection system.
• Campaigns for reducing the use of specific non-recyclable, non-
reusable or toxic material. Practicing and promoting material
substitution where possible. (Promoting the use of rechargeable
batteries instead of single use batteries)
• Bans within local authorities’ jurisdiction (see also National or State
level initiatives above) through replacing disposable materials and
products with recyclables and reusable materials and products (e.g.
banning the use of plastic bags).
• Green procurement and take back programmes, whereby the
suppliers of a product to the municipality are responsible for
providing a take back programme and to promote the recycling of
e.g. computer monitors, auto oil, batteries, paper etc. Procurement
programmes in the government and businesses should be designed
to give preference to recyclable products.
• Local businesses should be encouraged to reward consumers for
returning recyclable products or products which are toxic (e.g.
batteries). EPR programmes by manufacturers are a pre-requisite
to these initiatives. (see Section 2.1.4.1 of Part II).
 Educational and on-site business and industry assistance
programmes should be promoted that advise businesses on how to
use materials more efficiently and reduce waste generation.

and personnel information available electronically and by implementing a formal policy to print double sided for all draft

maintaining strength.
ng return programme .

132 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

  Supermarkets and retail stores are often some of the most effective
partners for a municipal waste minimisation programme. These
provide a central & consistent point for consumer education,
packaging reduction projects and collection centers for recyclable
waste.
 Promoting materials exchange and reuse programmes that divert
material from the waste streams which will eventually go to the
irectly proportional to the quantity landfills,
of wastee.g.,
disposed, helpingwhich
programmes achieve
linksegregation at source
sellers of used furniture with
potential second hand furniture buyers.
 Establishing incentives for at-source reduction through the principle
of “pay as you throw”, supported by bye-laws. Urban local bodies
can collect variable solid waste management charges, based on
the quantities being disposed per household and establishments.
Variable rates can be fixed for pre-defined ranges of waste
quantities, progressively increasing with waste generation rates.
This would also imply that the ULB has the resources to record
waste generation quantities. This system will function successfully
only if the progressively increasing tariff is restrictive enough to
prevent waste generation.

2.1.5 DEVELOPING A WASTE MINIMISATION

PROGRAMME IN URBAN LOCAL BODIES

Waste minimisation programmes should be spearheaded by ULBs, not

only to ascertain a cohesive and coordinated approach, but also to
ensure that the requisite backward linkages (e.g., segregated collection
of recyclables) and forward linkages (e.g., market linkages for recycling
and reuse) are developed along the material supply chain to support
re-processing of material, which would otherwise enter the municipal
waste stream. Recycling industries, EPR initiatives, and various other
initiatives including local businesses are critical to the success of these
programmes. Planning for waste minimisation programmes should
be a part of the overall municipal solid waste management (MSWM)
planning process as described in detail in Section 1.2 of Part II. The
typical process for developing a waste minimisation programme
(Figure 2.2) requires the ULBs to do the following:

Figure 2.2: Developing a Waste Minimisation Programme 5

Quantification of Definition
waste generated
of wasteper
minimisation
source
Identification
strategy
of waste
and
Development
targets
minimisation
of an
program
enabling policy or framewor
Waste generation

Periodic
Integration or annual
of waste minimisation
Promotion
targetofinactive
overall
public
city waste
participation
minimisation
or awareness
strategygenerat
monitoring of targets

5 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

  Identify and quantify main contributors to the waste problem. Local
waste information data system is required.
 Define sectoral waste minimisation potentials and targets
(residential waste, organic market waste, institutional waste, MSW
from business establishments and hospitals, etc.).
 Identification or adoption of programmes targeted at producers and
generators. Programmes should be well-defined, considering viable
and efficient collection and recycling systems, and supported with
required municipal bye-laws to ensure implementation.
 Develop an institutional mechanism with all relevant stakeholders
to facilitate implementation. Identification and registration of scrap
dealers and recyclers is a pre-requisite to assess the viability and
sufficiency of recycling facilities in the ULB.
 Examine environmental and health-related issues when assessing
the suitability of recycling facilities in close coordination with the
State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) committees.
 Assess the capacity to implement the programme and seek external
expertise if required.
 Promote active awareness raising campaigns, advertising the
targets, programmes, and modes of involvement of stakeholders.
Targeting school children and women groups and actively engaging
with the business community are essential.
 Integrating waste minimisation targets in the overall waste
management strategy of the city.
 Monitor periodically the midterm targets and ensure an annual
review of targets and achievements. Review stakeholder
responsibilities and strengthen institutional arrangements.

2.1.6 ENSURING FEASIBILITY OF WASTE

MINIMISATION PROGRAMMES

Waste minimisation programmes should always be supported by

For a successful waste minimisation programme, technical expertise, institu
expertise (either in-house or contractual), institutional mechanisms,
and penal provisions are pre-requisites
market linkages, access to robust recycling technologies, as well as
regulatory and penal provisions, if needed. Actively involving all
stakeholders right from the target setting and planning process is a
prerequisite for implementing waste minimisation initiatives.
Involvement of the state government to pass certain ordinances may
also be required, depending on the nature of the programme. A strong
local leadership, like the ward councillor or a local champion, is usually
the driving force behind the success of such initiatives.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 133

TRANSPORTATION
 2.2 SOURCE SEGREGATION
The SWM Rules, 2016 defines segregation as sorting and separate
storage of various components of solid waste namely biodegradable
ASIC waste segregation:
et waste (kitchen waste) wastes including agriculture and dairy waste, non biodegradable
y waste wastes including recyclable waste, non- recyclable combustible waste,
ecyclables) sanitary waste and non recyclable inert waste, domestic hazardous
omestic hazardous waste wastes, and construction and demolition wastes.

Segregating waste at source ensures that waste is less contaminated

and can be collected and transported for further processing.
Segregation of waste also optimises waste processing and treatment
technologies. It results in high proportion of segregated material that
could be reused and recycled, leading to less consumption of virgin
material. Indirectly, source segregation also impacts climate change and
has many other advantages which are discussed in the section below.

2.2.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES,

2016 - REqUIREMENTS ON SOURCE
SEGREGATION

As per the SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 4 Duties of waste generators:-

(1) Every waste generator shall-

(a) segregate and store the waste generated by them in three
separate streams namely bio-degradable, non bio- degradable
and domestic hazardous wastes in suitable bins and handover
segregated wastes to authorised waste pickers or waste
collectors as per the direction or notification by the local
authorities from time to time;
(b) wrap securely the used sanitary waste like diapers, sanitary
pads etc., in the pouches provided by the manufacturers or
brand owners of these products or in a suitable wrapping
material as instructed by the local authorities and shall place the
same in the bin meant for dry waste or non- bio-degradable
waste;
(c) store separately construction and demolition waste, as and
when generated, in his own premises and shall dispose off as
per the Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules,
2016; and
(d) store horticulture waste and garden waste generated from his
premises separately in his own premises and dispose of as per
the directions of the local body from time to time.
(2) No waste generator shall throw, burn or burry the solid waste
generated by him, on streets, open public spaces outside his premises
or in the drain or water bodies.
(3) All waste generators shall pay such user fee for solid waste
management, as specified in the bye-laws of the local bodies.
(4) No person shall organise an event or gathering of more than one
hundred persons at any unlicensed place without intimating the local
body, at least three working days in advance and such person or the
organiser of such event shall ensure segregation of waste at source and
handing over of segregated waste to waste collector or agency as
specified by the local body.
(5) Every street vendor shall keep suitable containers for storage of
waste generated during the course of his activity such as food waste,
disposable plates, cups, cans, wrappers, coconut shells, leftover food,
vegetables, fruits, etc., and shall deposit such waste at waste storage
depot or container or vehicle as notified by the local body.
(6) All resident welfare and market associations shall, within one year
from the date of notification of these rules and in partnership with the
local body ensure segregation of waste at source by the generators as
prescribed in these rules, facilitate collection of segregated waste in
separate streams, handover recyclable material to either the
authorised waste pickers or the authorised recyclers. The bio-
degradable waste shall be processed, treated and disposed off through
composting or biomethanation within the premises as far as possible.
The residual waste shall be given to the waste collectors or agency as
directed by the local body.
(7) All gated communities and institutions with more than 5,000 sqm area
shall, within one year from the date of notification of these rules and in
partnership with the local body, ensure segregation of waste at source
by the generators as prescribed in these rules, facilitate collection of
segregated waste in separate streams, handover recyclable material to
either the authorised waste pickers or the authorizsd recyclers. The
bio- degradable waste shall be processed, treated and disposed off
through composting or biomethanation within the premises as far as
possible. The residual waste shall be given to the waste collectors or
agency as directed by the local body.
(8) All hotels and restaurants shall, within one year from the date of
notification of these rules and in partnership with the local body
ensure segregation of waste at source as prescribed in these rules,
facilitate collection of segregated waste in separate streams, handover
recyclable material to either the authorised waste pickers or the
authorised recyclers. The bio-degradable waste shall be processed,
treated and disposed off through composting or biomethanation within
the premises as far as possible. The residual waste shall be given to the
waste collectors or agency as directed by the local body.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 135

TRANSPORTATION
Clause 15 Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(b) arrange for door to door collection of segregated solid waste from
all households including slums and informal settlements,
commercial, institutional and other non residential premises. From
multi-storage buildings, large commercial complexes, malls,
housing complexes, etc., this may be collected from the entry gate or
any other designated location;
(g) direct waste generators not to litter i.e throw or dispose of any
waste such as paper, water bottles, liquor bottles, soft drink canes,
tetra packs, fruit peel, wrappers, etc., or burn or burry waste on
streets, open public spaces, drains, waste bodies and to segregate
the waste at source as prescribed under these rules and hand over
the segregated waste to authorised the waste pickers or waste
collectors authorised by the local body;
(h) setup material recovery facilities or secondary storage facilities
with sufficient space for sorting of recyclable materials to enable
informal or authorised waste pickers and waste collectors to
separate recyclables from the waste and provide easy access to
waste pickers and recyclers for collection of segregated recyclable
waste such as paper, plastic, metal, glass, textile from the source of
generation or from material recovery facilities; Bins for storage of
bio-degradable wastes shall be painted green, those for storage of
recyclable wastes shall be printed white and those for storage of
other wastes shall be printed black;
(i) establish waste deposition centres for domestic hazardous waste
and give direction for waste generators to deposit domestic
hazardous wastes at this centre for its safe disposal. Such facility
shall be established in a city or town in a manner that one centre is
set up for the area of twenty square kilometers or part thereof and
notify the timings of receiving domestic hazardous waste at such
centres;
(k) direct street sweepers not to burn tree leaves collected from street
sweeping and store them separately and handover to the waste
collectors or agency authorised by local body;
(m) collect waste from vegetable, fruit, flower, meat, poultry and
fish market on day to day basis and promote setting up of
decentralised compost plant or biomethanation plant at suitable
locations in the markets or in the vicinity of markets ensuring
hygienic conditions;
(n) collect separately waste from sweeping of streets, lanes and by-
lanes daily, or on alternate days or twice a week depending on the
density of population, commercial activity and local situation;
(p) collect horticulture, parks and garden waste separately and process
in the parks and gardens, as far as possible;
 (ze) ensure that provisions for setting up of centers for collection,
segregation and storage of segregated wastes, are incorporated in
building plan while granting approval of building plan of a group
housing society or market complex; and

Clause 15 1(2.b) Storage of segregated solid waste at source:-

(zg) create public awareness through information, education and
communication campaign and educate the waste generators on
ULBs should ensure
the following; namely:-
that source segregated waste is collected and als
(iv) practice segregation of waste into bio–degradable, non-
biodegradable (recyclable and combustible), sanitary waste and
domestic hazardous wastes at source;
(vi) wrap securely used sanitary waste as and when generated in the
pouches provided by the brand owners or a suitable wrapping as
prescribed by the local body and place the same in the bin meant
for non- biodegradable waste;
(vii) storage of segregated waste at source in different bins;
(viii) handover segregated waste to waste pickers, waste collectors,
recyclers or waste collection agencies;

2.2.1.1 SEGREGATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE AT SOURCE

As directed by SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 4 1) Duties of waste generators-every waste generator shall:-

a) segregate and store the waste generated by them in three separate
After achieving
streams namely bio-degradable, non -biodegradable BASIC
and domestic
segregation, ULBs
hazardous wastes in suitable bins and handover segregated wastes should aim to move toward
to authorised waste pickers or waste collectors as per the direction
or notification by the local authorities from time to time;
b) wrap securely the used sanitary waste like diapers, sanitary pads
etc., in the pouches provided by the manufacturers or brand owners
of these products or in a suitable wrapping material as instructed
by the local authorities and shall place the same in the bin meant for
dry waste or non- bio-degradable waste.

Clause 15 Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

i) establish waste deposition centres for domestic hazardous waste
and give direction for waste generators to deposit domestic
hazardous wastes at this centre for its safe disposal. Such facility
shall be established in a city or town in a manner that one centre is
set up for the area of twenty square kilometers or part thereof and
notify the timings of receiving domestic hazardous waste at such
centres.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 137

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Clause 17 Duty of manufacturers or brand owners of disposal
products and sanitary pads and diapers:-
(3) Manufacturers or brand owners or marketing companies of
sanitary napkins and diapers shall explore the possibility of using
all recyclable materials in their products or they shall provide a
pouch or wrapper for disposal of each napkin or diapers along with
the packet of their sanitary products.
(4) All such manufacturers, brand owners or marketing companies
shall educate the masses for wrapping and disposal of their
products.

As per biomedical rules, 2016, biomedical waste generated in

households during healthcare activities shall be segregated as per these
rules and handed over in separate bags or containers to municipal
waste collectors. Urban Local Bodies shall have tie up with the common
bio- medical waste treatment and disposal facility to pickup this waste
from the Material recovery facility (MRF) or from the house hold
directly, for final disposal in the manner as prescribed in Schedule I
part 2 of the Biomedical Waste Rules, 2016.

Waste should be stored at the source of waste generation until it is

collected for disposal by ULB staff or appointed contractors. It is
essential to segregate wastes into wet (kitchen waste); dry (recyclables
and other waste); and domestic hazardous waste (CFL, tube light, etc.).
This is commonly referred to as BASIC segregation. Segregation of
MSW needs to be linked to primary collection of waste from the
doorstep and given high priority by the ULBs. Unless door-to-door
collection of segregated waste and transportation of segregated waste
is practiced by the ULBs, source segregation by waste generators will
not be successful and remain a meaningless exercise.

The local community should be educated and encouraged to perform

the following actions to ensure collection of segregated waste:
• At the household level, MSW should be segregated into wet, dry,
and domestic hazardous waste fractions, at a minimum, and stored
in separate containers.
• Waste should be placed at the doorstep before the appointed time of
collection.
• Domestic hazardous waste (e.g., batteries; used CFLs; tube lights;
chemical, paint, and insecticide containers; etc.) should be handed
over separately to the waste collectors or at the domestic
hazardous waste deposition centers for safe disposal as specified by
the municipal authority or through the relevant retail trade (e.g., for
batteries).
 • Sanitary waste (e.g., diapers, sanitary napkins, tampons,
incontinence sheets and any other similar waste) should be
wrapped securely in the pouches and handed over separately to the
waste collectors on a daily basis. Upon collection of sanitary waste,
it is should be preferably disposed in biomedical or MSW
incinerators, as applicable to the local context or as directed by the
SPCB.
• However, for efficient collection and disposal of sanitary waste, it
should be wrapped in the pouch provided by the manufacturer and
put in separate bags and handed over separately on daily basis to
the waste collector in order to minimise the manual handling of
sanitary waste. Once collected separately, it should be sent either
directly to the biomedical waste incineration facility or to Material
Recovery Facility (MRF) for collection and then sending to the
biomedical waste incinerator when sufficient quantities are
collected, as per the arrangement of the city.

wards, where citizens may deliver such waste marked with a red cross to enable further segregation in ad- dition to ot

and sends them to the material recovery facility. When sanitary waste is collected in sufficient volumes at the material

ed waste streams consisting of at least three fractions (wet, dry, and domestic hazardous wastes). These wastes should

n is achieved (Table 2.1).

ystems through the retail trade) for domestic hazardous waste and special waste. Wastes may be collected from these
directed by the State Pollution Control Board or committees.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 139

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Table 2.1: Indicative List for Segregation of Household Wastes 6

BASIC
SEGREGATION
Wet waste Dry waste (Blue bin) Domestic Hazardous7
(green bin) With further sub-segregation
BASIC+
Food wastes Paper Containers Rags Metals E-waste*
of all kinds, cardboard & packaging Rubber Glass (all Hazardous wastes**
cooked and and of all kinds kinds) Household medical
Wood
uncooked, cartons excluding Inerts waste***
including those Discarded House Batteries from
eggshells and containing clothing sweepings flashlights and
bones, flower, hazardous Furniture and inerts button cells.
fruit and waste materials (not garden, Lights bulbs, tube
including juice, Compound yard or lights and Compact
vegetable peels packaging street Fluorescent Lamps
and household (tetrapak, sweepings) (CFL)
garden/plant blisters etc.) Car batteries, oil
wastes. Plastics filters and car
Soiled tissues, care products and
food wrappers, consumables
paper towels;
fish and meat
* E-waste: Printer & printer cartridges, electronic parts and equipment and others
** Hazardous wastes: Chemicals and solvents and their empty containers, paints, oil,
lubricants, glues, thinners and their empty containers, insecticides, pesticides and herbicides
and their empty containers, photographic chemicals, bleaches and household kitchen &
drain cleaning agents
*** Household Medical Waste: Thermometers and other mercury containing products,
discarded medicines, injection needles and syringes after destroying them both, sanitary
wastes and diapers (should be collected daily)

6 Adapted from Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (First Edition), Central Public Health and
Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO), 2000, Ministry of Urban Development.
7 To be stored and disposed separately.
 A Journey Towards a Successful Waste Management System Leading to a
CASE
STUDY Landfill-less City

Location: Panaji

Year of Start: 2003

Main Players: Corporation of the City of Panaji (CCP),

school and college staff and students, resident welfare
associations (RWAs), local leaders and celebrities

Approach: Panaji, the capital of Goa, is a city with a strong

cultural heritage. Apart from being a popular tourist
destination, it is also an administrative centre and
commercial hub for the state. Under the strong political will
and administrative leadership of the Municipal
Commissioner, a comprehensive city revitalisation campaign
was launched to improve sanitary conditions and solid waste
management (SWM). The “Bin Free in 2003” campaign was
part of the “Together for Panjim” initiative. Under this initiative,
the following strategies were adopted to significantly
improve the SWM system.

Technical Strategy:
 Community bins were substituted by trolley bins as an intermediate stage of
transfer.
 Modifications were made in the hydraulic arm of the
garbage trucks to enable transfer of waste from the
trolley bin into the truck without manual intervention.
 Segregation at source was initially introduced as wet and
dry segregation (two bins). As of 2015, source
segregation is undertaken in eight clear waste streams
(wet, paper, plastic bags, metals or glass, non-
recyclable, tetrapacks, cardboard, and plastic bottles)
with designated colour coding for the waste fractions.
 Household bins with screw on lids were designed to
prevent spillage of garbage by stray animals when
households keep waste outside for collection.
 Material recycling stations were established within colonies
for further segregation of dry waste.
 Decentralised composting units were constructed for
converting wet waste into manure for community usage.
Hotels were also asked to install decentralised
composting units in their premises.
 Tie-ups were made with various recycling units for selling bulk segregated
wastes.
 Extended producer responsibility (EPR) initiatives were
adopted through innovative measures like
– tie-ups with local dairies for paying residents a

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 141

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 s milk bags at the local dairy booths; and
p – tie-up with Tetra Pak (company) for buyback of empty tetrapacks.
e
 Co-processing of plastics and other dry fraction rejects in the cement industry:
c
i  Two baling machines (1 ft x 1 ft and 1 m x 1 m) for
f bailing dry fractions or plastic waste for different cement
i plants were designed. Bailed waste was sent to four
e different cement plants, 250 km–600 km from the
d CCP, for co-processing.
 Hazardous wastes like batteries and tube lights were
a segregated and, once sufficient quantities were obtained,
m transported to the treatment, storage, and disposal facility
o (TSDF) in Karnataka.
u
n
t

f
o
r

r
e
t
u
r
n
i
n
g

w
a
s
h
e
d

e
m
p
t
y

p
l
a
s
t
i
c

142 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Segregation of dry waste into 8 streams
Composting units in housing societies

 E-waste and thermocol were collected separately, but currently no tie-ups

exist between them.

Institutional Strategy:
 A SWM cell was formed in the CCP, headed by a Waste Management Officer.
 The field services were headed by a Sanitary Inspector who was in charge
of 15 supervisors to oversee the waste collection and transportation of each
zone.
 Intensive monitoring was carried out by the corporation staff.
 Centralised complaint redressal system was established with a 24-hour
helpline to clear any uncollected or unattended garbage. Quick response
vehicle was designated for the purpose.
 Adequate health and safety measures were provided to the sanitary workers.

Public Communication Strategy:

 To initiate the segregation process at the household level, green and black bins
were provided to the residents at subsidised rates.

Segregated transport

 For increasing community participation in this drive, the Municipal

Commissioner and the Waste Management Officer organised meetings to
disseminate the details of
 the management system, its functioning, and the segregation of waste at
household level.
 As part of the campaign, cultural programmes like music festivals, fairs,
and carnivals were held with a theme and message of civic hygiene and
responsibilities of citizens toward maintaining cleanliness in the city.
 Involvement of schools and colleges in the campaigns were promoted.
 Waste management was introduced to children from primary school
onward, and children learned the different colour codes for segregation
in school.

Financial Strategy:

 User charges were introduced by the CCP and collected by the

supervisors. Maintaining the ward-wise accounts, the supervisors were
responsible for payment of cash incentives to the collection and
transportation workers and for depositing the surplus amount.
 Other revenue sources were
– sale of compost;
– sale of segregated waste for recycling like plastic bottles, cardboard boxes,
etc.; and
 EPR initiatives, e.g., with Tetra Pak.
 Costs were incurred by the CCP for bailing and transporting waste for co-
processing to cement plants. This acted as an incentive for increasing
recycling tie-ups with other players in the market.

Outcome:

 Collection of segregated waste from the households was 100%, and waste
was further sorted into eight waste streams at the recycling stations.
 Ragpickers, women volunteers, and self-help groups (SHGs) were actively
involved in streamlining the waste management system.
 Segregated waste was transported to the recycling units and compost units
for further processing.
 Recycling efficiency improved through market creation and tie-ups for PET
bottles, plastic bags, etc.
 Waste to landfill was minimised through effective management by co-
processing waste fractions and sending hazardous waste to TSDF.

Success Factors:

 The vision for the city was clear, and there was a strong and stable leadership.
 Institutional and managerial models were established within the CCP.
 Technical innovations were designed for segregation, minimal manual handling
of waste, co-processing, EPR, and tie-ups.
 Intensive campaigning and meetings with RWAs on the overall concept of
source segregation were promoted. Youth, local celebrities, corporation
staff, and communities were actively involved in awareness generation
activities. The waste segregation system was integrated in the curricula from

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 143

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 primary level onward.

144 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Overall Sustainability:

The expenditure on the solid waste programme has been managed entirely
from the CCP’s own sources. Collection of user charges and the various recycling
initiatives have resulted in the financial sustainability of the project. The cash
incentive scheme for the workers has ensured the programme is running on
the ground. And surplus fund is deposited into the CCP’s account for later
use or innovation.

Source: CCP
Source Segregation of Municipal Solid Waste and its Institutionalisation at
CASE
STUDY Kochi

Year of Start: 2007

Main Players: Corporation of Cochin (CoC), resident welfare associations (RWAs), ward
committees, Kudumbashree, Confederation of Real Estate Developers’ Associations of
India (CREDAI), Rotary Club of Cochin, and other community-based organisations
(CBOs) and non-government organisations (NGOs)

Approach: In 2002, the CoC, based on an earlier pilot initiative, decided to scale up
source waste segregation and door-to-door collection initiatives as part of an integral
solid waste management (SWM) strategy. The CoC initiated a citywide process of
source segregation at the ground level as a joint initiative with community
representatives, Kudumbashree, RWAs, NGOs, and CREDAI. To achieve source
segregation, the following integrated approaches were adopted—institutional;
managerial; legal; financial; and information, education, and communication
(IEC) initiatives or improvements.

Institutional:
 Ward-level sanitation committees were formed with the respective Ward
Councilor as Chairman; Junior Health Inspector; and the representatives of
RWAs, Kudumbashree, CREDAI, NGOs, etc. as members for each ward.
 Health and safety measures were provided partially to the sanitation workers.
 CoC provided two different color bins free to all households—green (wet waste)
bin of 15 liter (l) capacity and white (dry waste) bin of 10 l capacity.
 CoC provided three wheeler cycles or pushcarts and auto rickshaws to the
wards for door-to-door collection.
 CoC provided trucks and regular workers for onward transporting of MSW at
the ward level collection.

Managerial:

 Out of 74 wards, 15 wards were served by Kudumbashree (self-help groups

[SHGs] of women) and the remaining 59 wards by contracted workers of the
RWAs, NGOs, and CREDAI (serving in high-rise apartments registered
under CREDAI).
 CoC’s regular sanitary workers were also involved.

Legal:
 CoC passed bye-laws in 2008 to make segregation mandatory and a stringent penal
 provision in case households did not provide segregated waste to the waste collectors.
 Initially, a patrolling system was designed to monitor illegal dumping, collection,
and transportation of waste. The monitoring was done in shifts, and a spot fine
of Rs250– Rs10,000 was charged, depending on the quantity and quality of waste
found during illegal dumping.
 CoC also levied fines on transportation contractors for not transporting
segregated waste from households(HHs).
Financial:

 CoC introduced user charges of Rs30–Rs80 per household and Rs100–Rs200

per commercial establishment.

Information, Education, and Communication:

 Members of the ward-level sanitation committees organised the meetings with

residents and interacted with communities regarding the concept and importance
of segregation.
 Simultaneously, under IEC and awareness generation activities among citizens,
CoC published various brochures and pamphlets and involved print and electronic
media for disseminating information on segregation at household level.
Outcome:

 Collection of segregated waste (wet and dry) from households was 80%.
 The collection system as developed by RWAs, ward-level committees,
Kudumbashree, and CREDAI integrated ragpickers on contractual basis as
waste collectors.
 Door-to-door collection and source segregation ultimately led to a bin-free city
and reduced the amount of waste to landfill.
 Segregated waste was transported to the processing plant.

Success Factors:

 Institutional and managerial models were established.

 Intensive interactive meetings on the overall concept of segregation with residents
and citizens of wards were held by the ward council, corporation officials,
councilors, and the representatives of NGOs and sanitation committees.
 Effective community participation to adapt to the new system was ensured.
 Communication tools were developed and disseminated regularly to the communities.
 Educational institutions, NGOs, and local celebrities were actively involved in
awareness generation activities.

Overall Sustainability:

It is a self-sustainable working model with no direct financial involvement in the

municipal budget except for provision of physical infrastructure like handcarts and
operation and maintenance (O&M) of transportation system. The collection system is
completely managed by the RWAs, CREDAI, and Kudumbashree. User charges are
collected directly by the door- to-door waste collectors and are used for funding the
salary of the workers. The collection and segregation system in Kochi has been
self-sustaining since its inception in 2007.

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 Source: CoC

146 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 2.2.1.2 STORAGE OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE AT SOURCE

2.2.1.2.1 Household-level Storage of Segregated Waste

At the household level, dry waste, wet waste, and domestic hazardous
waste should be stored in separate garbage bins, of appropriate
bins, each per
capacity and colour (Figure 2.3). The colour of the garbage bins should
mended to promote and ensure segregation:
Wet waste
be in accordance with the SWM Rules, 2016; wet waste is to be placed
Dry waste in a covered green bin and dry waste in a covered white bin.
omestic Hazardous Waste Because the rule does not specify the colour of the bins for storage of
domestic hazardous waste, urban local bodies (ULBs) should decide on
an appropriately coloured bin. For example, Coimbatore City Municipal
Corporation uses red bins for collection of domestic hazardous waste.
Capacity of bins depends on frequency of collection (daily, alternate
day, or on demand) and quantity of waste generated.

A container of 12–15l (0.015 m3) capacity for a family of five

members should be adequate for each dry and wet waste, if
collection takes place daily. However, a household may keep larger
containers or more than one container for waste produced in 24
hours, having a spare capacity of 100% to meet unforeseen delays
in clearance or unforeseen extra loads. If dry waste is not collected
daily, container capacity has to be enlarged accordingly. Wet waste
collection bins should be washed by the household each time they
are emptied. It is not desirable to use plastic bags in waste bins.

In large apartment complexes and multistoried buildings, gated

communities large waste collection bins for wet waste and dry
waste should be placed at a convenient location. Residents should
deposit segregated waste in the respective bins either themselves or
through organised door-to-door collection system of the resident
welfare association (RWA) or community-based organisation (CBO).
Specification of bins and containers shall be compatible with primary
s on the quantity collection vehicles, if applicable.
n additional 100% storage to avoid spillage in case of collection delays
Typical specifications for garbage bins used in apartment complexes
and large buildings are the following: 60l (25kg) bins suitable for 12
households, 120l (50kg) bins for 24 households, 240l (96 kg) bins for
48 households, etc. that are of standard quality, high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), injection or roto molded, ultraviolet (UV)
tested, durable and could withstand rough handling, and compatible
with lifting mechanism on primary collection vehicle, if applicable. The
specific size of the containers depends on the number of connected
households and the frequency of collection.
 Figure 2.3: Bins for Collection of Dry, Wet and Domestic Hazardous
Waste at Household8

2.2.1.2.2 On-site Storage of Bulk Wastes

“Bulk Waste Generator” means and includes buildings occupied by the

Central government departments or undertakings, State government
departments or undertakings, local bodies, public sector undertakings
or private companies, hospitals, nursing homes, schools, colleges,
universities, other educational institutions, hostels, hotels, commercial
establishments, markets, places of worship, stadia and sports
complexes having an average waste generation rate exceeding 100kg
per day; the ULB may define the per day quantum of waste per
generator that would classify as bulk waste. Shops, commercial
establishments, and businesses should store segregated waste on-site.
Whereas vegetable and flower market waste generators should deposit
their waste in conveniently located large green bins for preferable
utilization of waste on site or as directed by ULB. Number and capacity
of bins required may be computed by considering quantity of waste to
be stored before collection plus an additional 100% storage. Storage
bins should be compatible with the primary collection system to avoid
Bins should be compatible with the colle
multiple handling of waste. avoid multiple handling

Typically, four-wheeled, HDPE, injection or roto molded, international

standard, UV tested bins or metal bins of different capacities—e.g., for
240 l (96 kg), 600 l (270–280 kg), 770 l (315–350 kg), 1,100 l (449–
495 kg)—may be used for bulk waste. These bins should be compatible
with auto lifting by standard universal bin lifting devices on mobile
compactors and other vehicles.

8 “Panjim’s Initiatives in Solid Waste Management”, Rodrigues, S. (2013). Available at:http://iipnetwork.org/Rodriguez_

Towards-Green-Trash)

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 147

TRANSPORTATION
 For specific storage requirements for construction and demolition
(C&D) waste, please refer to Section 3.7 of of Part II. Small quantities
of C&D waste are to be stored separately at household level, and this
waste is to be transferred to the community C&D waste collection bins.

2.2.1.2.3 Storage of Municipal Solid Waste in Public Places or Parks

With a view to ensure that streets and public places are not littered
with waste, litter bins (Figure 2.4) may be provided at important
streets, markets, public places, tourist spots, bus and railway stations,
large commercial complexes, etc. at a distance ranging from 25m to
250m depending on the local conditions. The collection from these bins
should be segregated into wet and dry waste.

Figure 2.4: Typical Waste Collection Bins in Parks and along Walk-Ways9
r of bins at optimum distance (25–
placed at public places to avoid littering

2.2.1.3 STORAGE OF YARD WASTE OR GARDEN WASTE

The SWM Rules, 2016 suggests that horticulture waste from parks
and gardens should be collected separately and treated on-site to
make optimum use of such wastes and also to minimise the cost of its
collection and transportation. In large cities, the municipal authority
may provide large containers for storage of waste or facilitate
provision of large containers through private sector participation. In
yard waste/ green waste shouldsmall cities, such waste may be stored on-site and the municipal
be promoted
authority may facilitate its periodic collection, either through the SWM
department or by involving the private sector. The skip bins or
containers shall be of a standard design and amenable to automatic
hydraulic lifting and unloading by a transport vehicle. This waste
should not be mixed with domestic waste.

9 Indiamart. Road Side Twin Litter Bins Available at: http://trade.indiamart.com/details.mp?offer=1761050930

2.2.1.4 STORAGE AND PROCESSING OF SPECIAL
WASTES INCLUDING DOMESTIC HAzARDOUS
WASTE

Special wastes including domestic hazardous wastes are generated by

residential, commercial, or institutional facilities which are regulated
by rules other than the SWM Rules, 2016 and consist of the fractions
mentioned in Table 2.1.

Special wastes including domestic hazardous wastes can pose a

substantial or potential threat to health and environment because of
their constituents which may be hazardous. A municipal waste
component is hazardous if it contains one of the following
characteristics: (i) ignitability, (ii) corrosivity, (iii) reactivity, and (iv)
toxicity.

Special Wastes including Domestic Hazardous Wastes Categories from Households

Printer cartridges, electronic parts and equipment
Batteries from flashlights and button cells
Bleaches and household kitchen & drain cleaning agents
Car batteries, oil filters and car care products, consumables
Chemicals and solvents and their empty containers
Insecticides, pesticides and herbicides and their empty containers
Light bulbs, tube-lights and compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)
Paints, oils, lubricants, glues, thinners, and their empty containers
Photographic chemicals
Thermometers and other mercury containing products
Discarded medicines, injection needles and syringes, after destroying them

Clause 15(j) of SWM Rules, 2016 ensure safe storage and

transportation of the domestic hazardous waste to the hazardous
waste disposal facility or as may be directed by the State Pollution
Control Board or the Pollution Control Committee.

All waste generators should be directed by the municipal authority to

not mix special waste including domestic hazardous waste with either
the wet waste or dry waste, but to store such wastes separately and
hand-over to the special waste collection centres, which should be
established by the urban local bodies or to collection schemes through
retail trade. The Rules have further directed ULBs to establish one
domestic hazardous deposition/delivery centre per 20 sq. km.

Clause 15(i) of SWM Rules, 2016 establish waste deposition centres

for domestic hazardous waste and give direction for waste generators
to deposit domestic hazardous wastes at this centre for its safe

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 149

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 disposal. Such facility shall be established in a city or town in a manner
that one

150 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 centre is set up for the area of twenty square kilometers or part thereof
and notify
rdous deposition center per ward or per the timings
zone, of of
for ease receiving domestic
deposition hazardous waste at such
of the users
centres;

However, given that ULBs are of varying sizes, larger ULBs may decide to
establish one domestic hazardous deposition site per ward; smaller ULBs
may choose to place the deposition centre(s) at appropriate locations, such
as market places and commercial areas. The timings for receiving domestic
hazardous waste at such centre should be notified to public, while ULBs
should ensure safe handling of such waste as may be directed by the SPCB
or PCC from time to time. ULBs should establish a minimum of one
domestic hazardous deposition centre per ward or per zone, for ease of
deposition of the users.

Manufacturers and suppliers of products resulting in special wastes should

be encouraged to develop systems for “take back”, treat or recycle such
wastes, or send wastes to registered recyclers, as appropriate.

Having hazardous components, MSW has to be distinguished from

hazardous wastes generated by commercial and industrial units, as defined
by the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2016. Hazardous wastes should be disposed by the
generating unit at the nearest treatment, storage, and disposal facility
(TSDF). ULBs can also hold other hazardous waste manufacturers
accountable, under aforesaid rules. E-waste shall be segregated at source
and shall not be mixed with MSW. Special wastes are covered in detail in
Section 7 of Part II.

2.2.1.5 MANAGING INDUSTRIAL WASTES GENERATED

WITHIN MUNICIPAL JURISDICTIONS (ExCLUDING
INDUSTRIAL ESTATES WITHIN MUNICIPAL
AREAS)

SWM Rules, 2016 are also applicable to industrial townships, areas under
the control of Indian Railways, airports, airbases, Ports and harbours,
defence establishments, special economic zones, State and Central
government organisations, places of pilgrims, religious and historical
importance as may be notified by respective State government from time
to time and to every domestic, institutional, commercial and any other
non residential solid waste generator situated in the areas except
industrial waste, hazardous waste, hazardous chemicals, bio medical
wastes, e-waste, lead acid batteries and radio-active waste, that are
covered under separate rules framed under the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986.

Industrial solid waste refers to waste generated by processing activities

of different industries, e.g., thermal power plants producing coal ash;
integrated iron and steel mills producing blast furnace slag and steel
melting slag; nonferrous industries like aluminium, zinc, and copper
producing red mud and tailings; etc. Industrial waste can be solid, liquid, or
gas, and can be hazardous or non-hazardous. Hazardous industrial waste
may cause
 danger to public health and environment and hence should not be
mixed with MSW. Large industries have to manage their waste by
themselves and are required to seek authorisations from respective
SPCBs.

Small-scale service industries (both registered and unregistered)

within city limits—e.g., automobile garages, electroplating industry,
dyeing industry, lathe machines, etc.—which generate hazardous waste,
should be identified by the ULB through a primary survey. A clear-cut
plan for management of wastes from these industries should be
chalked out for its separate collection, transportation, and appropriate
disposal in consultation with the SPCB or PCC.

Although ULBs are not responsible for the management of industrial

solid waste, ULBs should ensure that MSW generated by the industrial
units should be handled appropriately by the industry. In places where
the industrial unit or area has no appropriate municipal solid waste
management (MSWM) system, a tie up with the regular MSWM
system of the ULB should be organised. Collection of MSW from
such units should be closely monitored to ensure that there is no cross
contamination of waste with industrial waste illegally dumped in the
municipal bins.

2.2.2 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND AWARENESS

The SWM Rules, 2016 direct ULBs to create public awareness

through information, education, and communication (IEC) campaigns
Post the introduction campaigns, regular reinforcements of segregation
and educate the waste generators to minimise waste and prohibit
littering. Municipal authorities should organise awareness generation
programmes promoting segregation of waste and recycling or reuse of
segregated waste. The communities should be educated, informed, and
trained on waste segregation. ULBs should sensitise citizens to
associated environment and health hazards of improper waste
management. Further, the citizens should be made aware of the need to
pay user fees or charges for ensuring sustainability of the MSWM
services.

This process is most effective when led by the Mayor or Chairperson

and the Chief Executive of the ULB, and prominent people are involved
in the campaign to motivate the society at large. To ensure segregation
at household level, along with the proper system of door-to-door
collection and transportation, there must be sustained efforts by the
authorities and strong leadership to motivate the citizens over a period
of 15 days to one month along with the proper system (e.g., case study
on Warangal).

Involvement of RWAs, CBOs, NGOs, self-help groups (SHGs), and

market associations is imperative to ensure the success of segregation
at source. Regular meetings among the ULB staff and representatives

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 151

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 of RWAs, market associations, NGOs, SHGs, and other stakeholders
wareness and consensus is essential
should be held until the community fully adopts this practice.
ty participation in storage of segregated waste
The ULB through the NGOs, Rotary clubs, CBOs, and other such
organisations should conduct school-level awareness and education
programmes focusing on source segregation; waste minimisation
through reduce, reuse, and recycle; and the importance of proper
management of waste. Students should be made aware of the menace
posed by increasing waste quantities and environmental impacts of
unscientific disposal. School authorities should educate and encourage
students to practise segregation of waste in schools as per
specifications given above in Table 2.1.

The Clean Cities Championship: A Participatory Approach for Improved

CASE
STUDY Municipal Solid Waste Management in Warangal

Location: Warangal

Population: 3,512,576 (Census, 2011)

Year of Start: 2012

Main Players: Directorate of Municipal Administration, Government of Andhra

Pradesh, Warangal Municipal Corporation (WMC), Clean Cities Foundation,
Andhra Pradesh Industrial & Technical Consultancy Organisation, Andhra
Pradesh Pollution Control Board, communities, and school students.

Approach: In order to make waste management a competitive sport, the Clean

Cities Foundation in partnership with the Directorate of Municipal Administration
started the initiative of source segregation and door-to-door collection service in
collaboration with Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board and Andhra Pradesh
Industrial & Technical Consultancy Organisation. This was a low-cost participatory
approach for integrated municipal solid waste management. The process
included a hands-on approach to planning a sound waste management system
and then implementing cost-effective solutions on the ground. Strong leadership
from the administrators and politicians ensured participation and revenue
generation for sustaining the process.

The following approach was adopted:

• Financial grants for the championship were first secured from different
depart- ments at state level.
• Intensive pre-championship activities were carried out, namely:
– Planning inputs: Assessment of resource and capacity enhancement needs
for WMC
– Administrative planning: Creation of solid waste management (SWM) and
re- source management wing within WMC with clear roles and
responsibility
– Technical planning: Micro route mapping and collection and transportation
ef- ficiency route synchronisation
 – Procurement of infrastructure like
• Pushcarts with tools for segregation, bins, weighing scales, dry
resource bags, and personal protective equipment
• Tractors, sirens, and audio systems
• Vermicompost sheds and windrow compost pads and dump site
• Dry resource centers with bailing units
• Biogas plant
– Transportation plan and rationalisation of vehicles, including servicing and
de- ployment of compacters for secondary transportation
– Route and loading plans (373 pushcart-wise maps for 53 wards) prepared
by field-level functionaries for the entire city on geographic information
system maps provided by WMC, thus ensuring ownership of WMC
– Tie-ups with:
• Private weighbridge close to dump site for continuous
measurement of waste quantities
• Recycling units to sustain the activity through revenue generation and
cre- ation of market for the material
• Cement plants for dry combustibles that could not be recycled

– Stakeholder involvement:
• Women SHGs were involved in door-to-door collection of waste in
60,000 households, which they already served. This was to
demonstrate waste collection to other households in the area.
• Mass awareness campaigns regarding segregation of waste were
organ- ised through different means like media, cycle rallies, etc.
Focus group discussions among religious groups, resident welfare
associations (RWAs), schools, colleges, self-help groups (SHGs), etc.
were also conducted.
• The WMC staff and municipal staff from other cities were divided into
teams and received hands-on training during the championship. There
were 240 teams from WMC and 130 teams from other cities.

– Training and Capacity Building:

• Teams for carrying out the segregation and collection of waste were
or- ganised.
• Training on the segregation and collection of waste was provided to
the municipal staff and workers

The Championship :
– Championship was spread over 7 days.

– Different coloured contest cards were introduced for the municipal staff,
SHGs, and households during the championship. Signatures on the cards
by the route monitors (National Cadet Corps) earned eligibility to be part of
the target group draw for prizes.

– Intensive micro and macro level management and continuous dynamic

SMS updates were made on the official website of WMC for
verification.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 153

TRANSPORTATION
 – Each participating team (WMC and other cities) was assessed for
performance, and the winning team was awarded.

Outcome:
• SWM wing was established to oversee the task carried out on a timely
basis and to address the problems as and when generated.
• Segregated waste was collected and weighed daily per route, and the data
bank was updated through internet on real-time basis. Accurate
measurements were documented for the total waste generated in Warangal
City and of recycled, com- bustible, and compostable waste.
• Segregated waste was further transported to sorting centers, recycling units,
and cement plants.
• WMC was able to reduce 30% to 40% of waste going to the dump site.
• Improved collection efficiency through constant training, monitoring, and
efforts from the team to build the capacities of the workers.

Success Factors:
• A strong political and administrative will was required, and the Commissioner
led the championship.
• Strategic planning and correct pre-assessment of the existing situation were
initi- ated.
• Minimal financial inputs were needed to improve or adopt the locally
appropriate technologies for the required capacity of MSW in the city.
• Training of municipal staff and SHGs was implemented and so was the
ownership of the ground level workers in the system.
• Training and capacity building of the urban local body (ULB) staff was
promoted as well as awareness and involvement of the citizen to ensure
continued practice of the system.
• Intensive campaigning and interaction of officials with citizens was
initiated re- garding the proposed door-to-door collection and
segregation of waste.
• Intensive monitoring of activities by the ULB was carried out with support of
differ- ent group like citizen groups, National Cadet Corps, online
systems, etc.

Sustainability:
There has been a reduction in operation and maintenance (O&M) costs by
30%. This initiative can be sustained through the regular municipal budget of
the ULB as well as the revenue generated from the sale of recyclables and
compost. However, for cen- tralised infrastructure and rehabilitation of the
dump site, financial aid would be re- quired. This model of championship has
been replicated in Guntur and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, and many
other municipalities have showed interest in doing the same to set up an
efficient system of awareness raising and of segregation, recycling, and
transportation of waste.

Source: WMC
2.3 COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION
2.3.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 -
REqUIREMENTS ON PRIMARY / SECONDARY
COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(b) arrange for door to door collection of segregated solid waste from
all households including slums and informal settlements,
commercial, institutional and other non-residential premises. From
multi-storage buildings, large commercial complexes, malls,
housing complexes, etc., this may be collected from the entry gate or
any other designated location;
(f) prescribe from time to time user fee as deemed appropriate and
collect the fee from the waste generators on its own or through
authorised agency;
(h) setup material recovery facilities or secondary storage facilities
with sufficient space for sorting of recyclable materials to enable
informal or authorised waste pickers and waste collectors to
separate recyclables from the waste and provide easy access to
waste pickers and recyclers for collection of segregated recyclable
waste such as paper, plastic, metal, glass, textile from the source of
generation or from material recovery facilities; Bins for storage of
bio-degradable wastes shall be painted green, those for storage of
recyclable wastes shall be printed white and those for storage of
other wastes shall be printed black;
(i) establish waste deposition centres for domestic hazardous waste
and give direction for waste generators to deposit domestic
hazardous wastes at this centre for its safe disposal. Such facility
shall be established in a city or town in a manner that one centre is
set up for the area of twenty square kilometers or part thereof and
notify the timings of receiving domestic hazardous waste at such
centres;
(j) ensure safe storage and transportation of the domestic hazardous
waste to the hazardous waste disposal facility or as may be directed
by the State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control
Committee;
(k) direct street sweepers not to burn tree leaves collected from street
sweeping and store them separately and handover to the waste
collectors or agency authorised by local body;
(m) collect waste from vegetable, fruit, flower, meat, poultry and
fish market on day to day basis and promote setting up of
decentralised

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 155

TRANSPORTATION
 compost plant or biomethanation plant at suitable locations in the
markets or in the vicinity of markets ensuring hygienic conditions;
(n) collect separately waste from sweeping of streets, lanes and by-
lanes daily, or on alternate days or twice a week depending on the
density of population, commercial activity and local situation;
(o) set up covered secondary storage facility for temporary storage
of street sweepings and silt removed from surface drains in cases
where direct collection of such waste into transport vehicles is not
convenient. Waste so collected shall be collected and disposed of at
regular intervals as decided by the local body;
(p) collect horticulture, parks and garden waste separately and process
in the parks and gardens, as far as possible;
(q) transport segregated bio-degradable waste to the processing
facilities like compost plant, biomethanation plant or any such
facility. Preference shall be given for on site processing of such
waste;
(r) transport non-bio-degradable waste to the respective processing
facility or material recovery facilities or secondary storage facility;
(s) transport construction and demolition waste as per the provisions
of the Construction and Demolition Waste management Rules,
2016;

2.3.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Collection of segregated municipal waste is an essential step in MSWM.

Inefficient waste collection services have an impact on public health
o the collection of waste from source of generation
and aesthetics of towns and cities. Collection of wet, dry and domestic
hazardous waste separately ensures maximum recovery of recyclables.
It also enhances the potential of cost-effective treatment of such wastes
which can then easily meet the minimum quality criteria defined for
different products, eg. production of compost from pure organic waste.

Waste collection services are divided into primary and secondary

collection. Primary collection refers to the process of collecting, lifting
and removal of segregated solid waste from source of its generation
including households, shops, offices, markets, hotels, institutions and
m community bins, storage depots, or transfer stations for transportation
other residential or non-residential premises and taking the waste
to a storage depot or transfer station or directly to the disposal site,
depending on the size of the city and the waste management system
prevalent in the city. Primary collection must ensure separate collection
of certain waste streams or fractions depending on the separation and
reuse system applied by the respective town or city (Section 2.2).

Secondary collection includes picking up waste from community bins,

waste storage depots, or transfer stations and transporting it to waste
processing sites or to the final disposal site. At the secondary collection
points, segregated waste must be stored on-site in separate covered
bins or containers for further collection and should be kept separate
during all steps of waste collection, transportation, and processing.
Further, ULBs should ensure that at the secondary storage points the
waste is should be attended daily or before container starts
overflowing. Synchronisation between primary and secondary collection is very essentia
or manual handling
A well synchronized primary and secondary collection and
transportation system, with regular and well communicated intervals
of operation (with respect to primary collection), is essential to avoid
containers’ overflow and waste littering. Further, the transport vehicles
should be compatible with the equipment design at the waste storage
depot and should be able to transport segregated waste. They should
also be easy to maintain. It should be ensured that waste collected from
the doorstep in motorized vehicles should be either directly
transported to the processing facility or through material recovery
facility or transfer station, or waste storage depots for facilitating,
sorting, and bulk transfer of waste. The vehicles used for
Street to
transportation should be covered and not visible sweeping and
public. It drain cleaning waste are to b
should
and
have a facility to prevent spillage of waste and transported
leachate directly
en-route to theto the sanitary landfill fac
processing or disposal facility.

Figure 2.3, Figure 2.4, and Figure 2.5 as well as Figure 1.7 (of Part I)
indicate suggested movement of household waste, market waste, street
sweeping, and drain silt through the MSWM system.

It is essential to separate street sweeping waste and silt cleaned from

drains completely from household waste streams through all stages of
collection, transport, and treatment, since street sweeping and drain
silt can be infiltrated with significant amounts of toxic substances
(e.g., heavy metals) and are often responsible for contamination of
waste streams envisaged for composting and recycling. Accordingly,
street sweeping and drain silt are covered in different flowcharts. For
household waste, a tertiary collection system is necessary only in large
cities where transfer stations are located at a greatSecondary waste storage containers should be
distance (more than
to facilitate mechanical lifting to avoid multiple
15 km) from disposal and treatment facilities.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 157

TRANSPORTATION
 15
8
M
an
ua
l
on
M
un
ici
pa
l Figure 2.5: Flow Chart for Household Waste Collection, Transportation and Disposal 10
So
lid
W PRIMARY COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION SECONDARY COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION TRANSFER STATION AND PROCESSING SITE DISPOSAL SITE
aS
te
M
an
ag Transport to bins from where waste is lifted and transported to either transfer station or processing facility (compactor, hook loader, dumper placer, skip loader, mini truck mounted)
e Windrow composting or vermicomposting
M Bio gas
Sorting
en
Door-to-door collection through hand cart or tricycle with 6 or 8 plastic or metal bins
t Compaction
Bio- degradable waste
Directly through small covered Waste collection
mechanised bins (for
vehicles segregated
having biodegradable
partition and
for collec- tion of non biodegradable
organic Residue
waste;
and inorganic from processing
plastic
waste plant (not to exceed 15% of waste delivered at processing facility) and further to be reduced to less than 5%
or metal bins)

Primary segregated waste collection at door step

Transfer station (If the distance is more than 15 kms)

Waste is directly transferred to a secondary collection vehicle

(compactor, hook loader, dumper placer, skip loader, mini truck mounted)

Non bio-
degradable Recyclable Market
waste RDF
Material recovery
Waste to energy
Compaction

• The compactor is an appropriate vehicle for collecting biodegradable and recyclable component of MSW
• Skip loaders/ Hook loaders are preferred for collecting inert waste or Construction and Demolition waste
• Waste may be transferred to the transfer station if the processing site is located at least 15 kms away from the city

10 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM Manual (2013-15).

 Figure 2.6: Flow Charts for Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Street Sweeping and Drain Silt 11

Biodegradable waste Green bin Secondary collec- tion vehicle Processing site Rejects
Landfill

Primary collection of waste from street

White bin Skip loader

Non-biodegradable waste
Landfill
Secondary collection vehicle

Street sweepings are predominantly inert wastes. A skip loader/ hook loader is preferred for transportation of street sweepings.

Drainage cleaning Metal dumper bins (black bins) Skip loader

TE
C Landfill
H
NI
C Skip loader
AL
AS
PE
CT
S:
SE
G
RE
G
AT
IO
N,
C
O
LL
EC 11 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM Manual (2013-15).
TI
O
N
A
N
D
TR
Only in cases where the
A processing or disposal
NS facilities are more than 15
PO
km from the
15 collection area that transfer
9 stations should be provided
 Figure 2.7: Flow Chart for Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Vegetable
Market Waste12

Waste from vegetable market

PRIMARY COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION

Biodegradable waste
Non-biodegradable waste
Others

Metal dumper bin (green)

Metal dumper bin (white)
Metal dumper bin (black)

SECONDARY COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION Dumper placer Dumper placer

Dumper placer
Skip loader
Compactors Compactors
Refuse collector tractor
Hook loader Hook loader

Processing plant (RDF/WTE)

PROCESSING SITE Composting
Rejects

Rejects

Residue from processing plant (not to exceed 15% of waste delivered at processing facility) and further to be reduced to less than 5%
stipulated time frame. Inert waste to be disposed at landfill

DISPOSAL SITE

2.3.3 PRIMARY COLLECTION

2.3.3.1 LOCATION AND ORGANISATION OF PRIMARY COLLECTION

Primary collection of segregated MSW from individual households and

establishments (door-to-door collection) is accomplished through the
use of containerised pushcarts, tricycles or small mechanised vehicles,
compactors, or tipping vehicles depending on the terrain of the locality,
width of streets, and building density.

Spacious and well-lit safe neighbourhoods allow collection systems

with compactor vehicles and tipping equipment which are more
efficient. Narrow streets do not allow for the use of conventional
primary collection vehicles. In cramped neighbourhoods, handcarts or
pushcarts,
12 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM Manual (2013-15).

160 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 or tricycles or small mechanised vehicles may be used for door-to-door
collection of waste, which may then be transferred to a larger vehicle
in the vicinity. Where access to individual houses or establishments is
difficult, handcarts or rickshaws could be made to stand at designated
spots.

In hilly areas, many of the houses are accessible only by footpaths or

steps, thus restricting the use of handcarts and tricycles. Segregated
waste from households in hilly areas should be collected using
backpacks having small leakproof containers up to 50l capacity or
using local traditional load-bearing methods like pack animals,
shoulder poles, headbands, wheeler bags, etc. The waste collectors
should ideally collect wet waste from each household with a bag or
basket on their back and with another bag for dry waste. The waste
collectors should be well equipped with personal protective equipment
(PPE) and should also be provided with a whistle to announce their
arrival for waste collection.

Waste collection route planning is critical to ensure an efficient door-

to-door collection and transportation system. In hilly areas, waste
collection should ideally start at the highest point and proceed to lower
levels. This would ensure that waste collectors or waste collection
vehicles need not carry increasing amounts of waste up steep slopes.

The frequency of door-to-door collection should be determined by the

density of population, collection system, and climatic conditions. In hot
and humid regions, at least wet waste is to be collected on a daily basis.
Isolated houses, shops, and establishments may be served on a less
than daily basis, depending on the quantities of waste generated.
Motorised collection vehicles are able to handle relatively larger
quantities of waste and are preferred for periodic waste collection.
Frequency of collection is determined by the density of area, collection system, and climatic conditio
Domestic waste should be collected in the morning. Waste from the
commercial areas should be collected between 10a.m. and 2p.m.
Vegetable market waste should be collected in nonpeak hours (early
morning, late afternoon, or at night). The collection of market waste
might also need to be done more than once a day.

The municipal authority may engage with RWAs, CBOs, NGOs, SHGs,
or the private sector in providing door-to-door collection services.
Penal provisions may be introduced after assessment or review of
overall management system for failure of service where contracts are
awarded.
 Door-to-Door Garbage Collection - An initiative of Shimla Municipal
Corporation and Shimla Environment, Heritage Conservation and
CASE
STUDY

Beautification Society

Location: Shimla

Main Players: Shimla Municipal Corporation

(SMC), Shimla Environment, Heritage
Conservation and Beautification
(SEHB) Society

Year of Start: 2010

Approach: Shimla, the capital city of

Himachal Pradesh, with its strong cultural
heritage and panoramic scenic beauty, is
among the most famous tourist destinations
in India. Due to a rapidly growing
population and poor infrastructure toward
the end of 20th century, hygiene, sanitation,
and public health became a cause of
concern for the city. The initiatives taken by
SMC to deal with the solid waste menace
and overall situation remained largely
unsatisfactory, wherein SMC undertook
three door-to- door collection initiatives
involving various NGOs and voluntary
organisations during 1999–2008. However,
concerns raised by the local people, which
was followed by a writ petition, resulted in
the High Court of Himachal Pradesh issuing
directions to improve the solid waste
management (SWM) system. Subsequent to
the directions of the High Court, the Urban
Development Department notified door-to-
door collection initiative for Shimla in 2006.
This led to the establishment of SEHB Society
registered under the Himachal Pradesh
Societies Registration Act, in 2009.

Under this initiative, the following approaches

were adopted to bring about significant
improvements in SWM system.

Institutional and Managerial:

• The Municipal Commissioner headed the

SEHB Society’s waste collection initiative
and was responsible for overall
supervision, along with the Corporation
Health Officer as member secretary of the
society. The SEHB staff, which was

162 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

s • A dedicated team was allocated for
u smooth functioning of the system. There
p were two coordinators for SEHB. All 25
e wards had a dedicated supervisor and
r assistant supervisor reporting to the
v coordinators, who in turn report to
i the sanitary inspectors.
s • A mechanism for collection was defined
e through physical verification of
d households and communities.
• Optimisation of routing of each vehicle
b
and provision of a substitution plan for
y
any breakdown in vehicles was
established.
t
h • Centralised complaint redressal system
e within SMC and dedicated telephone lines
at SEHB office were established to
C resolve the complaints of users.
h Feedback registers were updated
i daily.
e • Regular monitoring was done by the
f health officer and sanitary inspectors, as
well as pre-arrangement or substitution of
S the workers to maintain efficiency in case
a of absences from work or during
n holidays.
i
• Effective and timely remittance of salaries of the
t field staff was maintained.
a
r
y

I
n
s
p
e
c
t
o
r
,

l
o
o
k
e
d

a
f
t
e
r
TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 163
TRANSPORTATION
• SMC provided identity cards to SEHB Society’s workers and also employee
provident fund benefits and employees’ state insurance benefits.
• Regular health checkup of garbage collectors was performed.
• Woman participation was encouraged through different modalities like providing
easy terrain to work, working close to their homes, and husband and wife
working in same wards.

Legal:

• Door-to-door collection bye-laws were introduced with special mandate for

citizens to hand over the MSW to SEHB Society, the agency authorised
by SMC.
• SMC introduced user charges and its provision within the bye-laws for compliance.
• Penal provisions were introduced for non-compliance of citizens, e.g., littering
and non-participation in the door-to-door collection system.

Information, Education and Communication:

• For increasing community participation in this initiative, SMC organised

community meetings to disseminate the details of the collection system and
its functioning.
• Mass media (jingles for radio channels, local advertisements) and print media
were used to further promote the initiative and sensitise people.
• Ward-level lucky draw was carried out for registered users.
• SEHB Society distributed its annual calendar, with all necessary information
and messages, to the households.
• SEHB’s case study and brochure were disseminated for further outreach and
to sensitise people to the initiatives taken.

Outcome:

• More than 90% of coverage (25 wards) and collection of waste from the
households was achieved.
• Redressal of complaints by the ward supervisors for nondelivery of service
was effective and timely.
• The initiative was compliant with laws pertaining to the municipal solid
waste management (MSWM).
• Overall environmental improvement and aesthetic value of the city was achieved.
• There were less incident of monkey nuisance and conflict.

Success Factor:

• A strong political and administrative will to improve the MSW system in the city.
• Strategic planning and revisiting or assessing the existing situation.
• Intensive campaigning of officials and interaction with citizens regarding the
door- to-door collection system.
• Effective monitoring and follow-up by officials.
• Penalty provisions for littering and noncompliance in the door-to-door
collection system through bye-laws.
 Overall Sustainability:

Collection of user charges has resulted in the financial sustainability of the

project. There has been a steady rise in the user charges collection during the
last financial year. A dedicated team has been appointed for maintaining the
regular cash flow which is essential to payment of salaries and operational
liabilities of the self-financing scheme. Strict monitoring is carried out to ensure the
collection revenues as well as the overhead expenditures.
Source: SMC

2.3.4 VEHICLES AND EqUIPMENT FOR PRIMARY COLLECTION

Primary collection vehicles should meet local requirements. Before

selecting a vehicle for primary collection, it is advisable to assess the
amount of waste generated, local climatic conditions, topography of
the area, and available facilities for repair and maintenance of vehicles.

Vehicles Typically Used for Primary Collection

Handcarts or tricycles with containers or bins
Tricycles with hydraulic tipping containers
Light commercial vehicles (mini trucks) with hydraulic tipping containers
Four-wheeled mini trucks with international standard garbage collection bins

2.3.4.1 HANDCARTS OR TRICYCLES WITH CONTAINERS OR BINS

Handcarts should have a capacity to carry 4 to 6 containers of 40 to

60l capacity. The containers should be green for wet waste and blue for
dry waste (Figure 2.8). Bins should be made of HDPE, injection or roto
molded, UV tested, and universally used as standard garbage handling
bins.

Containerised handcarts are suitable for door-to-door collection of

MSW from households, shops, and establishments from narrow lanes
and hilly areas and also for collection of street sweepings where
women sanitation workers are involved. Bins or containers can be
easily unloaded into secondary collection bins or secondary transport
vehicles based on the prevalent collection and transportation system in
the ULB. This can be done without depositing the waste on the ground,
avoiding multiple handling of waste.

Tricycles with 6 to 8 containers of 40 to 60 l capacity can also be used

for door-to-door collection of waste from narrow lanes. Male
workforce is engaged to facilitate the picking up of larger quantity of
waste in one trip and taking the waste to a secondary waste storage
depot placed at a longer distance. Refer to Section 2.4.3 of Part II for the
more details about the types of equipment for street sweeping.

164 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Figure 2.8: Hand Carts with Bins13

2.3.4.2 TRICYCLE WITH HYDRAULIC TIPPING CONTAINERS

MSW tricycles should have mild steel epoxy painted and tipping
containers of 350l (140 kg per trip). The tipping containers should be
mounted on a standard tricycle (Figure 2.9). These tricycles are
suitable for door-to-door collection from small lanes and small waste
generators.

Figure 2.9: Tricycle with Hydraulic Tipping Container14

2.3.4.3 LIGHT COMMERCIAL VEHICLES (MINI TRUCKS)

WITH HYDRAULIC TIPPING CONTAINERS

These vehicles are suitable for door-to-door collection of segregated

waste for lanes with less than 5m width. They have a total payload
capacity of nearly 600–900 kg per trip. The load height is
approximately 1,500 mm from the ground level. They should have a

leakproof MS
13 Source taken from Manufacturer
14 Ibid.
 load body with drainage tube and plug. The small tipper should be built
on a suitable chassis. These vehicles should have four openings, two on
each side to facilitate direct transfer of waste from a domestic bin to
the vehicle. They can also have a central removable partition to
facilitate storage of segregated waste. It is desirable to use up to 3m 3
r mechanical and manual vehicles and other heavy equipment to lower potential downtime
capacity vehicle for door-to-door collection to cater to a large number
of houses in a single trip (Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10: Mini Truck with Hydraulic Container

2.3.4.4 FOUR-WHEELED MINI TRUCKS WITH

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BINS

Normally the practice is to unload the small containers manually into

the bin or the hydraulic container. The main advantage of the four
wheeled mini truck using bins instead of a hydraulic container is that
the loading height can be decreased from 1,500mm to 1,200mm or less
from bins placed on the ground. For the same logic, this type of system
cannot be fitted on the larger chassis because then the loading height
would be even higher. Avoidance of hydraulic tipping will make these
trucks suitable in remote places, where provisions for maintenance
of the hydraulic component of a large number of vehicles may not be
available. Further, maintenance is costly and time-consuming.

A typical setup is that the vehicle can carry 8 bins of minimum 240 l.
Bins should be made of injection or roto molded HDPE. Each mini truck
should carry 4 green containers for wet waste and 4 blue containers for
dry waste.

166 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 ULBs should have adequate workshop facilities for the maintenance
not only of their fleet of vehicles, but also of containers, handcarts, etc.
The workshop, public or private sector, or public–private partnership
(PPP) should have adequate technical staff (trained men and women),
spares, and preventive maintenance schedules to ensure that at least
80% of the vehicles run on the road each day and the downtime is
minimised to the extent possible. For more information on preventive
maintenance, refer to Section 6.3 of Part II.

2.3.5 STAFFING AND EqUIPMENT REqUIREMENTS FOR

PRIMARY COLLECTION

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(zd) ensure that the operator of a facility provides personal protection
equipment including uniform, fluorescent jacket, hand gloves,
raincoats, appropriate foot wear and masks to all workers
handling solid waste and the same are used by the workforce;

Efficient primary collection requires adequate equipment, facilities, and

trained staff. Table 2.2 below gives specifications of the requisite
primary waste collection service systems to be deployed in different
types of localities. Table 2.3 gives service norms for deployment of
vehicles and staffing for primary collection of waste. The specific
requirement for equipment or vehicles should be calculated based on
waste generation projections of the city (at least for the coming 5
years).

Table 2.2: Elements of Primary Waste Collection System

SOURCE PRIMARY COLLECTION SERVICES TRANSPORTATIO PPE FOR

N WASTE
HANDLE
R
Societies/ • Door-to-door collection services Containerised light Gloves
Apartment with a minimum of 2 bins for weight handcarts
Shoes
Complexes collection of wet waste and dry
Tricycles for both
waste (10–15 l) Clothes
men and women
• A pair of community bins of that cover
- 60 litres (20 to 30 kg) or Pickup vans whole
- 120 litres capacity (40 to 60 kg) body
or Motorised waste
- 240 litres capacity (80 to 120 kg collection vehicle
 ) or Any suitable
- 1.1 cu. m capacity (300 to combination of the
450kg) depending on number above
of houses to be served (i.e. 12,
24, 48, 200
units). The specifications should
be as per Central Institute of
Plastics Engineering and
Technology (CIPET)
specification
• Contract for door-to-door
collection with private sector,
CBOs, NGOs, RWAs, or SHGs
 Table 2.2: Elements of Primary Waste Collection System [contd.]

SOURCE PRIMARY COLLECTION SERVICES TRANSPORTATIO PPE FOR

N WASTE
HANDLE
R
Inaccessible • 2 community bins or containers • Containerised Gloves
Residential of 60–120 l capacity for 20–40 light weight
Shoes
Areas dwelling units hand carts
• 2 domestic bins for storage of • Tricycle for Clothes
waste at source—5, 10, 15, 20 l both men and that cover
(for 2–8 women whole
kg waste) capacity, as per body
• Waste collected
CIPET specification from the area
should be
transferred to
a light
commercial
vehicle (LCV)
outside the
slum area.
Residential • Door-to-door collection services • Containerised Gloves
areas for segregated waste handcarts
Shoes
• 12–15 l capacity domestic bins, • Tricycles for
one of them with lid, made as both men and Clothes
per CIPET specification women that cover
whole
• Contract for door-to-door • Pickup vans
body
collection with private sector, • Motorised waste
NGOs, RWAs, or SHGs collection vehicle
Markets/ • Doorstep collection services • Motorised waste Heavy duty
Bulk Waste for recyclable material or collection vehicle gloves
Generators dedicated waste streams on full with container
Shoes
cost recovery basis lifting device
• Markets: 1.1–4.0m3 covered bins • Compactors Clothes
for storage of waste as per the compatible that cover
quantity of waste generated in with whole
the market containers body
• Large commercial • Non-compactor Face mask
complexes: 3.0–7.0m3 trucks
containers
Hilly areas • Door-to-door collection service for • Lightweight Heavy duty
segregated waste—manual containerised gloves
collection or with small motorised handcarts
Shoes
vehicles • Tricycles for
• Door-to-door collection service both men and Clothes
for segregated waste—5, 10, women that cover
15, 20 l (for 2–8 kg waste) whole
• Pickup vans
capacity, HDPE, injection body
• Motorised waste
molded, tested bins collection vehicle Face mask
• 2 domestic bins of 12–15 l or a • Combination
pair of community bins of 60, of vehicles
120, 240 l depending on the specified above

168 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

number of houses to be served (
20, 40, or 80 houses)

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 169

TRANSPORTATION
Table 2.3: Estimates for Deployment of Vehicles and Manpower for Primary
Collection15

VEHICLE NUMBER OF POPULATIO STAFF

FOR HOUSEHOLDS TO BE N SERVED REqUIRED
PRIMARY COVERED IN DIFFERENT
COLLECTIO AREAS
N
Push Carts • Congested area: 250 - 300 • 1,250–1,500 1 person per
• Medium Density area: 200 • 1,000 push cart
• Scattered Area: 125 • 625
• Hill area: 85-90 • 400–450
Tricycle • Congested area: 300 • 1,500 1 person per
• Medium Density area: 250 • 1,250 tricycle
• Scattered Area: 200 • 1,000
• Hilly area: 125 • Should be
decided
based on
operational
conditions
Light Commercial • 1,000 • 5,000 1 driver
Vehicles (LCV) and two
having 500 to 700 labour per
kg capacity LCV
LCV with more • 1,500 to 2,000 • 7,500 to 10,000 1 driver &
than 700 kg two labour
capacity per LCV

(Note: Compactor may not be used for primary collection purposes)

2.3.6 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN PRIMARY COLLECTION

Community participation in waste management activities is critical

for ensuring a well-functioning collection system. Involvement of the
community in the primary collection system, specifically in
determining the timings for waste collection, is important for the
effective planning and implementation of the primary waste collection
ULBs should make concerted efforts to integrate the informal sector of waste pickers into regu
system. Community initiatives need to be inclusive. Active engagement
etc.
of men, women, youth, and children should be given equal importance.
Separate group discussions, involvement of community leaders,
community associations, SHGs, and local members who represent the
interest of the community at large (especially with a focus on bringing
in the voices of women) must be adopted.
15 Reference Material on Municipal Waste Management for Urban Local Bodies (2012). All India Institute of Local
Self- Government (AIILGS).
 2.3.7 ROLE OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN PRIMARY
WASTE COLLECTION

As per SWM Rules, 2016 ULBs are directed to:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(c) establish a system to recognise organisations of waste pickers or
informal waste collectors and promote and establish a system for
integration of these authorised waste-pickers and waste collectors to
facilitate their participation in solid waste management including door
to door collection of waste;

(d) Facilitate formation of Self Help Groups, provide identity cards and
thereafter encourage integration in solid waste management including
door to door collection of waste;

h) setup material recovery facilities or secondary storage facilities with

sufficient space for sorting of recyclable materials to enable informal or
authorised waste pickers and waste collectors to separate recyclables
from the waste and provide easy access to waste pickers and recyclers
for collection of segregated recyclable waste such as paper, plastic,
metal, glass, textile from the source of generation or from material
recovery facilities; Bins for storage of bio-degradable wastes shall be
painted green, those for storage of recyclable wastes shall be printed
white and those for storage of other wastes shall be printed black

The informal sector in any city includes the kabadiwalas or scrap

dealers (the kabadi system) and the waste pickers. The involvement of
the informal sector should be examined and integrated into the waste
management system of the city.
ducing waste quantities and depletion of raw materials as well as minimising the financial and environmental bur
The kabadi system network forms an important link in the overall
waste recycling system prevalent in the country. The kabadi system or
scrap dealers can be compared to micro-entrepreneurs who buy
reusable and recyclable material like newspapers, metal, glass,
cardboards, plastics, etc. The kabadi system is involved in the purchase
of about 70%– 75% of recyclables in the country from households and
commercial establishments. In this informal sector, there are
individuals, families, groups, and small enterprises that carry out
unregistered and unregulated activities. People who are part of the
local kabadi system purchase recyclable waste from households, shops,
and establishments. They segregate this waste in plastic, paper, metal,
cardboard, glass, e-waste, etc. and then sell the segregated waste to the
large wholesalers. The large wholesaler is the final link between the
recycling factory and the kabadi, and can extend credit, bargain, etc.

170 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

There is another set of informal sector known as waste pickers who
also play an important role in the informal recycling system. They are
instrumental in recovering discarded recyclable waste from the streets,
bins, dump sites, etc. They pick up 5%–10% of the recyclables from the
municipal waste to earn their living (Figure 2.11). This informal sector
helps to reduce the depletion of raw material, natural resources, and
energy that otherwise would be used in the production of virgin or new
products. Sorting of discarded waste by the informal sector or waste
pickers also occurs on the street corners, at municipal bin level, and
at the dump sites where the waste pickers sort the recyclable material
from the mixed waste.

This form of mixed waste is fraught with danger and makes the waste
pickers susceptible to injuries and infections. Moreover, a lot of waste
pickers or ragpickers are usually harassed by the police, property
owners, and shop keepers. Many of them have to justify their work to
various people and are condemned by society. Many of these waste
pickers are women who have to live with constant insecurity,
harassment, and threat to their livelihood.

In order to avoid child labour and unhealthy practice of segregation

of recyclable material from soiled and infected waste without use of
personal protective equipment (PPE), as well as to reduce exploitation
and discrimination of this low-income group, municipal authorities
should make concerted efforts to integrate the informal sector of waste
pickers into regular waste collection operations through the private
sector, NGOs, CBOs, SHGs, and RWAs.

The aim should be to raise the status from waste pickers to waste
collectors and provide them with working tools and PPE like gloves,
shoes, full sleeves coat, etc. The following are important prerequisites
for defining any initiative to integrate informal sector into the formal
Informal recycling
system: (i) assessing the size activities reduce environmental
of the existing costs
informal system, (ii)and
also provide employment opportunities. However, ensuring hygienic conditions an
assessing the quantity of material being handled, (iii) identifying the
number of waste pickers and persons that are part of the kabadi
system, and (iv) identifying their linkages to the wholesale market.

With the help of local NGOs, the informal sector can be organized to
form viable business groups, cooperatives or societies and would be an
ideal approach for achieving their integration. Such initiatives should
be supported by appropriate local policies and bye-laws. This would
result in institutionalizing and ensuring rights of workers (both men
and women) in the entire process.

Waste pickers should be encouraged to form cooperatives through the

involvement of local NGOs or self-help groups (SHGs), and should be
allowed to collect recyclables from households. Cooperatives tend to
 protect their rights, thereby retaining their dignity of labor and right to
e instrumental in recovering livelihood, i.e., right to access recyclables Such initiatives will not only
ensure a higher level of income for waste pickers, but will also ensure
have not been bought by the kabadiwalas
hygienic conditions for waste pickers and environmentally safe waste
recycling practices.

Provision of social security and welfare benefits to waste pickers

should also be considered. As a general rule, any form of health
problems related to occupational health hazards should be addressed
appropriately. Social benefits of workers should include health
checkups, medical health care, and treatment facilities. Care must be
taken to ensure that workers (be they contractual or otherwise) have
access to proper facilities such as separate toilets for men and women,
storage space for their belongings, etc. For further information, please
refer to Section 1.4.5.9 of Part II.

Figure 2.11: Waste picker with recyclable material

172 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Organizing the Unorganised: Toward Formalisation and Social Inclusion of Informal
CASE
STUDY
Waste Pickers and Recyclers

Location: Pune, Pimpri Chinchwad, Maharashtra

Main Players: Kagad Kach Patra Kashtakari Panchayat (KKPKP),

Solid Waste Collection and Handling (SWaCH), Pune Municipal
Corporation (PMC), and Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal
Corporation

Year of Start: KKPKP 1993, SWaCH-2007

Approach: KKPKP is a registered trade union of waste pickers,

scrap collectors, and itinerant buyers working in the cities of
Pune and Pimpri Chinchwad (Maharashtra). It was founded in
1993 with 800 members to secure their livelihood and restore
their dignity and rights as workers and as citizens. It was
formed on the basic premise that scrap collection is “work”
and scrap collectors are “workers.” In 2013, KKPKP has
around 9,000 members, most of whom are Dalit women. In
1998, KKPKP promoted Kagad Kach Patra Nagari Sahakari Pat
Sanstha (KKPNSPS), a savings-linked credit cooperative of
waste pickers.

In 2007, KKPKP promoted SWaCH, a waste pickers

cooperative. SWaCH is the institutionalised outcome of a pilot
project jointly undertaken by KKPKP, SNDT Women’s University,
and the PMC. The autonomous social enterprise provides
front-end waste management services that include door-to-
door waste collection, composting, and biogas plant
operation and maintenance through an agreement with the
PMC. For the Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation, 350
members of KKPKP also work as contract workers in door-to-
door collection.

In PMC, 2,300 SWaCH members service 400,000 households,

offices, shops, and small commercial enterprises. The workers of
SWaCH are not municipal employees but have been authorised
to recover user fees for the services that they provide. Each
worker provides door-to-door waste collection services to
about 100–150 households and is paid Rs20–Rs30 per
household per month by the service user. The worker also
has rights over the recyclable materials. Together, the workers
earn minimum or higher than minimum wages with flexible
hours of work. Collection is carried out using pushcarts and
motorised waste collection vehicles. Collection and safety
equipment and space for material recovery are provided by the
PMC. Between 2012 and 2013, SWaCH has cost the PMC a total
of Rs. 3.63 crore, which amounts to Rs. 2 per household per
month, the lowest spent by any municipality in the country.
A proposal for provision of social security and welfare
b tutional Structure:
e
KKPKP is a democratic membership organisation. Its
n
office bearers include the President, General Secretary, Joint
e
Secretary, and Treasurer. The main decision-making body is the
f
Representatives Council of 80 members, largely women. The
i
Council meets once a month for deliberating and resolving
t
issues. The education level of the members varies from
s
illiterate to class 12 who take care of the functions of the
union. The union also has a few hired staff, quite a few of
t
whom are members’ children. All members pay an annual
o
membership fee.

w
a
s
t
e

p
i
c
k
e
r
s

i
s

u
n
d
e
r

c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
.

Insti
 Approaches for Economic, Social and Political Inclusion:

Waste pickers are an economically marginalised, socially excluded, and

politically disempowered occupational community. The KKPKP therefore relies on
the twin strategies of struggle and agitation for rights and social justice as well
as reconstruction through institutional alternatives. Institutionally, SWaCH and
KKPNSPS deal more with economic and financial inclusion, while the KKPKP
focuses more on social and political inclusion and addressing injustice and
inequality.

The following are the approaches for economic, social, and political inclusion:

• Seeking state recognition of scrap collectors as “workers” and scrap

collection as “work”
• Organizing and mobilizing scrap collectors into a trade union so that they
are recognised as workers
• Visibility and voice for waste pickers as workers, dalits, women, and citizens
• Seeking municipal recognition and legitimacy through issue of photo identity
cards for contribution to waste management and recycling
• Rights to access recyclables
• Claims on government resources such as space for material recovery
centers, collection and safety equipment, children’s scholarships, medical and
life insurance, and welfare benefits
• Market interventions for fair trade and labour practices in the scrap trade
• Revision and restructuring of solid waste management to include labour,
governance and environmental concerns
• Engagement in citizenship rights and governance

Outcome:

• Waste pickers recognition as workers and scrap collection as work in

Maharashtra and some other states through provision of identity cards in
various government documents, such as the Bajaj Commission Report,
Second National Labour Commission Report, and Plastic Waste
(Management and Handling) Rules.
• Entitlements to collection equipment, medical and life insurance, educational
benefits for children
• Inclusion as an occupational category under the Socio-economic Caste Census
and Antyodaya beneficiaries under the Food Security Act, 2013
• PMC provided identity cards to KKPKP workers in 1995–1996 and later
provided medical insurance and educational scheme benefits to all registered
waste pickers.
• Pimpri Chinchwad provided dedicated space for sorting and segregation of waste
in 1998.
• Organised door-to-door collection and transportation services for the citizens
through SWaCH and KKPKP since 2006
• SWaCH and KKPKP have organised drop-off points for collection of municipal
waste, e-waste and old clothes, environmental awareness campaigns, and other

174 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

outreach programmes for the citizens.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 175

TRANSPORTATION
 Contribution to Outcomes:

• Strong political influence through intensive mass campaigning and rallies

• Participatory institutional structures and processes in the union and
cooperatives
• Use of research to inform advocacy
• Participatory and inclusive approaches
• Support of academic and other institutions

Overall Sustainability:

KKPKP is supported through membership fees and its member-based

economic activities. KKPNSPS is a financial institution that sustains through
savings and lending operations. SWaCH sustains through member contributions
from the services that they provide through the cooperative. SWaCH also
receives some infrastructure and equipment assistance from the PMC.
Source: KKPKP

2.3.8 SECONDARY COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION

As specified under General Principles (Section 2.3.2 of Part II),

secondary storage or collection and transportation is necessary for
waste collected from households by smaller vehicles such as carts,
tricycles, auto rickshaws, etc.

2.3.8.1 CONCEPT OF BIN-LESS AREA OR CITY

Wherever possible, it is advisable to synchronise primary collection

and secondary collection, thereby avoiding the need for secondary
storage bins or depots.
It is advisable
Segregated waste at the household level is collected by primary to synchronise
collection vehicles, which directly transports this waste to secondary primary
collection vehicles. Secondary collection vehicles are parked daily at collection and
specific locations for the entire time during primary collection. secondary
collection,
Separate thereby
Direct transfer of waste from the primary collection point to avoiding the
need for
secondary collection vehicles promotes a bin-less arrangement for waste secondary
collection and transportation. Issues related to placement of bins, littering storage bins
around bins, non- lifting of bins as per schedule, and continuous or depots
movement of fleet to lift bins and
replace them are avoided. However, such systems are successful only when there is
sufficient fleet of secondary collection vehicles to synchronise with primary collection
and where good coordination systems exist. Without adequate management controls,
such systems may fail, resulting in littering. It is also advisable to place backup
collection bins in commercial or high footfall areas to cater to unexpected waste
generation.

Kochi and Nashik Municipal Corporations have successfully implemented bin-less

 vehicles or chambers within a vehicle should be provided to ensure
segregated transportation of waste.

2.3.8.2 SECONDARY STORAGE

Storage depots are required for secondary collection of waste in cities

where the bin-less system is not adopted. In most cities, the following
types of waste storage depots exist:
1. Cement-concrete bins
2. Masonry bins
3. Dhalaos
4. Metal bins or containers

Being unhygienic, cement concrete bins, masonry bins, and dhalaos are
being replaced by metal containers. In general, waste storage containers
should be covered and designed to facilitate mechanical lifting to avoid
multiple handling and environmental harm. It is necessary to wash
community bins at regular intervals to ensure a healthy and hygienic
environment for users and workers. The design of waste storage
containers or depots (secondary collection points) should be synchronous
with the design of vehicles deployed for both primary and secondary
waste collection (Figure 2.12).

Figure 2.12: Synchronised Primary Collection and Secondary Storage16

Indicative Secondary Storage Systems

Bins for community places, on public roads and for bulk generators
1100 litre capacity four wheeled bins/containers, designed for lifting by compactor
3000 to 7000 litre capacity metal containers, designed for lifting by dumper placer system
Hook lift containers 8 cu.m. or larger (multi-purpose bulk waste containers)

16 Toolkit for Solid Waste Management, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India. http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/SWM-toolkit.pdf

176 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 2.3.8.3 VEHICLES AND EqUIPMENT FOR SECONDARY
STORAGE COLLECTION

2.3.8.3.1 Bins for Community Places on Public Roads and for Bulk
Generators

 Galvanised iron mobile garbage bins ranging from 0.5m 3 to 7m3

capacity are available. The bins are designed to be lifted or emptied
by mechanised container lifting devices such as compactors,
dumper placers, etc. They can be used for storage and handling
of biodegradable and recyclable waste. They can also be used for
secondary storage of street sweeping and silt collected from drains.
 The bins are suitable for bulk waste generators and for placement as
community bins at waste storage depots.
2.3.8.3.2 Four-wheeled Compactor Containers

 The mobile compactors are designed for transfer points on public

roads and places and are especially suitable for biodegradable and
recyclable waste.
 The containers are available at 7m 3 to 10m3, or larger. They are
designed for lifting by universal hook lift system mounted on heavy
duty trucks and made for the following purposes:
– carrying all types of waste in bulk; and
– depositing debris and biodegradable waste components of MSW
(using top loading containers).

Use of Stationary Compactors for Improved Secondary Collection and Transportation in Kolkata
CASE STUDY

Location: Kolkata

secondary waste collection under the Kolkata En- vironment Improvement Project of ADB. The stationary compactors,
 assistance from Jawaharlal Nehru
National Urban Renewal Mission.
• The waste compactors were
specifically designed for each site based
on the space availability and volume of
waste generated in the service area.
• In order to synchronise the system with
the existing primary collection system,
the port- able compactors were installed
with a tip cart mechanism. The tip cart
mechanism proved to be flexible for Stationary Compactor
manual feeding, wheel barrow feeding, • K
and feeding by small 1–2 m3 auto M
tippers. C
pr
ov
id
ed
tr
ai
ni
ng
an
d
ca
pa
cit
y
bu
ild
in
g
of
th
e
m
un
ici
pa
l
w
or
ke
rs
fo
r
th
e
op
-

178 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 eration and maintenance
of the compactor, as well
as orientation for the
primary collection
workers.
Outcomes:

• Collection and
transportation efficiency
of the municipal solid
waste system has been
improved after the
introduction of the
stationary compactors.
• Municipal waste is now
transported in closed
containers that minimise
odor and spilling of
garbage.
• Open dumping and
burning of waste at the
secondary collection
points have been
stopped.
• Portable compactors and
prime movers facilitate
night transportation of
municipal waste.
Success Factors:

• There was a strong political will to

eradicate open dumping sites in the
city.
• Disturbance to the established primary
collection system in the areas was
minimal.
• Use of static compactors led to increased
efficiency of collection and transportation.
• Small space available
was optimally used for
installation of the
compactors with
minimal construction at
the sites.
• KMC provided adequate
training and capacity
building for the
municipal and pri- mary
collection staff.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 179

TRANSPORTATION
 Overall Sustainability:

As of 2015, only five stationary compactors have been installed. Funding is required
for establishing the entire system. With only 1 year of operation, the overall
sustainability of the system is still to be assessed.

Source: KMC

2.3.9 CRITERIA FOR SIzING WASTE STORAGE CAPACITIES

Secondary waste storage capacities should be designed to

accommodate at least double the expected daily in-flow of waste, that is
the storage capacity should be 200% more than the expected daily in-
flow of waste.

2.3.10 MAINTENANCE OF WASTESTORAGEDEPOTSOR CONTAINERS

ULBs should ensure that secondary storage bins are cleaned at least
once in a month and should be painted at least once in a year. Periodic
Periodic inspection of waste storage depots or containers sh
inspection of waste storage depots should be carried out once in three
months and any damage caused to the flooring, screen walls, etc.
should be repaired.

The metal sheet of the containers might corrode if not well maintained.
At a minimum, annual painting of the container from inside and outside
must be carried out for increasing the life of containers. Potentially
necessary replacements should be provided from stand-by equipment.

2.3.10.1 SECONDARY SEGREGATION AND SEGREGATION

AT TRANSFER STATIONS

Unsegregated waste, which has not been sorted at primary level,

should be segregated either at an intermediate stage (e.g., transfer
station) or at the processing plant, prior to treatment, in cases where
waste is brought directly to the plant from the waste collection areas.
Segregation may be accomplished through manual or mechanised
segregation. Multiple handling of waste should be avoided.

2.3.11 SECONDARY TRANSPORTATION

2.3.11.1 TYPES OF VEHICLES AND EqUIPMENT

FOR TRANSPORTATION

Larger capacity vehicles should transport waste from the secondary or

tertiary collection point (depot or transfer station) to the processing
and treatment facility or landfill. The types of vehicles should
synchronise well with containers placed at depots or transfer stations
to prevent multiple handling of waste. The selection of the type of
vehicles should
 Vehicles Typically Used for Secondary Transportation of Wastes

Skip truck (dumper placer)

Refuse collector without compactor
Rear loading compactor truck (refuse compactor)
Light commercial vehicle with tipping floor
Hook loader or hook lifter

reflect the quantity of waste to be transported, travel distance, road

widths, road conditions, work shop facilities, etc.

2.3.11.1.1 Skip Truck (Dumper Placer)

Skip trucks are used for transportation of skips (dumper bins) of

different sizes to treatment or disposal sites (Figure 2.13). The usual
skip sizes are 2.5m3, 3m3, 4.5m3, and 7m3. When a full skip (container)
is lifted, an empty skip should be replaced to prevent littering. These
transportation of large quantities
areofalso
C&D and inert waste
appropriate vehicles for transportation of inert or construction
and demolition (C&D) waste.
• The system should be used to lift waste containers with wastes
having densities up to 1,000 kg per m3.
• The skip truck should be able to make at least 5–6 trips in an 8-hour
shift within a radius of 15 km. Twin dumper placers can also be
used to lift twice the number of containers in the given time

Figure 2.13: Skip Truck (Dumper Placer Machines)17

17 Ready Reckoner on Municipal Solid Waste Management for Urban Local Bodies, Chennai. Commissionerate of
Municipal Administration, 2008. http://cma.tn.gov.in/cma/en-in/Downloads/Ready%20Reckoner%20on%20Municipal
%20Solid%20 Waste%20Management%20for%20ULBs.pdf

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 181

TRANSPORTATION
2.3.11.1.2 Refuse Collector without Compactor

At places with small size containers of 0.5 to 1.1m 3, the refuse collector
vehicle without compactor of 6 to 15m 3 capacity was used in some
cities which lifted and unloaded the contents of the small container
into the body of the vehicle through a hydraulic system and put the
empty container back in place. These are now being replaced by refuse
compactors.

2.3.11.1.3 Rear Loading Compactor Trucks Used for Transportation

Compactor trucks are used for transportation from smaller transfer

points either to larger transfer stations or directly to treatment or
disposal sites (Figure 2.14). Compactors can be of different sizes. Some
features of the compactor trucks are as follows:
 The loading hopper should be suitable for unloading tipper vehicles
and hand held bins, as appropriate for the primary collection.
 Compaction capability to compress garbage or solid waste should be
between 800 and 900kg/m3.

The three sizes of compactor trucks used in India are:

 small compactors of 5–6m3 for 4.5–5.5 tonnes of waste per trip;
 medium compactors of 8–10m3 with a payload capacity of 7–7.5
tonnes of waste per trip; and
 large compactors of 12–16m3 with a payload capacity of 10–12
tonnes of waste per trip.

Figure 2.14: Medium Size Compactor Truck 18

18 Source from Manufacturer

 Figure 2.15: Transfer of Waste from Secondary Collection Bins to Refuse
Compactor19

2.3.11.1.4 Light Commercial Vehicle with Tipping Floor

Wherever possible, municipal authorities should plan for direct transfer of

waste collected from households to secondary collection vehicles (Figure 2.15).
In such instances, mini trucks with a tipping floor are appropriate for
anned
mise operational efficiency secondary waste transportation. Door-to-door collectors and sweepers may be
directed to transfer
n. Transportation through environmentally sensitivewaste
areas from primary
should collection vehicles or handcarts
be avoided
directly to these vehicles.

In small cities with poor repair and maintenance facilities, where high-tech
vehicles may not work efficiently, tractor–trolley combination for lifting of
containers or towing of containers may be used. Simple hydraulic tipping
trailers are recommended to avoid manual unloading at processing plants or
disposal sites.

2.3.12 WASTE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND

DEPLOYMENT OF EqUIPMENT AND VEHICLES

Secondary collection and transportation contribute significantly to the cost of

MSWM services. Vehicle productivity is the primary indicator of the efficiency
of secondary waste collection and transport system. Efficiency may be
improved by optimising the collection and transfer operations. Collection
routes should be effectively planned to minimise transport distances and
ensure an equitable distribution of workload among staff. All the vehicles may
be utilised in at least two shifts, depending on waste generation, to lift all
containers, ensure full utilisation of the fleet of vehicles, and limit the size of
the total fleet.Transportation of waste at night may be done in areas prone to
traffic congestion.

To facilitate efficient and cost-effective collection and transportation,

ULBs should develop a proper strategy for deployments of collection and
transportation vehicles. Table 2.4 and Table 2.5 below show some indicative
models of deployment for collection and transportation vehicles for various
quantities of MSW. Therefore, during MSWM plan preparation, most
suitable solutions need to be tailored according to the local condition. As
mentioned, it is important to design the system only on the basis of real data
on waste quantities and waste composition.
 19 Toolkit for Solid Waste Managementm Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, New Delhi, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India. http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/SWM-toolkit.pdf

182 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Table 2.4: Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan for Municipal Councils and A, B, C Class Cities 20, 21

APPROxIMAT ULB PRIMARY DOORSTEP SEGREGATED SECONDARY COLLECTION OF DECENTRALISED OR WASTE DIS-
E GENERATING COL- LECTION EqUIPMENT STREET WASTE EqUIPMENT CENTRALISED PRO- POSAL AT
POPULATION TONNES/DAY AND VEHICLES AND VEHICLES CESSING, COM-
RECOVERING AND MON/REGIONAL
RECYCLING LANDFILL
Up to 2.0–2.5 TPD Door-to-door collection services through 3–4 m3 containers to be placed Decentralised process- Inert only to
50000 per 10,000 containerised handcarts or tricycles at the rate of 4 per km2 area or ing through composting be transported
population 2 bins for storage of wet waste and 1 per 5,000 population or biogas technology for to common or
dry waste both biodegradable and regional landfill
Transportation of containers by
recyclable waste col- facility
10-15 l capacity domestic bins, one tractor having container lifting
lected from households,
of them with lid (as per CIPET device
shops, etc.
specifications)
2 community bins of 60 l capacity (20– If no land is available
30 kg) or 120 l capacity (40–60 kg) for decentralised
or 240 l capacity (80–120 kg) or 1.1 process- ing , town
m3 capacity (300–450 kg) level process- ing
TE Bulk generators at source requires must be done and
C
120 l (49 kg), 240 l (96 kg) bins direct transfer of
H waste collected from
NI Contract with private firm, RWA, and
C streets and drains to
AL NGO, if possible disposal site through
AS
PE tractors at the rate of
CT 1 tractor per 10,000
S:
SE population.
G
RE
50,000 to 100, 10-30 TPD 80% households to be served by 100% street sweeping waste to 50% decentralised Inert only
G 000 @ 250 covered tractor or covered LCV for be collected in containerised pro- cessing of waste from the
AT
IO
gm/ door-to-door collection at 1 vehicle hand- carts and deposited in if suit- able space is processing
N, capita/day per 1,500 house- holds, shops, etc. 3-4 m3 containers available facility
C
O 20% households to be served by Containers to be placed at 4 If no space, domestic Street
LL
EC
tricycles with container for door-to-door per km2 area or 1 per 5,000 and trade waste to be sweepings and
TI collection or handcarts for narrow population. processed at centralised silt from the
O
lanes at 1 tricycle per 200 units facility with resource drains may be
N Containers to be lifted by
A recovery landfilled
N Direct transfer of waste from tractors or twin bin dumper
D tricycle to tractor or LCV to placers
TR
A processing facility
NS
PO

20 Reference Material on Municipal Waste Management for Urban Local bodies, All India Institute of Local Self Government, 2012 & Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, CPHEEEO, MoUD,
GOI, 2000
 21 Central Institute of Plastics Engineering & Technology
18
3
18
4
Table 2.5: Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan for Municipal Corporations 22
M
an
ua
l
APPROxIMAT ULB PRIMARY DOORSTEPS SECONDARY COLLECTION PLACE, DECENTRALISED/ BULK
on E GENERATIN SEGREGAT- ED COLLECTION EqUIPMENT AND VEHICLES CENTRALISED TRANSPOR-
M
un
POPULATION G TONNES/ EqUIPMENT AND VEHICLES PRO- CESSING, TATION,
ici DAY RECOVERY & LANDFILL
pa
l RECYCLING DISPOSAL
So
lid 1,00,000 to 25-150 TPD 75% door-to-door collection Street sweeping and silt from the 100% door-to-door Inert street
W 5,00,000 through covered LCV drains may be collected in collected waste to sweeping, silt from
aS
te container- ised handcarts and taken be processed at the drains, and
M 25% door-to-door collection
to secondary storage depot having decen- tralised residual waste from
an through containerised tricycles or
ag 1.1–4.0 m3 metal containers. sites if avail- able, processing plants to
e handcarts from narrow lanes
or processed at one be landfilled
M Containers to be placed at 4 per
en Direct transportation of waste to facility
t km2 area or 1 per 5,000
processing facility if distance is un-
population. Composting,
der 5 km, or transportation
biogas, or RDF
through compactors if distance of Containers to be lifted by twin
facilities may be
processing facility is longer bin dumper placers or refuge
created.
collector or compactor machines.
Compactors to be deployed Dumper placers and
based on capacity of vehicle and compactors based on capacity of
volume or weight of waste vehicle and vol- ume or weight of
waste
Population 150-400 TPD 75% door-to-door collection Street sweeping and silt from the 100% door-to-door Inert street
between 5- 10 through covered LCV drains may be collected in collected waste sweepings, silt from
lakhs container- ised handcarts and taken to be the drains, and
25% door-to-door collection
to secondary storage depot having processed at residual waste from
through containerised tricycles or
1.1–4.0 m3 metal containers. decentralised processing plants to
handcarts from narrow lanes
sites if available, be landfilled
Containers to be placed at 4 per
Direct transportation of waste to or processed at
km2 area or 1 per 5,000
processing facility if distance is un- one facility
population.
der 5 km, or transportation
Composting,
through compactors if distance of Containers to be lifted by twin
biogas, or RDF
processing facility is longer bin dumper placers or refuse
facilities may be
collector or compactor machines.
created.
Compactors to be deployed Dumper placers and compactors to be
based on capacity of vehicle and deployed based on capacity of vehicle
volume or weight of waste and volume or weight of waste
22 Reference Material on Municipal Waste Management for Urban Local bodies, All India Institute of Local Self Government (2012).
 Table 2.5: Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan for Municipal Corporations [contd.]
APPROxIMAT ULB PRIMARY DOORSTEPS SECONDARY COLLECTION PLACE, DECENTRALISED/ BULK
E GENERATIN SEGREGAT- ED COLLECTION EqUIPMENT AND VEHICLES CENTRALISED TRANSPOR-
POPULATION G TONNES/ EqUIPMENT AND VEHICLES PRO- CESSING, TATION,
DAY RECOVERY & LANDFILL
RECYCLING DISPOSAL
Above 10 lakhs 400 TPD & 75% door-to-door collection Street sweeping and silt from the 100% door-to-door Inert street sweep-
above through covered LCV drains may be collected in collected waste to ings, silt from
25% door-to-door collection container- ised handcarts and taken be processed at the drains, and
through containerised tricycles or to secondary storage depot having decen- tralised residual waste
handcarts from narrow lanes 1.1–4.0 m3 metal containers sites if avail- able, from pro- cessing
Containers to be placed at 4 per or processed at one plants to be
Direct transportation of waste to facility. landfilled
processing facility if distance is km2 area or 1 per 5,000
un- der 5 km, or transportation population. Composting,
through compactors or transfer Containers to be lifted by twin biogas, or RDF
stations bin dumper placers or refuse facilities or
if distance of processing collector or compactor machines. waste-to-energy
facility is longer power plants may
TE Dumper placers and compactors to be be installed, as
C
H Compactors to be deployed deployed based on capacity of vehicle power plants will
NI based on capacity of vehicle and and volume or weight of waste not be viable if the
C
AL volume or weight of waste waste is less than
AS
PE 500 TPD.
CT
S: Large containers of more than 10
SE t capacity with hook loaders may
G
RE be deployed at transfer stations for
G
AT bulk transfer of waste through
IO processing or disposal facility.
N,
C
O
LL
EC
TI
O
N
A
N
D
TR
A
NS
PO

18
5
 2.3.12.1 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR
WASTE TRANSPORTATION

Simple as well as advanced management information systems (MIS)—

d communication technologies may
e.g., be used for efficient
geographic MSWM,
information such(GIS),
system as: Global Positioning System
(GPS), radio frequency identification (RFID), and general packet radio
services (GPRS)—are important tools for ULBs to manage MSW in
large and mega cities (refer to Section 6.1.3 of Part II). It is essential
for the head of the SWM department as well as the head of the ULB
to be informed of the day-to-day performance of the SWM service, the
service being very vital for maintaining the health and well-being of the
people.

As part of the larger MIS, daily reports on some aspects of the MSW
transportation system need to be complied in order to take stock of
existing performance and take corrective measures as and when
required, such as:
 the number of sanitary workers with their proper roles and
responsibilities laid out, daily reporting of supervisors and drivers
that are on contractual basis as well as prior substitute
arrangements for those absent to avoid backlog of work;
 vehicles and equipment reporting on duty and performing the
expected function, number of vehicles off the road on account of
breakdown;
 quantity of waste transported, treated, and disposed at the
treatment or processing facilities and at landfill; and
 arrangements made or proposed for clearing breakdowns.

Information on the following is required for a basic MIS: (i) waste

generation and composition; (ii) staff position and staff requirements;
(iii) specific engagement with NGOs, SHGs, community authorities,
and other organisations; (iv) recovery of user fees; (v) location of waste
storage depots; (vi) number of vehicles, their capacities and types; (vii)
number of bins; and (viii) location and capacity of waste processing
and disposal sites.

These data coupled with spatial data may be used in GIS software
to maintain and manage the waste transportation and processing
system. A GPS can be synchronised with the GIS to monitor and track
waste transportation vehicles and identify any irregularities in waste
movement (refer to Section 6.1.1 and 6.1.2 of Part II).

186 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Effective Collection and Transportation System to Manage Municipal Solid
CASE
STUDY
Waste in Surat

Year of Start: 1995 and scaled up in 2007

Main players: Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC), PPP

contractor, Resident welfare associations.

Approach: Surat, the industrial hub and trade capital of

Gujarat is one of the fastest growing cities in the state.
Owing to its economic importance, the population of Su-
rat continued to grow over the years and increased eight
fold in the last four decades. However, the city
infrastructure could not keep pace with its population
increase lead- ing to inadequate service provision, poor
sanitation conditions, unhygienic surroundings thereby
impacting public health. This sporadic development and lack
of basic services and infrastructure led to an outbreak of
plague in the year 1994 claiming many lives. The major
cause of the plague was considered to be ineffective
management of waste, which led to the blockage of storm
water drains resulting in flooding of the fringe areas of the
city.

As plague was considered to be a manifestation of the

service inabilities related to solid waste and drainage
management, the Surat Municipal Corporation assessed the
issues and challenges of city administration and carried
out major administrative as well as technical reforms for
improving the overall system. The following approach was
adopted for bringing about significant improvements in the
solid waste manage- ment system:

• Administrative and financial reforms were carried out

along with the rearrange- ment of the six zones of
waste management into 52 sanitary wards for
better control of waste collection
• Introduction of centralised complaint redressal system in
order to create a respon- sive waste management
system.
• Slum improvement operations were undertaken with the assistance of NGOs.
• Introduction of daily monitoring system for enhancing
waste collection and its ef- ficiency.
• Ensuring cleanliness and street sweeping round the clock at nuisance spots.
• Engaging private contractors for collection and
transportation of waste to the disposal site, as well as
sweeping and scrapping all major streets during the
night time.
• Identification and selection of vehicle based on the
width of the road and route provided.
• I ion and transportation system wherein collection
n vehicles have to move in accordance with the
t provided time schedule, areas of coverage and
r number of units.
o • Establishment of bulk garbage collection systems for
d hotels, commercial estab- lishments, slaughterhouses
u that will collect waste in separate shifts suiting their
c requirement and timings.
t
• Massive community meetings were organised by SMC to
i
disseminate the details of the collection system and its
o
functioning.
n

o
f

T
i
m
e

P
l
a
c
e

M
o
v
e
m
e
n
t

f
o
r

t
h
e

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
 Outcome:

• More than 90% of coverage of SWM services in Surat and collection of

waste from the households.
• Timely collection of waste from every household/ shops on daily basis.
• Effective and timely redressal of complaints by the ward supervisors for non-
deliv- ery of service.
• Installation of GPS systems on all the vehicles in order to track and
improve the collection and transportation efficiency of the vehicles.
• Overall environmental improvement and aesthetic value of the city.
• Skill development and capacity building of the ground staff and
contractors engaged in collection of solid waste was undertaken when the
system was intro- duced.

Success factor:
• Strategic planning and revisiting/ assessing the existing situation.
• Proactive role of SMC to streamline and monitor the collection and
transportation system.
• Capacity building of SMC staff, contractors, vehicle drivers and workers prior
to the installation of the system.
• Collection of waste at a stipulated time by the contractors.
• The real time tracking of the vehicles through time place movement chart and
GPS systems.
• Intensive campaigning and interaction of officials with citizens regarding the
pro- posed door to door collection system.

Overall sustainability:

Collection of user charges has resulted in the financial sustainability of the

project. Surat Municipal Corporation has started collecting user charges
towards various services like water, sewerage, solid waste and street lighting. It is
being collected once in a year along with the property tax bill. The user charges
collected through these services meet the O&M cost of the services. The
efficiency of tax collection is also more than 90%. Apart from this, there is a
well-defined system of collection of admin- istration charges towards various
offences like littering garbage, absence of garbage collection bins, open burning
etc.

Source: SMC

188 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

2.3.12.2 MANAGEMENT OF CONTRACTS FOR WASTE
COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION

Municipal authorities might involve private sector to ensure efficient

service delivery and to bring in expertise and finances that may not be
available with the ULB. Collection and transportation of waste can be
entrusted to a private contractor partly or fully. It is essential to
identify the exact services to be rendered through private sector
participation. This can be done by determining the (i) number of
households, shops, and establishments to be served; (ii) frequency of
service; (iii) time of service delivery; (iv) type and level of service; (v)
type and capacity of vehicles to be used; and (vi) distance from service
area to transfer station or processing and disposal site. It is also
essential to set up a mechanism for measuring the performance of the
contractors and decide the mode of payment.

The contractor should keep all vehicles and equipment deployed for
performing the services in good working conditions. The contractor
must also ensure efficient, inclusive, and fair treatment of its workers,
keeping in view the health and safety aspects in conformity with
national and international guidelines and standards. Specific
requirements for women workers, such as provision of crèches (day
care centres) and linkages to anganwadis (courtyard shelter) in the
nearby community, should be encouraged.

It is necessary to develop a proper contract management and

monitoring system before contracting private firms (for details, refer to
Section 5.3 of Part II.

2.4 STREET CLEANING

Street cleaning is a fundamental service ensuring clean and hygienic
urban conditions. Generally, households, commercial entities, and
transport operators should be made responsible for garbage
minimisation on the streets. Street wastes include paper, plastics, dirt,
leaves, and other vegetative matters. Manual sweeping is commonly
practiced in India, as many streets are congested and narrow.
Inefficient waste collection systems coupled with public littering
significantly contribute to waste piles on the streets.

A wide variety of tools, equipment, and methods (both manual and

mechanical) are available for street sweeping. Through the
introduction of efficient methods of combining manual and mechanical
sweeping, municipal authorities can achieve significant savings.
 2.4.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 -
REqUIREMENTS ON STREET CLEANING

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(k) direct street sweepers not to burn tree leaves collected from street
sweeping and store them separately and handover to the waste
collectors or agency authorised by local body;
(n) collect separately waste from sweeping of streets, lanes and by-
lanes daily, or on alternate days or twice a week depending on the
density of population, commercial activity and local situation;
(o) set up covered secondary storage facility for temporary storage
of street sweepings and silt removed from surface drains in cases
where direct collection of such waste into transport vehicles is not
convenient. Waste so collected shall be collected and disposed of at
regular intervals as decided by the local body;

Manual handling of wastes is prohibited. However, if unavoidable due

to constraints, manual handling should be carried out under proper
precautions with due care for health and safety of workers. Workers
should be provided with protective gear such as uniforms, shoes,
gloves and other implements etc., for their safe and easy working. They
should be subjected to periodic health checks and should be provided
with social security benefits including health insurance.

2.4.2 PLANNING FOR STREET CLEANING

mechanical street cleaning are It is necessary to have a well-planned, time-bound daily system for
possible.
l street cleaning street sweeping including adequate staffing and equipment. Street
rrow, congested streets and in sweepers should be instructed to report daily for duty at a designated
e road carpeting is damaged location, which could be the nearest municipal ward office or an office
space identified by the commissioned contractor. However, it should
be ensured that such location will have a provision for storing street
sweeping equipment. The location may also serve as an office for the
supervisor. Table 2.6 below shows some important aspects for the
planning of street cleaning and Table 2.7 gives the different areas in a
city and their required cleaning frequencies and scheduling.

190 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 2.6: Street Sweeping Norms for Small towns or Small Cities or Mega Cities 23

PLANNING FOR STREET

SWEEPING
Small town Medium City Mega city
Equipment • Long handled • Long handled • Long handled
broom broom broom
• Metal tray and • Metal tray and • Metal tray
metal plate metal plate and metal
• Containerised • Containerised plate
handcart or handcart or • Containerised
tricycle tricycle handcart or
• Tractor with • Secondary tricycle
covered trolley storage bin • Secondary
• Container lifting • Dumper placer storage bins
device or compactor • Dumper placer
• Mechanical street or compactor
sweeper • Container lifting
• Container lifting device
device • Mechanical street
sweeper
Staff • High density • High density • High
requirement roads: 1 person roads: 1 person density
based on per 300– 350 per 300– 350 roads:
road density running meters of running meters of 1 person per
road length road length 300–350 running
• Medium density • Medium density meters road
roads: 1 person roads: 1 person length
per 500 running per 500 running • Medium
meters of road meters of road density roads:
length length 1 person per
• Low density • Low density 500 running
roads: 1 person roads: 1 person meters of
per 750– per 750– road length
1,000 meters of road 1,000 meters of road • Low density
length length roads: 1 person
per 750–1,000
meters of road
length

2.4.2.1 STREET CLASSIFICATION AND STREET

CLEANING FREqUENCY

Streets are classified based on their location, traffic intensity, type of

street surface, character of area (e.g., commercial or residential), etc.
Based on street classification, the frequency of service for street
sweeping may be determined (Table 2.7).
23 Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (First Edition), Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO), 2000, Ministry of Urban Development.
 Table 2.7: Typical Classification of Streets and Frequency of Sweeping 24

CLASS CHARACTER OF STREET FREqUENCY OF SWEEPING

quires classification A City centre – shopping areas Daily or twice, depending on need
f sweeping. The classification
B Market areas Daily
of street surface, character
C of area Minor
(e.g. commercial
streets or residential), etc.
Daily
D Sub-urban shopping streets Daily
E Residential streets Daily
F Roads and streets having no Once a week
house- holds or establishments
on either sides
G Highways Rarely necessary to sweep
highways as motor traffic creates
turbulence
H Suburban main streets Twice a week
I Open spaces Occasionally, when required
(minimum once in 2 weeks)

ULBs should adjust the frequency of street cleaning based on local

conditions. Also, the time of street cleaning should be carefully defined
to avoid conflicts with traffic, parked vehicles, and pedestrians. The
service should be carried out preferably during hours of less activities
in the streets, e.g., early morning and at night. Night time service is
only advisable on well-lit main or commercial roads, mainly because
street cleaning activities can disturb residents and could be potentially
dangerous, especially for women workers. ULBs should ensure the
safety
eeping can be reduced, especially of all workers
in low-density at night by
and low-traffic providing them with appropriate
areas
personal protective equipment (PPE). Should women be engaged,
sufficient protection is to be provided to ensure that they are not
harassed by strangers, police or law enforcers, or other members of the
community. Workers should also be provided with proper uniforms
with definite colour code, which have reflectors (for the night work),
along with ID cards. This would ensure that workers are recognised
and have proper access to protection officers or police if required.
Constant checking and regulatory mechanisms should be put in place to
ensure that all workers are safe from all forms of harassments, dangers,
and accidents. Adequate protection should be afforded to women
working at night through deployment of constables or patrol teams
who should be informed of how many women at any given time would
be engaged in work on particular streets.

Street sweeping in residential areas may be carried out in two spells—

5 hours in the morning and 3–4 hours in the afternoon. Staff involved
in street sweeping should also be responsible for cleaning drains (up to
18 inches depth), along the same “beat.” Multiple handling of wastes
should be avoided. The local sanitary inspector should be responsible
for
inspecting and maintaining records on the extent of service provision.
24 Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (First Edition), Central Public Health and Environmental

192 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO), 2000, Ministry of Urban Development.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 193

TRANSPORTATION
 ULBs can adopt different strategies for tourist places, where many
people are present almost at all hours. In such places, regular cleaning
throughout the day (2–3 times) and during weekends and national
holidays may be necessary.

2.4.3 MANUAL STREET CLEANING

Manual cleaning involves sweeping and collection of waste by

sanitation workers from streets, roads, lanes, by-lanes, and public
places. Street sweeping normally includes cleaning the road surface
and footpaths on both sides of the road. All waste from street sweeping
should be transported separately without mixing with domestic or
any other commercial establishment waste. This is to ensure efficient
waste processing and to avoid mixing of inert with other waste,
thereby minimising the burden of segregation and facilitating efficient
waste processing.

Ideally, street sweepings and silt collected from drains should be

transferred from the wheel barrows to a designated black storage bin
or container placed at the waste storage depot. Depending on the type
of road and activity on the road, the size of the bins may be decided.
These bins should be regularly lifted by municipal authorities before
bins start overflowing and taken to waste processing facility for further
processing (sand recovery facility, if available) and reuse or for disposal
at the landfill site.

2.4.3.1 TYPE OF STREET CLEANING EqUIPMENTS

Use of appropriate tools plays an important role in improving work

efficiency. Equipment for manual sweeping should be relatively light
and easy to handle for both men and women to ensure that workers
do not expend disproportionate energy in wielding such equipment.
Local authorities should apply modern technology where appropriate
and should also organise training and capacity building programmes
for their staff.

Commonly used equipment for street cleaning are the following.

Long handled brooms: They cause less strain and support correct
posture. An adequate type uses bunches of filaments inserted into a
wooden stick. The length of the broom should be such that the male
and female workforce can use it comfortably, without bending. The
handle should not be heavy. The filaments should be tightly spaced to
facilitate easy collection of fine silt and dust, leading to efficient
cleaning of streets. There are two types of long handled filamentous
broom used by municipal staff in India (Figure 2.16).
  Fan-shaped filament broom: The filaments of the broom fan out,
y long handles allow for easy removal of street
removing litter from the streets but leaving behind sand and silt.

 Bunched filament broom: The filaments are bunched together to

facilitate removal of litter, sand and silt from the streets.

Figure 2.16: Fan-shaped and Bunched Filament Brooms (Delhi Model)

A typical long handled filament broom may consist of the following

specification (as per Delhi model):

 Length of the broom: 80–85 cm

 Weight of the broom: 1kg
 Binding material: 20 gauge MS sheet ring having width of 1.5–2.0
cm
 Handle of the broom: bamboo of 135 cm length, 3–4 cm diameter
 Weight of the bamboo handle: 900g (approximately)

Shovels: Heaps of street wastes gathered by brooms have to be picked

up and placed in a container. The conventional tool for this purpose is a
large straight-blade shovel or metal plate and metal tray. However,
when the waste comprise large quantities of light materials such as
leaves, a shovel is ineffective because dried leaves fall of or are blown
away during transfer. A solution is a pair of flat boards, usually
plywood, between which the waste is retained by hand-pressure.

194 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Handcarts: Handcarts facilitate transportation of street waste.
Handcarts should have four to six detachable plastic containers with a
capacity of 25–40 l each to allow easy transferring of waste into
community waste storage bins. It must have sealed ball bearings and
handles having a crossbar up to navel height, and its wheels should
have rubber strips or tyres for ease of handling and minimising
fatigue.

2.4.4 MECHANISED STREET CLEANING

Generally, mechanised street cleaning equipment have a driving unit

attached with brushes for dislodging sticking material. They may also
be equipped with a water tank and sprayers to loosen particles and
reduce dust. A vacuum system or conveyor system transfers waste
from the street to the storage receptacle. There is a wide range of
mechanised street cleaners available in the market. Equipment should
be chosen carefully, taking into account the street conditions and needs
of the city, reliability, ease of procurement of spare parts, investment
cost, and operation and maintenance costs.

2.4.4.1 MECHANICAL BROOM SWEEPER

ULBs should make well- informed decisions while choos
A mechanical broom sweeper (Figureshould 2.17) consider
is designed
localtoconditions,
remove investment cost, and o
standard road waste, using various kinds of circulating brushes that
sweep material onto a conveyer belt and then into bins. Mechanical
broom sweepers use a gutter broom which displaces debris from the
curb into the path of the main broom, which is attached to a conveyer
belt. Mechanical broom sweepers have an ability to pick up large
debris such as plastic bottles, cans, wet vegetation, gravel, and coarse
sand. They are also effective in removing packed dirt from roadways.
However, they are ineffective in picking up fine material.

Mechanical broom sweepers have lower energy demand than

regenerative sweepers and vacuum sweepers. Gender stereotyping
associated with driving should be avoided; women should also be
encouraged to drive and provided with training.

The lower powered mechanical broom sweepers are more suitable for
large, flat, paved surfaces like shop floors, industrial floors, etc.
 Figure 2.17: Mechanical Broom Sweeper25

2.4.4.2 REGENERATIVE AIR SWEEPER

The regenerative air sweeper (Figure 2.18) uses a broom to collect

large debris or waste. It also uses forced air and high power vacuum
for the collection of fine material. It blows high pressure air onto the
road to loosen very fine sediment. A vacuum suction lifts all particles
and captures them in a hopper. Regenerative air sweepers can remove
fine sand and dust, provided the surface is dry. They contribute to
preventing air pollution by capturing fine sand particles. They have
relatively higher energy consumption compared with the mechanical
broom sweeper, and are quite expensive. However, they can clean a
wider path and limit the amount of dust-laden air that is exhausted
back into the atmosphere. They are also able to pick up large debris,
since the blast of air is able to dislodge material and get them into the
airflow stream that is created by the suction. But regenerative air
sweepers are more productive on flat roads, and their performance
may not be satisfactory for most of the Indian roads. Such machines
need the requisite power to create an effective vacuum environment
which is also facilitated when the surface it operates upon is relatively
flat and there are no unpaved shoulders along the road. Also, potholes
need to be repaired promptly to enable smooth working.

25 Resource for Implementing a Street Sweeping Best Practice, Local Road Research Board, Department of
Transportation, Minnesota, 2008.

196 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Figure 2.18: Regenerative Air Sweeper26

2.4.4.3 VACUUM SWEEPER

A vacuum sweeper (power sweeper machine) uses a broom to move

debris towards the vacuum nozzle. Typically, there is a suction inlet on
one side of the sweeping head, and the “used” air is constantly
exhausted during the sweeping process (Figure 2.19). There are
various types of vacuum sweepers based on the location of the vacuum
nozzle. Vacuum sweepers utilise a fan that exhausts air directly to the
atmosphere and uses water for dust suppression. They can vacuum
material from channels and gutters and collect fine particles from
within cracks, but cannot pick up large debris like tree trimmings and
disposed packaging. However, since there is no vacuum suction beneath
the broom, the area of the road under the broom may still retain fine
material. Even though vacuum sweepers use water-based dust
suppression systems, they exhaust a high level of particulates into the
atmosphere on a continuous basis.

Figure 2.19: Vacuum Sweeper and Vacuum Nozzle27

There are two types of vacuum sweepers available in the Indian market:
 Chassis mounted: The power sweeping unit with container is
mounted on a vehicular chassis with hydraulic motors and power
controls for driving brushes, suction unit, and jet washing, with
auxiliary engine

26 Ibid.
27 Ibid.
 carrying out these functions, whereas the automobile chassis engine
drives the vehicle. The payload capacity of power sweeping
machines is approximately 4,000–5,000 kg with a 4–6 m 3 stainless
steel or higher grade container for storage of sweeping wastes.

 Self-propelled: The self-driven power sweeping machine (Figure

2.20) is a composite vehicle with a container, hydraulic motor, and
power controls for driving brushes, suction unit, and jet washing.
The payload capacity ranges from 2,000–3,000 kg in a container
of 1.75–2.50 m3. This is relatively a small machine which can be
deployed on both narrow and wide roads. Two side brushes throw
dust towards a main or inner broom which finally transports dust
into a central hopper.

Mechanised sweepers with a capacity of 1.85 m3 and three front

brushes are capable of working at two levels and can be used to clean
footpaths as well. An attached vacuum wander hose can collect heavy
material. An attached sprinkling bar can be used for washing streets.

Figure 2.20: Self-propelled road sweeping machine28

er in conjunction will yield the best results and can cover a total of 50 km in two 8-hour stretches

The following operational conditions should be considered for

mechanised street sweeping:

 It is essential to work mechanised sweepers in two shifts minimum

to ensure economic viability.
 One skilled operator and one semi-skilled cooperator are required
to operate a mechanised sweeper.

28 Source taken from Manufacturer

198 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

  Given that the machine will not be able to clean all odd and uneven
places, an additional group of four manual sweepers may also need
to be deployed with every power sweeper.
 Typical fuel efficiency of a mechanised sweeper is 1.5–2.0 km per l
and lower, if road conditions are not conducive or in places of heavy
littering.
 All brushes are to be replaced or refurbished after nearly every
1,000 km of sweeping operations (7–10 days actual operations in
two shifts).

Collected sweeping is to be unloaded into containers and transported

to the disposal place in a separate vehicle other than the mechanical
sweeper.

2.4.4.4 FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF MECHANISED

STREET CLEANING

The total cost of mechanised street cleaning or sweeping includes the

purchase cost of the machine, annual cost of operation and
maintenance, cost of disposing the debris, and wages of the driver and
helper. It is also necessary to consider efficiency, average life, and
availability of spare parts and the presence of authorised garages for
maintenance of the machine before buying the product, so that
improvement in street cleaning services would not result in
unexpected costs.

sted and regenerative air sweepers are more effective in removing fine particles and associated heavy metals but tend

rison with the other two options, vacuum sweepers yield substan- tially better cost efficiency in most cases.

2.4.5 CLEANING OF SURFACE DRAINS

In many cities there are open surface drains along the roadside, which
needs to be cleaned regularly to permit free flow of storm water or
grey water. MSWM authorities should ensure through campaigning,
statutory regulations, and monetary fines that citizens and sweepers
 do not dispose waste into drains. A further approach to prevent this
is to make the same staff responsible for cleaning streets as well as
adjacent drains up to a depth of 45–60 cm. The solid waste dumped
drains, same staff that is responsible for cleaning
in storm streetbe
drains should should be made
collected responsible
by drain cleaners and disposed off,
along with drain cleaning and street sweeping material, in a municipal
sanitary landfill because of a high possibility of contamination.

The staff requirement for drain cleaning depends on the length of drain.
As a general rule, one person can clean up to 500 m of a shallow surface
drain (not more than 45–60 cm) per day. This could be adjusted based
on local conditions. Tools which meet proper safety standards for waste
transfer, such as safety equipment and vehicles, should be given to the
drain cleaners. Generally, light shovels and handcarts are required for
drain cleaning. The equipment for surface drain cleaning does not
differ much from the street cleaning equipment.

The removal of silt from surface drains or storm water drains deeper
than 60 cm and manholes should be done by the engineering division
of the local authority. It is advisable to explore new technologies like
suction pumps loaded onto trucks (Figure 2.21) for removal of silt from
manholes to avoid manual scavenging.

Figure 2.21: Truck Mounted with Pressure Water Jetting and Suction
Machine29

2.4.5.1 SILT MANAGEMENT

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(n) collect separately waste from sweeping of streets, lanes and by-
lanes daily, or on alternate days or twice a week depending on the
density

200 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

29 Bhopal Municipal Corporation

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 201

TRANSPORTATION
 of population, commercial activity and local situation;
(o) set up covered secondary storage facility for temporary storage of
Silt removed from surface drains and stored on the side of the drain should be collec
street sweepings and silt removed from surface drains in cases where
direct collection of such waste into transport vehicles is not convenient.
Waste so collected shall be collected and disposed of at regular
intervals as decided by the local body;

If the street sweepings contain biodegradable or recyclable waste, such

waste shall be segregated and sent to respective processing facility”. The
silt collected from surface drains should not be allowed to stay on open
roads or footpaths beyond 4 hours. Wet silt should be removed from the
main roads in less than 4 hours and, in other areas, within 24 hours and
should be directly transported to the landfill or be disposed at the waste
storage depots in the black container to prevent nuisance and health
hazards. This waste is not amenable for composting given the possibility
of high contaminants and inert content in the silt.

2.4.6 TRANSFER STATIONS

Transfer stations should be set up in large cities where disposal si
In large cities where disposal sites are more than
transportation time15 kmfuel
and away from the
collection area, it is economical to set up transfer stations as tertiary
storage depots to save transportation time and fuel. The transfer station or
tertiary storage depot can also be equipped with a material recovery
facility, where recyclables are sorted and sent for further processing or to
recyclable markets. Transfer stations usually consist of large containers of
about 15– 25 m3. A ramp facility can be provided to facilitate unloading of
vehicles or dumper placer containers directly into large vehicles or
containers kept at a lower level just below the ramp. The transfer station
can also have the facility of a hopper, into which waste can be transferred,
and then with the help of a static compactor, waste can be pushed into the
large hauling vehicle or container.

Consideration
Transfer stations are usually part of the waste managementforsystem
setting
inup of transfer station:
large
Small ULBs- simple transfer
cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, stations with a ramp facility
Large ULBs- transfer stations
Chennai, etc. The smaller municipal authorities should consider setting up to handle at least 300 TPD
simple transfer stations having a ramp facility for transfer of waste from
a small vehicle or container to a large hauling vehicle. Only large cities
should consider setting up large transfer stations to handle over 300
tonnes per day (TPD) of waste using static compactor facilities.

eed for transfer stations should be assessed.

cles would outweigh the cost of supplemental haul in large bulk-haul trans- fer vehicles plus the cost of the supporting
 2.4.6.1 TYPES OF TRANSFER STATIONS

Waste is unloaded at a transfer station either directly into tertiary

transport vehicles (direct unloading) or into a storage area. 30

Direct Unloading: A direct unloading system involves a two-level

arrangement, wherein the collection vehicles drive up a ramp to the
upper level to discharge the waste into a transfer vehicle parked onsite
or loading system as depicted in Figure 2.22.

Direct unloading systems require limited civil works and stationary

equipment facilities, and are thus low-cost solutions for
implementation and operation. However, the direct unloading system
requires the availability of transfer vehicles at the transfer station to
keep pace with the arrival of collection vehicles, so that no delays
are caused in the collection operations. The direct unloading system is
usually implemented only as a small-scale system, i.e., typically where
the quantity of waste handled is less than 300 TPD. In most cities,
collection vehicles arrive at the transfer station within 1 or 2 peak
hours per shift. The size of the transfer fleet in a direct unloading
system would have to meet these peak hour demands.

Figure 2.22: Direct Transfer Station31

scale
discharge hoppers
cles should be provided
t collection trucks are never kept waiting

Unloading-to-Storage: An unloading-to-storage system involves

collection vehicles discharging into a storage area. From the storage
area, wastes are subsequently loaded into transfer vehicles. The
storage area may be a platform on the same level as the unloading
level, in which case only a two-level arrangement is required. The
storage area may be

30 Transfer Station Design Concepts for Developing Countries [online]. Cointreau, S., (n.d).
Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTUSWM/Resources/463617-1202332338898/transferdesignoptions.pdf
31 Toolkit for Solid Waste Management, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India. http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/SWM-toolkit.pdf

202 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 a pit, below the level of the unloading level or above the level on which
the transfer vehicle is parked, in which case a three-level arrangement
is required. The storage area is commonly designed to hold the peak
quantity of waste generated in 1 day.

In the unloading-to-storage system, waste unloaded to a storage

platform is pushed by a bulldozer (or wheeled loader) into a hopper or
onto a conveyor. Waste unloaded to a storage pit is picked up by an
overhead crane or pushed by a bulldozer to the receiving hopper. The
crane or bulldozer operator visually inspects the waste during
operation to set aside any waste which is potentially hazardous or
could damage the transfer vehicle during loading (Figure 2.23 and
Figure 2.24).

Figure 2.23: Stationary Compactor Transfer Station Design

Figure 2.24: Typical activities at the Transfer Station32

32 Taken from Municipal Corporation of Faridabad

 Modern Waste Transfer Stations in Coimbatore

Modern municipal solid waste transfer stations are located in cities

like Coimbatore and Surat. Coimbatore City has three modern transfer
stations
at Peelamedu, Sathy Road, and Ukkadam. All transfer stations have
facilities to quickly unload the waste, compact it, and transfer it to the waste
processing facilities. The transfer station has a split level building with a high
roof suitable for monsoon operations. Waste is brought to the transfer station
for loading into larger containers. These transfer stations are designed based
on local conditions, with an aim to achieve maximum utilisation of space and,
most importantly, to ensure a quick turnover of unloading and loading of
waste.

The transfer station includes several equipment, such as heavy-duty high

compaction compactor, hopper, charge box, load on loaders, and a trailer-type
hook loader with a container of 20 cubic meters (m3). The system is designed
to process 200 tons (t) of compacted waste per day.

Transfer Station Capacity and Waste Loading Bay Arrangement

These transfer stations are initially designed for 200 tons per day (TPD) waste
handling capacity. For these transfer stations, one stationary compactor with 35
tons per hour (TPH) throughput is provided initially. An additional bay to house a
similar compactor for future augmentation will be provided. In addition, an
additional bay without stationary compactor for loading the waste into open-at-
top containers by direct deposition is provided. Each transfer station is able to
handle more than 200 TPD of waste. The working shift coincides with the
arrival of waste from 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. (varies as per the required condition).

As the waste quantity increases in peak hours, waste is directly loaded into
open containers to match the increased waste quantity. The transfer station is
at all times able to load the open containers without compaction. The advantage of
this arrangement is that during downtime of the stationary compactor, the transfer
station operations are able to continue without any disruption.

To facilitate unloading operations on the floor, a separate area with enough

space for 1 hour storage, with a waste height of 0.5 m for peak hour waste
arrivals (30 TPH), is provided on the upper deck portion of the transfer station.
This facility, however, is used only under exceptional conditions.

Salient Features of a Transfer Station (Sathy Road)

• Area of the site: 1.55 acres

• Designed capacity: 200 TPD
• Number of stationary compactor: 1
• Capacity of charge box or hopper: 3.34 m3
• Round distance from transfer station to disposal site: 34 km
• Waste handled during peak hour (6:30 a.m. to 9:30 a.m.): 70 t
• System capacity: 35 TPH

204 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

• Capacity of computerised weigh bridge: 40 t

TECHNICAL ASPECTS: SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND 205

TRANSPORTATION
 Site before commencement of work

Site after commencement of work

Source: Coimbatore City Municipal Corporation

 2.5 ACTION POINTS FOR AWARENESS GENERATION
THROUGH INFORMATION, EDUCATION, AND
COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES FOR EFFICIENT
SEGREGATION, COLLECTION AND
TRANSPORTATION
As mentioned, SWM Rules, 2016 mandates ULBs to create public
awareness through information, education, and communication (IEC)
campaign to educate the waste generators on MSWM activities. Some
of the action points for awareness generation are the following:

 Ensure active participation of the community in reducing overall

quantities of waste. The different waste reduction strategies, such as
take-back, deposit–refund system, etc. will be successful only if the
community is ready to adopt the change.
 Promote source reduction programmes in the community and
encourage handover of recyclable material to sustainable recycling
facilities through informal sector, NGOs, CBOs, etc.
 Campaign for reducing the use of specific non-recyclable, non-
reusable, or toxic material. Practice and promote material
substitution where possible.
 Generate awareness among people to avoid littering.
 Sensitise citizens to segregate waste at their premises into
biodegradable, dry, and special waste and hand over the segregated
waste to the collectors. Involvement of RWAs, CBOs, NGOs, SHGs,
and market associations is imperative to ensure the success of
source segregation.
 Ensure awareness on existing recyclable collection systems,
including dedicated collection points. Enforce extended producer
responsibility (EPR) initiatives.
 Hold regular meetings among the ULB staff and representatives of
RWAs, market associations, NGOs, SHGs, and other stakeholders to
ensure successful uptake of such programs.
 Ensure active participation of the community for successful
implementation of primary and secondary collection systems.
 Involve community in designing the primary collection system, e.g.,
in determining waste collection system and timings.
 Generate awareness on bye-laws on waste collection and
management system as well as user charges levied on different
waste fractions.

206 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 3

Technical Aspects
of Processing
and Treatment of
Municipal Solid
Waste

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 207

IN THIS SECTION

3.1 Recycling and Recovery 210

3.2 Composting 229
3.3 Waste to Energy 276
3.4 Biomethanation 295
3.5 Refuse Derived Fuel 308
3.6 Technologies under Development 319
3.7 Construction and Demolition Waste (C&D WASTE) 329
3.8 Action Points for Awareness Generation Through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Technical Aspects of Processing and
Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste 247
 3. TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF PROCESSING
AND TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE
Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) and adoption of
processing technologies depend largely on the quantity and
characteristics of the total waste generated in an urban local body
(ULB). A prerequisite for overall project implementation is the
availability of the financial resources and in-house capacity of local
authorities.
Integrated solid waste management (ISWM), as discussed Section 1.2
of Part II, is a strategic approach to manage municipal solid waste
(MSW) in a sustainable manner by considering all aspects of MSWM,
namely generation, segregation, transfer, sorting, treatment, recovery,
and disposal in an integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximising
resource use efficiency.
The least preferred option of ISWM is disposal of waste in landfills,
where no landfill gas capture is planned. Normally, landfills that
integrate the capture and use of methane are preferred over landfills
that flare landfill gas.
However, Indian laws and rules do not permit disposal of organic
matter into sanitary landfills and mandate that only inert rejects
(residual waste) from processing facilities, inert street sweepings, etc.
can be landfilled. In cases where old dumps are to be closed, there is
a possibility of capturing methane gas for further use, which may be
explored. However, repeated burning of the waste significantly
decreases the potential of capturing methane.

Figure 3.1: Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy1

The ISWM
referred
hierarchy ranks waste management stra
to their(e.g.
minimisation and sustainable use or multi At Source Reduction & Reuseuse of products environmental benefits
reuse of carry bags or
ging jars)
sing non-biodegradable waste to recover Recyclingcommercially valuable materials (e.g. plastic,
metal, glass, e-waste recycling)

osting
Processing biodegradable waste to recover compost (e.g. windrow composting, in-vessel composting, vermi com

vering energy before final disposal of waste (e.g. RDF, biomethanation, co-processing of combustible non-biodegradable dry f
Waste to Energy

Safe disposal of inert residual waste at sanitary landfills after recycling and reuse to the maximum extent pos
Landfills
Least Preferred

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 209

 1 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15).

210 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 The sections below elaborate on MSWM processing technologies and
disposal options in the order as specified by the ISWM hierarchy. And
as mentioned, waste minimisation should be the prime objective of any
waste management system in ULBs.

3.1 RECYCLING AND RECOVERY

Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016 defines recycling as “the
process of transforming segregated solid waste into a new product or
der of waste management options as
a raw material for producing new products.” Further, it also states that
hierarchy:
uction and Reuse “arrangement shall be made to provide segregated recyclable material
to the recycling industry through waste pickers or any other agency
engaged or authorised by the urban local body for the purpose.”

According to the ISWM hierarchy, recycling is a preferred waste

management strategy after source reduction and reuse. Recycling
systems should be adopted before planning for any waste processing
or treatment facilities. Figure 3.2 indicates the importance of recycling
in the ISWM hierarchy.

Figure 3.2: Recycling in Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy2

Most Preferred
At Source Reduction & Reuse
Recycling Composting Waste to Energy
Processing non-biodegradable waste to recover commercially valuable materials (e.g. plastic, paper,
Landfills

Least Preferred

3.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING

Recycling diverts a significant fraction of municipal, institutional and

bulk waste from being dumped or disposed in landfills. This results in
saving of scarce resources as well as reducing environmental impacts
and the burden of waste management on public authorities. If
appropriate market mechanisms are established, recycling can
generate revenues, contributing to the overall cost recovery for
municipal solid waste service provision

 For the ULB:

– Reduces waste volume.
– Cost savings in collection, transportation and disposal.
2 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15).
 – Longer life span for landfills.
– Reduced environmental management efforts.
Recycling plays a vital role
 For the economy: in reducing the quantity of waste, increasing r
minimising the financial and environmental bu
– Reduction of imports of raw materials, fertilisers etc. and hence
foreign currency required.
– Livelihood opportunities for recyclers in the recycling industry.
 For the environment:
– Sustainable use of resources
– Reduced amount of waste going to storage sites and reduced
requirement of land.
– Reduced environmental impacts including impacts of climate
change.

3.1.2 ASSESSMENT OF RECYCLABLES - CHARACTERISATION

AND qUANTIFICATION

As per data received from CPCB, it is estimated that urban India

generated 1,43,449 metric tonnes of municipal solid waste per day in
2014-15. Of this waste 40-60% is organic and 10-20% is recyclables.
This indicates there is a clear waste minimisation potential of 14,344 –
28,689 metric tonnes per day through recycling and recovery.
Figure 3.3 is indicative of the typical waste fractions in municipal solid
waste generated in India.

, urban India generates about 51 million metric tonnes of solid waste per year with a per capita waste generation rate

This India-wide assessment underlines the importance of recycling.

However, this information is not adequate when designing material
recycling strategies for a specific municipality

Recyclables mainly paper, plastic, metal, and glass can be retrieved

from the waste stream for further recycling. Table 3.1 gives an
overview of typical recycling material and their recycling potential.

hould be based on a thorough waste analysis or characterisation in the respective city. Only based on this composition a
ed in Chapter 1 of Part II.

212 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Figure 3.3: Municipal Solid Waste Characterisation in India3

Study conducted by CPCB & NEERI (2005)

The composition of MSW depends on a large number of factors like

food habit, culture, tradition, lifestyle, climate, and income. As depicted
above, biodegradables make up 47.4% of the MSW stream. Metals and
glass make up only about 1% each of the MSW stream because of their
high potential for recycling. The inerts—street sweepings, drain silt,
and construction and demolition (C&D) debris—make up 25% of the
MSW stream as the street sweepings, drain silt, and construction and
demolition debris eventually find their way into municipal solid waste.

Table 3.1: Important Recycling Material: Recycling Potential and Special

Conditions

MATERIAL RECYCLING POTENTIAL SPECIAL CONDITIONS

Aluminium • It has a high market value. • Separate collection is important
• It can be recycled easily
by shredding and
melting.
• It can be recycled
indefinitely because it does
not deteriorate through
reprocessing.
• It requires significantly
less energy than
producing aluminium
ore.
Batteries • It recovers valuable metals. • There is a large variety in types and
• It protects environment sizes of batteries.
from heavy metals such as • Only some types allow
lead, cadmium, and adequate material recovery.
mercury.

3 ‘Improving Solid Waste Management in India,’ D. Zhu, et al., (2008). Available at:
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/
bitstream/handle/10986/6916/425660PUB0Wast12732601OFFICIAL0USE1.pdf?sequence=1)
Table 3.1: Important Recycling Material: Recycling Potential and Special
Conditions [contd.]

MATERIAL RECYCLING POTENTIAL SPECIAL CONDITIONS

Construction • Demolition waste can be • Standards for recycled products are
and demoli- sorted, crushed and reused yet to be stipulated.
tion waste* for
production of pavement
material, flooring tiles, road
construction, landscaping and
other purposes.
• Due to the amounts of
demolition waste, its
recycling allows significant
reduction of otherwise
required disposal
capacities.
Glass • It has a moderate market • Broken glass can contaminate
value. and eliminate opportunities for
• It can be melted and sorted recycling of other material such as
into colours. paper.

• Recycling glass saves

energy compared with
processing raw material.
• It can be recycled
indefinitely because it does
not deteriorate through
reprocessing.
Paper and • It is easily recycled. • Recycling potential is reduced with
cardboard • Paper or cardboard from each recycling cycle through
recycled paper requires deterioration of fibres.
less energy during
production and helps
protect the forests.
Polyethylene • It can be recycled if • Quality of recycled product
terephthalate segregated from other decreases with every processing
(PET)** waste. cycle.
• Recycled products have specific
designated uses and cannot be used
for other purposes.
Other • Other plastics, such as • Clean segregated plastics, are
plastics polyethylene or polyvinyl subjected to mechanical recycling into
chloride, can be recycled the same plastic type.
but have less value in the • Where recycling is not possible
market than PET. The value due to mixed plastics, they are
depends on recycling and then co-
manufacturing options in the processed for energy recovery or
vicinity. used as aggregates in road
material.
Electronic • It contains high value metals. • If recycling is not carried out under
waste • Electronic items can be controlled conditions, metal is
dismantled and its often covered with polyvinyl chloride
components reused or or resins, which are often smelted or
recycled. burned, causing toxic emissions.
• Disaggregation of electronic waste
for recycling can be costly.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 213

 Metal (steel, • Scrap metal has a high • High value metals, such as copper
copper, market value, especially and silver, are incorporated in
nickel, zinc, steel, copper, and silver. electronic devices, but extraction can
silver, etc.) • It can be recycled cause severe environmental impacts, if
indefinitely because it does uncontrolled.
not deteriorate through
reprocessing.

214 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 3.1: Important Recycling Material: Recycling Potential and Special Conditions [contd.]

MATERIAL RECYCLING POTENTIAL SPECIAL CONDITIONS

Thermocol or • It can be processed to • Fuel production is through
Styrofoam recover fuel and other by- pyrolysis, gasification, and
products hydrocracking.
• It can be re-ground with • Regulated facilities with appropriate
new expanded polystyrene for environmental controls are required
further use. for handling thermocol recycling
• It can be powdered and
made into sheets, which can
be used to make furniture.
* For further detailed information refer Section 3.7 of Part II
** For further detailed information refer Section 7.4 of Part II

3.1.3 STAGES OF MATERIAL RECOVERY

The SWM Rules, 2016 defines “Materials Recovery Facility” (MRF)

means a facility where non-compostable solid waste can be temporarily
stored by the local body or any other entity mentioned in rule 2 or any
person or agency authorised by any of them to facilitate segregation,
sorting and recovery of recyclables from various components of waste
by authorised informal sector of waste pickers, informal recyclers or
any other work force engaged by the local body or entity mentioned
in rule 2 for the purpose before the waste is delivered or taken up for
its processing or disposal; Material recovery starts at the primary level,
by households who segregate recyclables like newspapers, cardboard,
plastics, bottles, etc. from waste to sell such material to local recyclers,
scrap dealers or haulers. The item that cannot be sold to the kabadi
system is discarded and becomes part of the MSW. Waste pickers pick
up parts of this waste to earn their living. Well-segregated recyclables
can directly be transferred to a processing site or to the recyclable
market depending on local conditions.
The dry fraction of the segregated waste may be further segregated
locally, at the transfer station or at the processing plant:
 The dry waste fraction can be segregated at the ward level, where
waste from one or more wards is collected and segregated. Different
recyclables are either sent directly to locally available recycling
facilities or sold to wholesale dealers. The residual waste, depending
on the composition, is sent for processing or disposal—compost,
refuse derived fuel (RDF), landfilling. Where decentralised compost
facilities are available, the wet waste fraction is processed locally.
 The dry waste fraction may also be transported to the waste
transfer station, where it is further segregated. Municipal
corporations can also appoint informal waste pickers for manual
sorting of waste at the transfer station. Segregation at the transfer
station is through manual or mechanised segregation.
 – Where the dry waste fraction reaches the processing site (compost or
RDF) directly, manual or mechanical pre-sorting should be carried out to
recover recyclable material. This also ensures good quality process
output.
– In case regional processing or disposal facilities exist, transfer of
recyclables to the regional facility should be avoided. The dry waste
fraction should be sorted out either at the ward level or transfer station
level. If this is not possible, appropriate sorting facilities should be
available at the regional facility. Figure 3.4 illustrates the different
stages of materials recovery along the SWM chain.

Special waste including domestic hazardous waste that is collected either

along with the dry waste fraction or separately is also to be segregated at
the material recovery facility (MRF) and disposed according to the nature
of the waste. Recyclable waste should be sent to the recycling industry, and
hazardous waste should be disposed at the nearest treatment, storage, and
disposal facility (TSDF) or as specified by the SPCB or PCC.
Figure 3.4: Stages of Material Recovery in Municipal Solid Waste Management Chain 4

Animal feed
Intermediaries
Sold to kabadi systems

Organic waste

Segregated waste

Primary collection
Waste pickers
Segregated
waste
Segregated waste

Waste generator
Recycling industry
Organic waste
Transfer point
Segregated waste

Onsite composting Processing and

treatment (e.g. WTE)
Compost
Transportation Treatment
Rejects

Compost
Residual waste

4 Agriculture
Adapted from: ‘Improving SolidorWaste
horticultureComposting Sanitaryat:
Management in India,’ D. Zhu, et al., (2008). Available landfill
https://openknowledge.
worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/6916/425660PUB0Wast12732601OFFICIAL0USE1.pdf?sequence=1

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 215

 3.1.4 MATERIAL RECOVERY FACILITY

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-
(h) Setup material recovery facilities or secondary storage facilities with
sufficient space for sorting of recyclable materials to enable informal or
authorised waste pickers and waste collectors to separate recyclables from
the waste and provide easy access to waste pickers and recyclers for
collection of segregated recyclable waste such as paper, plastic, metal,
glass, textile from the source of generation or from material recovery
facilities; Bins for storage of bio-degradable wastes shall be painted green,
those for storage of recyclable wastes shall be printed white and those for
storage of other wastes shall be printed black;
(r) transport non-bio-degradable waste to the respective processing facility
or material recovery facilities or secondary storage facility;
o be processed, quality and quantity of incoming waste, processing rates and desired quality of end products
A material recovery facility (MRF) accepts mixtures of waste fractions—e.g.,
selected materials collected in the dry waste bin (see specifications in Section
2.3 of Part II)—separates and diverts recyclable materials, and transfers the
remaining waste for disposal. ULBs should identify and earmark land for
recycling facilities while preparing a master plan for the city to encourage
recovery of valuable resources from waste in a systematic and formalized
manner. Such sorting facilities should be so designed that the solid waste
stored is not exposed to open atmosphere and should be user friendly 5.ULBs
should also look into possibilities for establishing recycling centres at ward
level to enhance maximum materials recovery.

The configuration of a MRF processing line is critical to the overall quality of

the materials segregated by the line. It depends on numerous factors including
the type and quantity of materials to be processed, quality and quantity of
incoming waste, desired processing rates, and required specifications for the
end products. While no two MRFs are identical, they generally employ common
design principles and sequencing in the configuration of equipment and labour.

3.1.4.1 TYPES OF MATERIAL RECOVERY FACILITY

Depending on the scale of operations and the level of mechanisation in the

facility, MRFs may be classified as manual or mechanised. Usually small-
scale units, manual MRFs largely employ manual sorting practices and are
typically owned, managed, and operated by the informal sector. Material is
segregated based on the types of waste (paper, plastic, metal, glass etc.) and
gradation of material within each waste type (e.g., paper segregated into news
print, office paper, packaging paper, printed books, etc.). Segregated material
is then sold to intermediaries, who supply material in bulk to the recycling
industry. Mechanised MRFs are large facilities with sophisticated systems and
5 Materials Recovery Facility Technology Review, 2009. Available at:
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/quick_topics/publications/shw/ recycling/InnovativeGrants/IGYear9/finalreport/Pinellas_IG8-
06_Technology_Review.pdf
 equipment that enable efficient separation of large quantity of material into
different fractions. Mechanised MRFs are operating in some industrialised
nations; such facilities do not exist yet in India.
Configuration of the MRF processing line will vary depending on how material
is received:
 Mixed stream: Unsegregated waste mixed with biodegradable and non-
biodegradable material is collected and sent to the processing facility. At the
processing facility, the mixed waste stream may be segregated manually or
mechanically to separate recyclable material from compostable and inert
waste (Figure 3.5). Compostable matter and recyclable materials may then
be processed separately, and residual inert wastes should be sent to the
landfill.
Figure 3.5: Indicative Material Recovery Facility and Pre-sorting Facility for
Mixed Waste6

Incoming waste receiving platform

(A shallow pit should be made available, if MRF facility is receiving more than 500 TPD waste)

Sorting conveyor
Item picked up at sorting conveyor Notes:
Glass bottles Separate dedicated bins should be made available for collection of materials
Batteries (to the extent possible) Combustible dry waste like mattresses baskets etc. should be shredded and sent to RDF line
Bulky items like mattress, baskets, FRP, buckets large piece of fabrics

Trommel screen with 10-16 mm perforation

Inert
Sanitary landfill

Trommel screen with 80-120 mm perforation

80-120 mm (-) under stream predominantly

80-120
biodegradable
mm (+) material to RDF production

Composting or
Eddy
biomethanation
current for non-Magnet for ferrous material ferrous metal items(permanent or band)

Primary shredding

Drying

Secondary shredding

Air density separator

Light fraction to be sent to RDF facility Heavy fraction and inert to be disposed in sanitary landfill

 Source separated: MSW is segregated into biodegradable and

recyclables at the point of generation before it is collected. Further,
incoming recyclables are sorted at the point of collection. Some
processing might be needed for further sorting of material, such as
steel cans from aluminium cans, glass by colour, paper by quality,
etc.,

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 217

 6 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15).

218 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 but the primary purpose of the facility is to remove contaminants
and prepare the material for marketing, often by baling, flattening,
or crushing.
 Dry waste stream: Dry segregated material is received in a mixed
form consisting of a combination of fibres (paper, card board, mixed
paper, magazines, etc.) and commingled containers (plastic, glass,
metal, etc.), among other materials. The first stage of processing
typically uses manual labour or equipment that separate material
into various streams (fibre, paper, plastic, containers, etc.). These
recyclables are also sorted by using automated machines when
quantities to be handled are large. Below is a flowchart (Figure 3.6)
depicting the indicative MRF and pre-sorting facility dedicated to
dry waste.

Figure 3.6: Indicative Material Recovery Facility and Pre-sorting Facility

Dedicated to Dry Waste

10 mm Dust Landfill
Weigh Receiving Sorting Trommel perforationand grit
bridge platform conveyor screening
25 mm Check and put in
perforation appropriate line
Magnet permanent or band

Magnet Secondary
Drying (preferably hot air generator)
Primary
shredding shredding

the types of incoming Air density

separator
Storage
area
source separated, dry waste stream or mixed waste stream

 Wet waste stream: If the ULB intends to compost biodegradable or

wet waste, the wet waste that is segregated either at the source or at
the mixed waste receiving MRF facility should be further pre-
processed before being placed in windrows or sent for
biomethanation. The pre-processing is carried out at the composting
facility. Figure 3.7 outlines the pre-processing and processing at a
windrow composting facility.

Figure 3.7: Indicative Material Recovery Facility and Pre-sorting Facility

Dedicated to Wet Waste

Reject

Weigh bridge
Receiving platform Sorting Composting 35 mm trommel screen Curing
16 mm trommel area (3 weeks)
screen
conveyor and bag shredder
pad (platform)
Open – 3 weeks
Covered – 2 weeks

Refinement (trommel screen

with 4 mm
perforation or air density
Note: If compost plant receives waste below 500 TPD, 35 mm trommel can be eliminated Packaging
Note: It is common practive to keep the composted material at curing area or refinement is done when supply order is received

separator)
3.1.4.1.1 UNIT PROCESSES IN MATERIAL RECOVERY FACILITY

MRF units employ varying combinations of manual and mechanical

processes, based on the type of facility, availability of equipment, labour
availability, and associated cost implications. MRF units employing
manual labour for sorting operations have relatively lower costs, but may
also operate at lower efficiencies compared with mechanical sorting
facilities.
An MRF unit, depending on the level of complexity, will consist of a
combination of units in varying degrees of mechanisation (as shown in
above figures):
 Pre-sorting: Bulky and contaminated wastes hamper further sorting
or processing in the facility; mechanical or manual pre-sorting is
essential to separate out these wastes. Manual sorting results in higher
labour costs and lower processing rates. Manual sorters remove bulky
waste as the waste passes along a conveyor belt, which carries the pre-
sorted waste to the mechanised sorting unit of the facility.
 Mechanical sorting: Mechanical processes based on principles of
electromagnetics, fluid mechanics, pneumatics, etc. are used to
segregate the different waste streams in the pre-sorted waste.
Mechanical processes require specialised equipment for segregation of
commingled municipal waste. Mechanical sorting typically employs the
following processes:
– Screening: Screening achieves an efficient separation of particles
into two or more size distributions. Two types of screens are used
in MRF centres disc screens and trommels.
– Ferrous metal separation: In the second stage, electromagnets are
used for separating heavy ferrous metals from mixed waste.
– Air classification: The residual waste stream is passed through an
air stream with sufficient velocity to separate light materials from
heavy material, specifically for separating out lightweight plastics
and paper from the mixed stream. Three types of air classifiers
may be employed: (i) horizontal air classifier, (ii) vibrating incline
air classifier, and (iii) incline air classifier. Heavy or bulky plastics
are sorted out either in the pre-processing line (manually) or in the
“detect and routing” systems, employed at later stages of material
recovery.
– Non-ferrous metal separation: The non-ferrous metal separator
segregates zinc, aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, and other precious
metal from commingled waste. An eddy current separator removes
non-ferrous items from the commingled waste based on their
electrical conductivity.
– Detect and route system: This system separates various grades
of paper, plastics, and glass, which are not sorted out in the air
classifier. This system works in two stages. The first stage employs

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 219

 programmed optical sensors to determine the nature of different
materials. In the second stage, based on information received
from the sensor, sorted material is routed to appropriate bins by
directional air jets.
– Size reduction: Sorted materials after segregation are usually too
large for further use or processing; they should be reduced to
smaller sizes.
– Baling: Sorted and sized material is baled for further processing
or use.
Table 3.2: Different Processes or Stages and Equipment Employed in a Material
Recovery Facility

PROCESS OR STAGES EqUIPMENT

Pre-sorting material handling • Belt conveyor
equipment • Screw conveyor
• Apron conveyor
• Bucket elevator
• Drag conveyor
• Pneumatic conveyor
• Vibrating conveyor
• Debagger
Ferrous metal separation • Magnetic separator and screening
Screening • Disc Screening
• Trommels
Air classification • Horizontal air classifier
• Vibrating inclined air classifier
• Inclined air classifier
Non-ferrous metal separation • Rotating disk separator
• Eddy current separator
Size reduction • Can densifier
• Can flattener
• Glass crusher
• Plastic granulator
• Plastic perforator
• Baler
Pollution control • Dust collection system
• Noise suppression devices
• Odour control system
• Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (hvac)
Other fixed equipment • Fixed storage bin
• Live-bottom storage bin
• Floor scale for pallet or bin loads
• Truck scale
• Belt scale

Recyclables separated from mixed waste usually have the lowest quality
and might be contaminated by residual waste. In India, the segregation of
recyclables from the mixed waste stream is often practiced, not through
formal collection systems, but through informal workers (waste pickers).
 Options for optimising this system through better inclusion of informal
workers are explained in Section 2.3.7 The
of Part
typeII. of materials in demand in the recycling market d
and segregated collection
3.1.5 NEED FOR ESTABLISHING MARKET
LINKAGES AND ExTENDED PRODUCER
RESPONSIBILITY

Any recycling programme depends on two crucial factors: community

awareness and willingness to cooperate, and access to markets for
segregated materials with acceptable and reliable conditions.

Market development for recyclables involves an assessment of the

supply as well as the demand. The supply of recyclable materials should
meet the requirements of recycling industries, both in terms of quality
and quantity.

Products made from recyclable materials should meet market

requirements as well. Unless a community has an established market for
materials it collects, it may end up temporarily storing some materials
and later landfilling some or all of them.
It is necessary for decision makers to assess and establish market linkages p
Market establishment for recyclables might take place with or without
intervention of the ULB, the latter in the framework of extended
producer responsibility (EPR) discussed in Section 1.2.2 of Part II.

Various voluntary industrial initiatives have started recently where

industries have set up their own collection and recycling systems.
Mineral water suppliers voluntarily take back mineral water containers
and refund the customer for the returned containers. Breweries buy
back beer bottles from the kabadi system. There are also examples of
different breweries using a bottle design to facilitate reuse of these
bottles, which are collected by the informal system. “Go Green with
Tetrapak” initiative launched by Tetrapak in 2010 along with a retail
chain encourages customers to deposit their used, empty Tetrapak
cartons (tetrapaks) at the store for recycling. More than 6,00,000
tetrapaks have been collected
Local at 130 collection
governments points
should in Mumbai
encourage since
businesses to adopt and promote
the initiative’s inception. mineral water of
The recycling containers
6,00,000 empty tetrapaks so
far has saved over 75 trees.7

EPR initiatives also benefit industries through saved production costs.

Manufacturers and suppliers are ideal partners for municipal public
private partnerships (PPPs) for development of drop off sites and take
back facilities. Companies manufacturing durables (e.g., Nokia, LG,
and Samsung) are in the process of establishing drop-off points for
used electronics and components at various points of sale in the larger
Indian cities. Such initiatives may be strengthened through appropriate
municipal guidelines and bye-laws.

7 Tetra Pak. 2014. Go Green with Tetra Pack Recycling now reaches Mumbaikars through nearly 130 carton collections

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 221

 points. 16 February. http://www.tetrapak.com/in/about-tetra-pak/press-room/news/go-green-mumbai

222 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 3.1.6 INFORMAL SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN RECYCLING

In India, recyclable material is either purchased by the kabadi system

cantly from the source of waste generation or picked up by waste pickers.
Municipal
thereby enhancing environmental authorities
and climate can promote recycling by educating the citizens and
protection
training them in segregating waste at source into dry, wet and domestic
hazardous categories and handing over segregated wastes to waste
collectors. Recyclable material is sold to the recycling industry though a
chain of intermediaries. Waste collected by the kabadi system is sorted
and sold to intermediaries who further clean, sort and store the waste.
Waste pickers pick up discarded recyclable materials from primary and
secondary collection points including dumpsites or landfills, and sell such
material to the appropriate recycling industry. It has been estimated that
the informal sector alone recovers as much as 56% of recyclable material. 8
All such activities should be compliant with environment, safety, health,
and hygiene norms.
The informal recycling sector:
 supplements the formal system;
 manages all types of waste through the informal network;
 provides employment to a large number of people;
 operates competitively and with high levels of efficiency;
 establishes linkages with the formal economy at some point in the
recycling chain; and
 offsets carbon emissions by making recycling possible and thus
reducing the extraction and use of virgin raw materials.

However,there are some potential points of conflict between formal

abour, littering
municipal solid waste management (MSWM) services and informal
n by middle men are some of the issues that
ntion recycling activities that need to be recognized and addressed while
nts attempting integration of the two systems. The current informal practice
of materials recovery and recycling by individual waste pickers who leave
behind unwanted waste leads to some litter remaining on the streets.
Targeted as the sole cause of litter on the streets, the waste pickers are
frequently banned from residential areas. These areas are the best places
to retrieve recyclable waste, but harassment of waste pickers forces them
to collect recyclables from landfill sites, a practice that leads to even
higher health threats and environmental pollution. The presence of waste
pickers or scavengers at transfer stations and landfill sites can interfere
with vehicle movement, which is dangerous, increasing vehicle
turnaround and thus reducing efficiency. The waste pickers work under
unacceptable working conditions and many of them are exposed to health
issues. In most cases, waste pickers are women and children from low-
income groups, the most vulnerable groups in the Indian society. They are
often exploited by middlemen or waste merchants because of their low
social status. Child labour is also a matter of great concern.
8 Promoting Recycling in Municipal Solid Waste Management through Sustainable Business Models. Janya, S. 2014.
RETA 7450 Project Preparation Support for Livable Cities.
 As long as the door-to-door collection system is not operationalised and
segregated waste is not collected from the doorstep, waste pickers would
continue to earn their living from rag picking at the cost of their health and
well-being. The solution lies in organizing and training waste pickers to
enable access to upgraded livelihoods, e.g., waste pickers as source waste
collectors through self-help groups (SHGs), resident welfare associations
(RWAs), community-based organisations (CBOs), non-government
organisations (NGOs), cooperatives, or the private sector, and thereby
improving their quality of life.

These welfare activities can be undertaken through social development

programmes in collaboration with local NGOs which provide schools,
health care facilities, etc., to waste pickers. Children should be kept away
from these activities. Provision of a valid identity card to waste pickers
through local NGOs or CBOs, and creation of health schemes, access to
medical facilities, and regular medical checks can help in improving the
lives of waste pickers. The ULB should identify a specific agency to conduct
this activity periodically, at least once every 2 years. This would help
identify waste pickers and facilitate their easy integration into formal
waste management systems.

Refer to Section 1.2.4 of Part II for further details on informal sector

integration into conventional solid waste management services.

3.1.7 RECYCLING OF PLASTICS Recycling of one plastic bottle would save enough energy t

It is estimated that approximately 4,000 to 5,000 TPD of plastic waste is

generated in India; that is roughly 4%–5% by weight of MSW. The major
problems in plastic waste management are collection, segregation and
disposal. At present, plastic waste collection is done through the informal
sectors such as the kabadi system and waste-pickers 9 (refer Section 7.4.4 of
Part II.

3.1.8 THERMOCOL RECYCLING

Thermocol or Styrofoam, scientifically known as expanded polystyrene, is

produced from a mixture of about 90%–95% polystyrene and 5%–10%
gaseous blowing agent (pentane gas or carbon dioxide). Thermocol is an
excellent material for packaging goods (especially electronic goods) and
for the construction and decorating industry because it is light and has
good insulating properties. Environmentally sound recycling of thermocol
still remains to be commercially established in India, and thermocol
recycling regulation is yet to be notified.

Different methodologies are available for recycling thermocol, e.g.,

grinding and mixing it with new beads, shredding it into fine powder,
reducing

9 Available at: http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/newsletter/URBAN%20WASTE%20PROFILE_LV.pdf CPCB (2010).

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 223

 its volume using solvents (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre [BARC]
process), etc.

Pune’s Science and Technology Park has set up a plant at Ranjangaon

to recycle discarded thermocol into cheap furniture items. The
furniture manufactured from recycled thermocol is relatively cheap,
durable, and fireproof. A hub of electronic industries, Ranjangaon
produces 10 TPD of thermocol waste.

A thermocol compactor may also be used to reduce the bulk of

thermocol waste generated within a ULB. This compacted thermocol is
then sold to the recycling market for further processing or recycling.

hermocol Waste
pactor in the MRF for dealing with the large quantities of thermocol that are generated in the city. The thermocol compa

3.1.9 RECYCLING PAPER AND BOARD

In India, the informal sector mainly performs the collection of waste paper
through door-to-door collectors, kabadi system, and waste pickers. The
informal sector carries out as much as 95% of the collection of waste
paper in the country. The value chain comprises direct collection from
various source points and small shops, where primary sorting of waste
into different categories takes place; (ii) zonal segregation centres owned
by wholesalers, where the waste material gets collected from small
shops and baled; and
(iii) finally dispatched to end users, which are usually paper mills.

Paper recyclers are developing new technologies for handling,

identifying and separating paper grades for recycling. One such
technology allows segregation of paper fibres during the recycling
process according to fibre length, coarseness, and stiffness through a
sequential centrifuging and screening process.

ntry; an annual average growth of 6%–7% has been observed over the last decade. Globally, India is the fastest grow
d GDP growth, with an annual growth close to 9%. Consequently, the import of pulp and paper products is likely to sho
‘Wealth Out of Waste (WOW) in South India
ITC Paperboards and Specialty Papers Division launched the wastepaper collection programme called We
areas in South India. In Chennai, the division has tied up with 30–40 information technology (IT) compa

Making of Handmade Paper

The Indian handmade paper industry produces a variety of paper and

paper products mainly by using wastepaper collected from various
sources (e.g.,
schools and colleges) and other materials such as cotton rags, tailor cuttings,
hosiery cuttings, etc. Other agro-based fibres available in the North Eastern region
like jute, sabai grass, ramie, banana, straw, angelie grass, elephant grass, etc. are
also used to blend with the primary fibres for mottling effects and to manufacture
special varieties of thin paper.

The basic steps of recycled handmade paper making process are the following:

A. CHOPPING AND DUSTING

The paper raw material and waste cotton rags are sorted manually to remove
unwanted materials like plastics, iron and dust etc. that could contaminate pulp. Once
the material is sorted, it is put through a rag chopper that cuts the rags into small
uniform sized pieces. While the wastepaper is directly sent to the beater after
being dipped in the water for 3 to 4 hours, 2 to 3 people could be engaged in this
phase depending upon the amount of raw material.

B. BEATING

The chopped rags are converted into a fine pulp in a Hollander Beater. Pulping of
the raw materials is done using non-polluting chemicals or agents such as lime,
soda ash, caustic soda, oxalates, oxygen, and peroxides. It is not necessary to
use harmful chemicals like alkali sulphide and sulphite, and chlorine and chlorine
compounds for the delignification processes. Rosin soap and alum are added to give
the paper the desired physical properties and the required consistency. When
making coloured or textured paper, colour dyes, straw, hemp, grass etc. are
added in this phase. The resulting pulp is now ready for sheet formation.

C. SHEET FORMATION

There are two methods of sheet formation which are being used in India:

i. Lifting: Lifting is a modern method done with the help of Univat. Lifting
employs the use of a steel water tank fitted with an apparatus to lift the
mould. The mould is clamped between two wooden frames in a water tank. A
measured quantity of the pulp, depending on the thickness of the paper
required, is poured evenly into the mould.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 225

 10 Effective Recycling of Waste Paper for Production of Good Quality Newsprint. Tyagi S., V. Mohan, Roy Choudhary, K et.
al. (2013), Available: http://www.ipptaonline.org/July-Sept,%202013/2013_Issue_3_IPPTA_Article_02.pdf

226 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Univat being used
for sheet Rag-chopper Hollander beater
formation

This mould is then shaken side to side horizontally and raised mechanically to
drain excess water. A sheet of pulp is formed over the mould which is
taken out after unclamping the frame.

ii. Dipping: Dipping is a traditional method where the pulp is transferred from
the beater into a masonry trough or vat. Depending on the thickness of the
paper required, the pulp is diluted by mixing it with water. The mould made
of a wooden frame with a wire mesh or a bamboo stick mat is dipped by
hand into the pulp. The frame is then shaken side to side and lifted out
of the vat. A sheet of pulp is formed over the mould. Out of the two
processes, lifting is favoured more as dipping requires constructing masonry
trough or vat.

D. PRESSING AND DRYING

A manual or hydraulic press is used for squeezing out the excess water from
the sheets. This compresses the pulp adding strength to the fibre and facilitating
the drying process.

E. CALENDARING

The calendaring machine is fitted with two chilled cylinders rotating in opposite
direction to give a smooth finish to the sheets of paper passed through them.
Calendaring also tends to enhance the gloss of the paper.

F. SHEET CUTTING

At this phase, the calendered sheet still has a deckle edge. The sheets are cut to
standard size of 22’’x 30” or to desired sizes as required by the customers.

G. PAPER PRODUCTS

While it is possible to manufacture several

handmade recycled paper products, there is a
consistent market demand for select products
such as papier-mâché, notebooks and diaries,
stationeries, lampshades, invitation cards, and
office paper.

The municipal authorities should promote recycling

of paper to save trees and other natural
resources. This will provide employment to skilled
and unskilled labor and correspondingly reduce the
municipal authority’s
waste management costs. Paper Products
3.1.10 RECYCLING OF GARDEN WASTE OR YARD WASTE

Yard waste consists of grass, leaves, and tree and bush trimmings. The
horticulture waste from parks and gardens should be composted at the
site or at a decentralised facility, thereby reducing the amount of yard
waste entering the solid waste stream. Additionally, grass clippings,
leaves, and woody yard wastes can also be used as mulch in gardens
and around shrubs to keep the soil moist, control weed growth, and
add nutrients. Organic material, e.g., straw, dried stems, etc., containing
higher percentage of lingocellulosic material takes much longer time
for composting process to complete (for details refer Section 3.2 of Part
II). These can be readily converted into mulch in shorter period of
time.

3.1.11 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste generally constitutes about

10%–20% of total urban solid waste.11

The report of the Supreme Court’s expert committee in 1999 and the
SWM Rules, 2016 recommend that ULBs shall facilitate the separate
collection and transportation of C&D waste. Due to the challenges
associated with processing and disposal of C&D waste, separate rules
have been established namely Construction and Demolition Waste
Management Rules, 2016 that describes the management of C&D
waste and roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders.

C&D and other inert waste may be utilised for making bricks, pavement
blocks, construction materials such as aggregates etc. Ward level debris
deposit sites should be created. Containers could be provided at such
locations, and a small collection charge could be levied for receiving
such waste and transporting it for disposal. Rates may be prescribed
for such collection by the ULB, and contracts could be given for
managing such sites. Helplines should be created to ensure prompt
clearance of C&D waste.

ULBs must make serious efforts to utilise C&D waste and should
motivate the private sector to set up processing plants. There are
several plants of various capacities in India to make bricks, paver
blocks, aggregates, etc. out of such waste material. Profitable use of
C&D waste will minimise the cost of managing such waste and
requirement for valuable landfill space, besides giving employment
opportunities to unemployed youth. It will also save natural resources
and reduce the use of virgin soil.

11 “Rebuilding C&D Waste Recycling Efforts in India”, Ghosh,G.,Ghosh, S. & Aich, A., (n.d.), Waste Management World.
Available at: http://www.waste-management-world.com/articles/print/volume-12/issue-5/features/rebuilding-c-d-waste-
recycling- efforts-in-india.html

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 227

 Section 3.7 of Part II provides details on C&D waste collection and
transportation. The potential and appropriate processes for recycling
C&D waste are also discussed in detail.

3.1.12 E-WASTE

E-waste or waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) includes

surplus, obsolete, or broken electrical or electronic devices. Its
quantum is increasing yearly, and disposal of e-waste is becoming a
global environmental and public health issue.

According to a study,12 India generates annually about 3,80,000

tonnes of e-waste, which is expected to increase manifold. The study
also reveals that only about 6% of e-waste is recycled, of which 95%
is operated through the informal sector. While mainly interested in
precious metals (such as copper, silver, and platinum), recyclers are
also interested in glass, plastic, and batteries within these devices.
Currently applied processes for recycling WEEE are largely unscientific
and environmentally unsound, hence posing serious health threats. It
will be a challenge to reorganise the recycling of WEEE to establish
recycling methods that protect both workers and the environment. One
option would be the introduction of the extended producer
responsibility (EPR) concept, where the producer of an electrical or
electronic device guarantees product redemption after use through
recycling or disposing it in an environmentally friendly way (for details
refer to Section 7.7 of Part II).

3.1.13 GREENHOUSE GAS MITIGATION POTENTIAL

FROM RECYCLING AND REUSE

Waste handling and disposal generates greenhouse gases (GHG)

both directly and indirectly. The most efficient way to reduce direct
and indirect GHG emissions in waste management is to reduce waste
generation at source, followed by material recycling. Direct emissions
are decreased when waste is not disposed at landfills nor treated in any
other way (e.g. combustion). Indirect emissions can be cut down by
decreasing the energy consumption both in acquiring and producing
raw material and also in manufacturing the product itself. It is possible
to substitute virgin material with recovered material. In most cases,
the replacement of virgin material by recycled material decreases the
use of net energy and thus the GHG emissions. For example, recycling
1 tonne of paper reduces 1 metric tonne of carbon dioxide (CO2)
equivalent emissions. Similarly, recycling 1 tonne of aluminium avoids
approximately 9 tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions. As a result, use of
recycled material in place of fresh material could lead to reduction in
GHG emissions. On the other hand, recycling practise can also result
12 Carried out by MAIT and GIZ in 2007
 in GHG emissions either from transportation of material or from the
recycling process itself.

3.2 COMPOSTING
Municipal solid waste (MSW) primarily consists of organic, inorganic,
and inert fractions. Under natural conditions, the organic fraction of
waste continually decomposes, accompanied by a strong foul odour
and production of gases, which are predominantly methane or CO 2
depending on the aerobic condition of the decomposing mass. Vector
infestation during the natural decomposition is a iscommon
Composting a biological
phenomenon. process in which microorganisms convert organ

Composting is a process of controlled decomposition of the organic

waste, typically in aerobic conditions, resulting in the production of
stable humus-like product, i.e., compost.

Considering the typical composition ofwastes and the climatic

conditions, composting is highly relevant in India and should be
considered in all municipal solid waste management (MSWM)
concepts. Composting of the segregated wet fraction of waste (see
Section 2.2 of Part II) is preferred. Mixed waste composting, with
effective and appropriate pre- treatment of feedstock, may be
considered as an interim solution; in such cases, stringent monitoring
of the compost quality is essential.

3.2.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016:

GUIDANCE ON COMPOSTING

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 4 Duties of waste generator:-

(6) All resident welfare and market associations shall, within one
year from the date of notification of these rules and in partnership
with the local body ensure segregation of waste at source by the
generators as prescribed in these rules, facilitate collection of
segregated waste in separate streams, handover recyclable material
to either the authorised waste pickers or the authorised recyclers.
The bio-degradable waste shall be processed, treated and disposed
off through composting or biomethanation within the premises
as far as possible. The residual waste shall be given to the waste
collectors or agency as directed by the local body.

(7) All gated communities and institutions with more than 5,000
sqm area shall, within one year from the date of notification of
these rules and in partnership with the local body, ensure
segregation of waste at source by the generators as prescribed
in these rules, facilitate collection of segregated waste in separate

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 229

 streams, handover recyclable material to either the authorised
waste pickers or the authorizsd recyclers. The bio-degradable waste
shall be processed, treated and disposed off through composting or
biomethanation within the premises as far as possible. The residual
waste shall be given to the waste collectors or agency as directed by
the local body.
(8) All hotels and restaurants shall, within one year from the date of
notification of these rules and in partnership with the local body
ensure segregation of waste at source as prescribed in these rules,
facilitate collection of segregated waste in separate streams,
handover recyclable material to either the authorised waste pickers
or the authorised recyclers. The bio-degradable waste shall be
processed, treated and disposed off through composting or
biomethanation within the premises as far as possible. The residual
waste shall be given to the waste collectors or agency as directed by
the local body.

Clause 15 Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:

(m) collect waste from vegetable, fruit, flower, meat, poultry and fish
market on day to day basis and promote setting up of decentralised
compost plant or biomethanation plant at suitable locations in the
markets or in the vicinity of markets ensuring hygienic conditions;
(q) transport segregated bio-degradable waste to the processing
facilities like compost plant, biomethanation plant or any such
facility. Preference shall be given for on site processing of such
waste;
(u) phase out the use of chemical fertilizer in two years and use
compost in all parks, gardens maintained by the local body and
wherever possible in other places under its jurisdiction. Incentives
may be provided to recycling initiatives by informal waste
recycling sector.
(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste
processing facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or
with private sector participation or through any agency for
optimum utilisation of various components of solid waste adopting
suitable technology including the following technologies and
adhering to the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban
Development from time to time and standards prescribed by the
Central Pollution Control Board. Preference shall be given to
decentralised processing to minimize transportation cost and
environmental impacts such as-
a) biomethanation, microbial composting, vermi-composting,
anaerobic digestion or any other appropriate processing for
bio- stabilisation of biodegradable wastes;
3.2.2 COMPOSTING IN THE INTEGRATED SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK

The third preferred choice in the ISWM strategy, i.e., adoption of

resource recovery strategies and composting, ensures that waste is
processed appropriately to facilitate further use of the material.
Composting is a biological process of stabilising biomass either in the
presence or absence of free oxygen, carried out by a host of microbes.
Aerobic composting, which is carried out in the presence of air, is far
more popular because it is much faster compared with the “trench”
composting where direct access to air is denied. Processing of MSW by
this process yields humus rich compost (organic manure) along with
macronutrients and micronutrients for plants.

Figure 3.8: Composting in the Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy

Composting is the third preferred choice in the ISWM h
Most Preferred is processed appropriately to facilitate material recover
At Source Reduction & Reuse
Recycling Composting Waste to Energy
Landfills
Processing biodegradable waste to recover compost (e.g. windrow composting, in-vessel composting, vermi
Least Preferred

Given the propensity of organic waste to contribute to environmental

pollution in more ways than one, composting and other biological
stabilisation processes, which would mitigate the impact of
uncontrolled decomposition of organic MSW should be adopted by
urban areas. Composting is an environmentally beneficial waste
recycling mechanism and not a waste disposal mechanism.

3.2.3 BENEFITS OF COMPOSTING

 The real economic benefits of compost use include improved soil

quality, enhanced water retention capacity of soil, increased
biological activity, micronutrient content, and improved pest
resistance of crops.
 Composting minimises or avoids GHG emissions from anaerobic
decomposition of organic waste (such as in a large unturned heap).
 Composting increases the design life of other waste management
facilities.
 Stringent design requirements and associated costs for catering to
management of leachate from organic waste decomposition may be
reduced in those landfills that do not receive organic waste.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 231

  Compost is particularly useful as organic manure; it contains
macronutrients
ent, is used as a valuable soil amendment thereby (nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium) as well as
reducing dependence
micronutrients. When used in conjunction with chemical fertilisers,
optimum results are obtained.
 The use of compost reduces the dependency on chemical fertilisers
for agricultural operations. When used as a soil amendment,
compost reduces the need for water, fertilisers, and pesticides.
Compost acts as a soil conditioner, therefore supporting the long-
term fertility of soil.
 Compost may be used to revitalise vegetation habitats and add life
to marginal, impoverished soils and waste lands.
 Compost may also be used as a bio matrix in remediation of
chemical contaminants and as a remediated soil in contaminated
sites; compost helps in binding heavy metals and other
contaminants, reducing leachate and bio-absorption.

3.2.4 NEED FOR MARKET IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS

SWM Rules, 2016 lays emphasis has been on market development

through appropriate mechanism.

Clause 7: Duties of Department of Fertilisers, Ministry of

Chemicals and Fertilisers:-
(1) The Department of Fertilisers through appropriate mechanisms
shall-
(a) provide market development assistance on city compost; and
(b) ensure promotion of co-marketing of compost with chemical
fertilisers in the ratio of 3 to 4 bags: 6 to 7 bags by the fertiliser
companies to the extent compost is made availablefor
marketing to the companies.

Clause 8: Duties of Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.-

The Ministry of Agriculture through appropriate mechanisms
shall-
(c) set up laboratories to test quality of compost produced by local
authorities or their authorised agencies; and
(d) issue suitable guidelines for maintaining the quality of compost
and ratio of use of compost visa-a-vis chemical fertilizers while
applying compost to farmland.

The financial viability of compost plants is primarily dependent on

the marketability of the compost at a reasonable price. For the low
carbon soil (soil organic carbon) prevalent in India, there is a huge
requirement of good quality compost for agriculture. Yet the present
demand for compost is very low. An analysis of the available markets
and potential demand for Ancompost
analysisisofessential
market demand
to decidefor compost
the requiredand its potential end-use d
financial viability of compost plants
size of the compost plant. An assessment of end user requirements of
compost quality, as defined by the final use, is essential to arrive at the
final design of the compost plant.
Market development for compost and proper quality monitoring are
crucial. The following strategies can be applied for market
development:
 The pricing mechanism for sale of compost should be assessed. Each
state government should fix a minimum retail price for compost,
which meets Fertiliser Control Order (FCO) 2009 standards, to
ensure economic viability of these plants.
 All state and local government departments should be encouraged
to promote the use of compost in parks, gardens, nurseries, and
urban forestry projects.
Co-marketing of compost with chemical fertilizers by the
 Apart from FCO compliant compost,as aa line
“Basket Approach” compost
of value-added was recommended by Inter-Minis
may be developed by adding additional nutrients. One such example
is phosphate rich organic manure (PROM), which may be used as
replacement of chemical phosphatic fertilisers such as di-
ammonium phosphate (DAP) and single superphosphate (SSP).
 Co-marketing of compost made from city garbage with chemical
fertilisers in the ratio of 3–4 bags: 6–7 bags is suggested by the SWM
Rules, 2016 and the Inter-Ministerial Task Force on Integrated Plant
Nutrient Management (IPNM), vetted by the Supreme Court of
India in 2006.
 The benefits of compost should be informed to farmers, who should
be encouraged to partially substitute inorganic fertilisers with
organic compost, as appropriate for their crop and specific soil.
 Opportunities for involving agricultural officers to generate
Successful market for compost depends on
producing
awareness of compost usage among farmers should consistent
be looked into. quality and quantity o
identification of potential users
Both physical and chemical properties of the finished compost are to be
considered. Decisions on pricing of the compost should be based on the
size and location of markets. The distance to which the finished
product may be transported will have a strong bearing on the landed
price of compost.

An assessment of competing compost suppliers is also essential,

especially in cases where it is estimated that the compost will need to
be marketed beyond the vicinity of the plant.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 233

Pre-sorting and segregation
of MSW is a pre-requisite for maintaining the quality of the compost produced

Analysis for Marketing Compost

How much compost will your plant produce?
Where will the compost be used and for what?
Do you realize the importance of consistent quality control for building and maintaining the brand image of your com
Does your plant have the necessary process flow and equipment to produce compost which is compliant with the rele
Who are your potential customers? Consider the number of compost plants and quantity of compost produced in the
What is the typical quality of compost required by the different categories of consumers?
How much are your consumers willing to pay for the compost?
Identify competing products for identified consumer uses and their prices.
Identify compost transportation requirements and costs.
Develop a marketing strategy.
Relook at the size of the proposed compost plant and the size of the potential compost market.

3.2.4.1 CONSTRAINTS FACED BY THE COMPOSTING

SECTOR IN INDIA

Composting of MSW started in the late 1970s when some mechanical

compost plants were set up across the country. The concerned ULBs
were the owner and operator of the compost plants. These facilities
were replica of plants from the industrial countries without the
necessary adaptation exercise; consequently, these capital-intensive
facilities were heavily mechanised and faced maintenance problems.
An evaluation of the mechanical compost plants was carried out by
the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
during 1980–1982. Since the input garbage was mixed and the design
was not adequate for removal of non-compostable fractions quality
of the final product was poor, leading to lukewarm response from the
market and poor unviable price.
The scenario changed in the early 1990s with the entry of the private
sector—equipment fabricators, plant operators, etc. Mechanisation
was reduced by almost eliminating the pre-processing stages (for e.g.,
the mechanical compost plant of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi,
established in 1981). The machinery and equipment manufacturers
introduced equipment at the post-screening stages, such as trommels
with finer screen, air density separator (de-stoner), etc. to improve the
quality of compost by better removal of small contraries, such as pieces
of glass and plastics, grit, coarse sand, etc. Bio-inoculum was sprayed
over the windrows for suppressing bad odour. In the initial years, there
were reports of good price of compost, leading to reported commercial
viability. In the later years, the euphoria was replaced by the realisation
that the good price belonged to the niche market of plantations and
some cash crops. And with more and more operating plants, the bulk
of the compost had to be sold to the farmers, who could not afford it.
The sector at present faces the following constraints:
i. compost quality standards (SWM Rules, 2016 and FCO series) are
becoming increasingly stringent;
ii. majority of the collection of MSW is in the form of mixed waste;
iii. making quality compliant compost from mixed waste requires
some equipment for refinement and quality control and higher
production cost, but the yield is reduced as the quality standards
are higher (10%–15%);
iv. all compost sold for application to food crops is mandated to be
FCO compliant;
v. percentage of process rejects increases proportionally (30%–40%)
unless the processing facility produces compost as well as refuse
derived fuel (RDF);
vi. lack of knowledge and practical experience among the various
stakeholders responsible for planning, execution, operation and
maintenance (O&M), and marketing leads to inadequately designed
plants, inefficient equipment, improper operation, and shortcuts
from equipment design to operational protocol;
vii. after the product is ready (called “finished compost”), cost is
incurred for bagging, transport, marketing (commission of the
chemical fertiliser company, dealers, etc.). The final cost to the
farmer is normally almost twice the price received by the compost
plant operator;
viii. as of 2015, the total cost to the farmer is about Rs.4,000–
Rs.5,000 per ton of finished compost (distance being the main
price variant). This price is too high for the average farmer;
ix. the long-term benefits of soil conditioning properties of compost
are not adequately appreciated by the farmers and other
stakeholders.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 235

 3.2.5 THE COMPOSTING PROCESS – PHASES AND
CRITICAL PARAMETERS

Figure 3.9: Process of Aerobic Composting13

Organic matter WaterHeat CO2

(Including carbon
chemical energy,
protein, nitrogen)
Organic matter (Including carbon chemical energy, nitrogen, protein, humus), mi
Minerals (Including
nitrogen and other
nutrients)
Water Compost Site
Microorganisms

Raw Material Finished Compost

O2

During aerobic composting, microorganisms oxidize organic

compounds to carbon dioxide (CO 2), nitrite, and nitrate. Carbon from
organic compounds is used as a source of energy while nitrogen is
recycled. Due to chemical reactions producing heat, temperature of the
mass rises.

Several biological, chemical, and physical processes contribute to the

success of the aerobic composting (Figure 3.9). Understanding these
processes is necessary for making informed decisions when developing
and operating a composting plant.

3.2.5.1 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES

The process of aerobic composting passes through two distinct stages

of high significance: thermophilic stage (sanitisation) and mesophilic
stage (decomposition).

Different organisms are known to play a predominant role in

process stages observed during composting are:
breaking down biodegradable constituents of MSW. The majority of
microorganisms responsible for composting are already present in
MSW. A succession of microbial growth and activity among the bacteria,
fungi, actinomycetes, yeasts, etc. takes place during the process,
whereby the environment created by one community of
microorganisms encourages the activity of a successor group. Different
types of microorganisms are therefore active at different times and
locations within the windrow depending upon the availability of
substrate, oxygen supply, and moisture content of the organic matter.
13 On-Farm Composting Handbook. Rynk, R., et al. 1992. Ithaca, New York: PALS Publishing Cooperative Extension.
 (i) Thermophilic Stage (Sanitisation)

This is the first phase of composting wherein microorganisms

decompose the easily degradable organic substances producing heat as
Thermophilic Stage:
a result of intense metabolic activity. In most cases 55%–60%
Moisture: with moisture
content of 55%– 60% and air voids of 20%–30%Temperature: windrow,
in the a
55°C– 65°C
Air voids:within
temperature rise from 35°C to 55°C–65°C is achieved 20%–30%
2–3 days.
Microorganisms: thermotolerant fungi, thermophil
 typically, thermotolerant fungi, thermophilic bacteria, and
actinomycetes are the predominantly active microorganisms at this
stage.
 windrows are turned at regular intervals to expose the material in
the inner core to air so that temperature in these fresh sections rise
again, and gradually the whole windrow is sanitised from
pathogens.

(ii) Mesophilic Stage

 in the second stage, due to reduction in available nutrients and
readily available carbon, the microbial activity reduces, causing a
decline in the temperature of the heap. There is a shift in the type of
active microbial species in the compost heaps.
Mesophilic stage:
 the composted material becomes dark brown during this stage due
to humus synthesis and starts to stabilise temperature:
moderate
stabilisation of compost mat
(iii) Curing Stage
 Curing of compost is done after the material from the windrow is
screened. The screened material is then allowed to mature in the
curing stage. This is a very important phase in the composting
process. Microbial species degrading complex polymers, such as
cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses, increase drastically during this
phase.
Curing:
 Bacteria represent 80% of this population. Free livingMaturation
nitrogen- Stage
fixing bacteria, denitrifiers, sulphate reducers and sulphur oxidizers
Lasts for 3-4 weeks
are important constituents of the total microbial population.
Microbial species population increase

3.2.5.2 CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

(i) Moisture: Moisture is a critical factor in establishing stable

conditions conducive for composting because the microbes need
moisture for survival and growth. Moisture tends to occupy the
free air space between the decomposing particles. Hence, when the
moisture content is very high, anaerobic conditions set in.
(ii)Aeration: The composting process requires adequate supply of
oxygen for biodegradation by microorganisms. Under aerobic
conditions, decomposition rate is 10–20 times faster than under
limited oxygen supply or anaerobic conditions.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 237

 High oxygen levels in air voids are maintained within waste piles or
windrows
aerobic conditions fasten the composting through
process turningtimes
by 10–20 and mixing at regular
and reduce intervals.
generation In static
of foul smell
piles, anaerobic conditions may be created due to the utilisation
of available oxygen by microorganisms and production of CO 2
during decomposition of the waste. This could result in a buildup of
anaerobic microorganisms, resulting in foul smell.

(iii)Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio

– MSW in India has an initial carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio of

around 30:1, which is ideal for decomposition. The organisms
involved in stabilisation of organic matter utilise about 30 parts
of carbon for each part of nitrogen. C/N ratio below 25:1 results
in production of foul smell and a higher C/N ratio will result in
impeding the decomposition process.

– Whenever the C/N ratio is less than the optimum, carbon source
such as straw, sawdust, paper are added.
below 25:1 results in foul smell while higher C/N ratio impedes decomposition
– Higher C/N ratios may be reduced by adding biodegradable
material having high nitrogen content, such as non-edible oil
cakes, green biomass, etc. It is not preferable to add slaughter
house waste to MSW waste piles, as they require specific closed
systems or in-vessel systems.

3.2.5.3 PHYSICAL PROCESSES

(i) Temperature: Under properly controlled conditions, temperatures

are known to rise beyond 70°C in aerobic composting. This
increased temperature results in increased rate of biological
activity, resulting in faster stabilisation of the material. However, if
the temperature rise is very high, due to inactivation of the
critical role in composting by
organisms and enzymes, the rate of activity may decrease.
logical activity resulting in faster stabilisation
High temperature also helps in destruction of some common
pathogens and parasites. Ambient air temperatures have little effect
on the composting process, provided the mass of the material being
composted can retain the heat generated by the microorganisms
under aerobic condition. If the process is so controlled that the
temperature is kept at 55°C or above for at least 3 days, destruction
of pathogens and parasites can be ensured.

(ii)Particle Size: The optimum particle size should have enough

surface area for rapid microbial activity, but also enough void space
to allow air to circulate for microbial respiration. The feedstock
composition can be manipulated to create the desired mix of
particle size and void space.
3.2.6 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE FEEDSTOCK FOR COMPOSTING

The segregated wet fraction of MSW (comprising mainly biodegradable

waste), vegetable market waste, and yard waste is the preferred
feedstock for compost plants. However, where door-to-door
segregation of dry and MSW
wet fractions
feedstockis not practiced, it should
for composting is possible that include the segregated
essentially
mixed MSW reaches the wet plant.
fractionInofsuch
waste. Vegetable
instances, market waste
pre-sorting and and yard waste, being ri
segregation of the organic fraction from the mixed fraction is a critical
step in ensuring adequate quality of the processed compost. Presence
of contaminants hampers the activity of the microbes and reduces the
final quality of compost; it is essential to keep street sweepings and
drain cleaning material out of the feedstock, which is a major source of
contaminants. This can be done through organisational arrangements
in the ULB. Street sweepers should not mix their waste with MSW
collected from households and establishments.

MSW feedstock should be delivered at a well-defined area within the

plant. This area is essential for overall smooth functioning and
regulated flow of MSW feedstock into the processing area. The tipping
area should have adequately sized shed (sides open) to receive
predetermined quantities of waste daily. Unregulated storage of waste
Storage
should bearea should
avoided. be large
Garland enough
drains to handle
leading daily and
to a leachate weeklytank
collection variations in waste quantity
connected to the leachate treatment system are essential at the tipping
floor. Bulky items like bed mattress, tires, large pieces of fabric (e.g.,
sarees) and thin plastic film, large toys, pieces of asbestos, fibre
reinforced plastic (FRP), branches of tree, etc. have to be pulled out
before the waste moves on to the pre-sorting section.

In large plants receiving above 300 TPD of MSW, some designers

prefer to provide a shallow pit to increase the volumetric capacity
within the same footprint. However, in warm countries, pits may
cause odour problem if it is not emptied regularly and if leachate is
not pumped out every day and the pit is not thoroughly cleaned
occasionally.

Under certain conditions, buffer storage may be required:

 High floating population—places of tourism and religious importance
 Festive occasions or large gatherings—rallies, meetings, etc.
 No uniform collection and transportation on a daily basis, clearing
of a backlog, etc.

However, such buffers should be planned very carefully mainly because

holding raw waste for more than a day attracts vectors, causes odour
nuisance, and leachate. Therefore, such buffer areas should be planned
only if it is essential due to the above conditions and should not
normally be more than one day. Instead, it would be more convenient
to build additional capacity in pre-sorting line and compost pad area.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 239

 The compost pad and the curing area for semi-finished compost are the
most convenient buffer areas.

3.2.7 PRE-PROCESSING OF MIxED MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Typically, mixed MSW received at the compost plant consists of 40%–

50% non-biodegradable material. Pre-processing of mixed MSW is
crucial for preparing FCO-compliant compost. In case source
segregated waste or dedicated waste from fruit and vegetable market is
re-processing are essential for composting
received, pre-sorting can accordingly be minimal and therefore the
capital and O&M cost are less and the yield of compost is higher than in
the case of mixed waste. Pre-processing serves the following
purposes:
 separation of the mixed material into different streams, which
are suitable for specific products—biodegradable for composting,
combustible dry material for RDF, separation of recyclable material
on sorting belt (glass, metal, etc.); and
 reduction of cross-contamination of the material to make different
bles, reduces contaminants, lowers processing costs and also ensures quality of compost
products.

The pre-processing section is designed on the basis of average

composition of the incoming waste, quantity, space available for pre-
sorting, and whether only composting or a combination of compost
and RDF is targeted. Following Figure 3.10 illustrates the various steps
involved in pre-processing of mixed MSW.
 Figure 3.10: Pre-processing of Mixed Municipal Solid Waste 14

Incoming waste receiving platform

(A shallow pit should be made available, if MRF facility is receiving more than 500 TPD waste)

Sorting conveyor
Item picked up at sorting conveyor Notes:
Glass bottles Separate dedicated bins should be made available for collection of materials
Batteries (to the extent possible) Combustible dry waste like mattresses baskets etc. should be shredded and sent to RDF line
Bulky items like mattress, baskets, FRP, buckets large piece of fabrics

Trommel screen with 10-16 mm perforation

Inert
Sanitary landfill

Trommel screen with 80-120 mm perforation

80-120 mm (-) under stream predominantly

80-120
biodegradable
mm (+) material to RDF production

Composting or
Eddy
biomethanation
current for non-Magnet for ferrous material ferrous metal items(permanent or band)

Primary shredding

Drying

Secondary shredding

Air density separator

Light fraction to be sent Heavy
to RDF fraction
facility and inert to be disposed in sanitary landfill

Sorting: The level of sorting feedstock depends on several factors

including the source of feedstock, the end use of the product, and the
operations and technology involved. Sorting in a well-designed
compost or RDF plant consists of hand sorting on a sorting belt,
followed by mechanical sorting in one or more trommels. Mixed Sorting results in recovery
waste
of recyclable
is fed onto a slow-moving (5 m per minute) conveyor belt. Items not material with high cal
suitable for the trommel, such as glass bottle, metal container, any
hazardous material like containers of paint, etc. are taken out by hand
and put in appropriate bins. The workers should be provided with
gloves to avoid injury. The thickness of the moving waste pile on the
conveyor belt should be less than 15 cm (for better manual sorting)
and the removed material stored in segregated vats or large containers.
This is usually recyclable material or material with high calorific value,
which can be further processed to recover the energy content. Metals
are then removed from the waste by either a suspended magnet
system or a magnetic pulley.

14 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15).

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 241

 Remaining mixed waste is subjected to mechanical separating devices
such as a segregating trommel, where material passing through the
screen (80–100 mm) is utilised for compost production. An additional
trommel of 200 mm screen may be required as an add-on for plants
with a capacity of over 500 TPD of waste, which is placed before the
trommel with 80–100 mm apertures.

The purpose of a trommel is to segregate materials on the basis of size

through cascading action. For effective segregation, it is necessary that
the material undergoes sufficient number of turns inside the trommel
and, at the same time, gets sufficient fall depth for good cascading
action. Therefore, the length and the diameter of the trommel are very
important. Normally for MSW, a trommel with a length of 10 m and
a diameter of 2.5 m and above would be desirable. At the same time,
there should be no axle passing through the trommel in the middle; the
drive for the trommel has to be external.

Table 3.3 outlines mechanical separation technologies that are

currently used in MSW composting. Details of these processes are
discussed below.15

Table 3.3: Pre-processing: Sorting of Mixed Municipal Solid Waste Feedstock

es: TECHNOLOGY MATERIALS TARGETED

ze of feedstock Screening Plastics, paper, cardboard, metal
oves ferrous metals Magnetic separation Ferrous metal
eparates aluminium and other non- ferrous metals
Eddy current separation Nonferrous metal
avier fractions like glass and ceramics
Ballistic separation Plastic, paper, glass, gravel

Screening: Screens are used to control the size of feedstock. They

separate small dense material such as food scrap, glass, and plastics
from the bulky light fraction of the feedstock. Trommel screens are
commonly used for initial material processing at MSW facilities.

Magnetic separation: Magnetic separators create magnetic fields that

help in removing ferrous metals from the feedstock as it travels along
conveyors. The efficiency of magnetic separators depends primarily on
the quantity of materials processed and the speed at which they pass
through the magnetic field.

Eddy current separation: Eddy current machines separate aluminium

and other non-ferrous metals from MSW. These machines generate
a high energy electromagnetic field that induces an electrical charge
in non-ferrous metals and forces these materials to be repelled from
non-charged fractions of the feedstock material. The feedstock should
be conveyed to eddy current machines after magnetic separation to
15 Composting Yard Trimmings and Municipal Solid Waste. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1994
Washington, DC.
 minimise contamination by metals. Eddy current machines are not
usually used in India, since metals are not usually found in waste.

Air Classifiers: Air classifiers separate feedstock material based on

density differences, i.e., the heavier fractions (metals, glass, ceramics,
etc.) are removed from the lighter materials. The heart of an air
classification system is an air column or throat into which the materials
stream is fed at a specified rate. A large blower sucks air up through
the throat, carrying light materials such as paper and plastic or fine dry
compost, which then enter a cyclone separator where they lose velocity
and drop out of the air stream. Heavy materials fall directly out of the
throat or column.

Ballistic separation: Ballistic or inertial separation separates constituents

based on density and elasticity differences. This can be applied for
segregating materials on compost stream or RDF stream. However, it is
more suitable for RDF stream for separating grit and other heavy inert
material. Compost feedstock is dropped on a rotating drum or spinning
cone, and the resulting trajectories of glass, metal, and stone, which
depend on density and elasticity, bounce the material away from the
compost feedstock at different lengths.

Additional inoculum: Inoculum (bacterial culture) is also added to the

feedstock to improve efficacy of the
Adding process.may be an issue because
inoculum
of its cost implications. However, inoculum enhances composting pro

loaders are used to deliver the raw feedstock to conveyors. These vehicles have a shovel-like attachment at the front o

ration phase of composting to facilitate manual removal of non-compostable material. The width of the conveyor belt s

ller than the grate fall through and material with larger diameters than the grate pass through the trommel. As the tro
of the

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 243

 spinning action. Undersized material fall through the perforations in the
discs. However, trommels are preferred for better performance and
cleanliness.
• Magnetic recovery systems: With these systems, a magnetic field removes
ferrous metals from the rest of the feedstock material. The following types
of magnetic separators are commonly used:
– Overhead belt magnets: Cylindrical magnets are installed over a conveyor
belt which carries feedstock and separates out ferrous materials.
– Drum magnets: Drum magnets are placed over a conveyor belt; ferrous
metals in the feedstock that pass under the rotating drum are attracted
to the magnet and stick to the drum.

3.2.8 COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGIES

Technologies for composting can be classified into the following

general categories:
 windrow composting;
 aerated static pile composting;
 in-vessel composting;
 decentralised composting (bin and box composting); and
 vermicomposting.

3.2.8.1 WINDROW COMPOSTING

Windrow composting process consists of placing the pre-sorted

feedstock in long narrow piles called windrows that are turned on a
regular basis for boosting passive aeration. The turning operation
mixes the composting materials and enhances passive aeration. Figure
3.11 gives an overview of the windrow composting process although
the figures presented may vary with the characteristics of the waste,
design of the plant, and the rigorousness with which the standard
operating process is followed. Compost yield of 10-15% is more
common from mixed municipal solid waste.

3.2.8.2 KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR

WINDROW COMPOST PRODUCTION

Figure 3.11 depicts a process flowchart for a 500 TPD plant, indicating
20% process efficiency. While 20% efficiency is possible under good
operational conditions, the typical efficiency of a windrow compost
plant receiving segregated organic solid waste is around 18%–20%,
i.e., for an input feedstock of 100 TPD of segregated waste, it should be
able to produce 18–20 tonnes of finished compost. Where mixed waste
is received as input feedstock, compost yield of 10%–15% is expected.
Figure 3.11: Process Flowchart and Mass Balance for Aerobic Windrow
Composting of 500 Tonnes Per Day of Waste16

Weighbridge

Municipal solid Segregation and sorting by hand

waste Inspection
on
(500 tonnes) conveyor belt

Rejection of Further segregation on rotating

unacceptable cage drum (opening with 75-100
waste mm)

Total rejects: 20% (to RDF line)

Waste substrate: 400 tonnes

Windrow formation over compost

Inoculum spray pad (stacked in the form of
trapezoidal stacks)

Weekly turning for 3 weeks using

skip loader/ front end loader

 Loss of gas and moisture (35%)

in 3 weeks
 Stabilised compost material: 260
tonnes

Monsoon shed (2 weeks)

 Loss of gas and moisture (20%)

in 2 weeks
 Stabilised compost material: 208
tonnes

Screening process

Coarse segregation

Rejects 25% to
 Rotary sieve /trommel (35
RDF
mm)
production
 Compost material: 156 tonnes

Rejects 20% to  Rotary sieve/trommel (16

windrow as mm)
cover  Compost material: 125 tonnes

Curing area cum intermediate

storage (stabilisation continues)
Rejects 20% to
Refinement of screened
windrow as
compost (4mm) 100 tonnes of
cover
compost

Packing and storage of

compost

16 “Composting Municipal Solid Waste: the Indian Scenario”, Mazumdar, N. (2007), International Journal of
Environment Technology and Management. 7 (3–4).

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 245

 3.2.8.3 UNIT OPERATIONS IN WINDROW COMPOSTING

chate for treatment and have anCompost

appropriate
padgradient to route
(platform): The the leachate to the
pre-processed MSWcollection point3.2.7
(Section
of Part II) is transferred onto the compost pad into windrows. The
compost pad is an area where the windrows are stacked. The compost
pad must be stable, durable, and impervious, so it is constructed with
an appropriately designed combination of reinforced cement concrete
(RCC) and plain cement concrete (PCC). The compost pad shall have a
slope of about 1% to drain the excess water (storm water or leachate)
from the windrows into a leachate collection tank. The leachate tank
is placed in the lowest corner of the compost pad area. This leachate
should be reused for recirculation of nutrients and for maintaining the
moisture content of windrows. Figure 3.11 describes unit operations in
windrow composting.

The following factors have to be considered in the location and design

of the composting pad:
 The base has to provide a barrier to prevent the percolation of
leachate and nutrients to the subsoil and groundwater.
 The surface has to facilitate equipment movement even during wet
weather conditions.
 The surface area has to accommodate waste for 5 weeks, with
sufficient room for equipment to maneuver and an area to establish
osting is the most a static pile for curing compost.
d widely accepted composting process
The height to base width ratio of the windrow depends basically on the
angle of repose of the material. Windrows are typically trapezoidal in
cross section.

The space between windrows should be sufficient for movement of

the windrow turning machine. Normally, it is 1–3 metres. Figure 3.12
below illustrates calculation of windrows sizes. Detailed designing and
area required for compost pad is given in Annexure 4.

ween an oval and trapezoid, a factor of 0.66 is assumed to estimate windrow volumes. Therefore, the equation for volum
 Figure 3.12: Windrow Sizing Calculations17

Rectangle
Size, shape and spacing of windrow
on turning practices:
Volume = Height x Width x Length Effective circumference= 2 x height + width
Height Mass = Volume x Bulk Density
Bucket loaders: high windrows
Length
Turning machines: low and wide w
Width Effective circumference Manual labour: small scale windrow

Triangle

Volume = Height x Width x Length x 0.5

Height Effective circumference= 2xheight2 + (width/2)2

Length

Width Mass = Volume x Bulk Density

Effective circumference

Trapezoid
Width2
Volume= Height x (Width1+Width2) x Length x 0.5 *
Length
HeightEffective circumference =
2 x (((width2-width1)/2))2 + height2 ) + width2
Width1 EffectiveMass = Volume x Bulk Density
circumference

Oval

Approximations:
Length
Volume = Height x Width x Length x 0.75 *
Height
Effective circumference= 2.3 xheight2 + (width/2)2

Mass = Volume x Bulk Density

Width
Effective circumference

* In general, as the average windrow shape is between an oval and trapezoid, a factor
0.66 is assumed to estimate windrow volumes and so the equation for volume becomes:
Volume = Height x Width x Length x 0.66

Windrow dimensions should allow conservation of heat gen

while also
Windrow Formation: The size, shape, and maintaining
spacing of diffusion
windrows of air to the deeper portion
depend on the equipment used for turning. For example, bucket
loaders are used to build high windrows, whereas turning machines
create low and wide windrows. Manual labour is also used for
windrows of a smaller scale, where additional equipment costs and use
of machinery are not feasible.

Windrow Turning: Windrows are turned frequently to maintain

aerobic conditions inside the pile. Windrow turning is a mechanised
operation. Generally, pay loaders (wheel or tracked) or tractors with
hydraulic

17 Compost Facility Operator Manual; Available at: http://www.transformcompostsystems.com/pdfs/Transform%20Compost%20

Operator%20Manual%20teaser.pdf

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 247

 attachments are used to scoop the material from one windrow to make
a new pile in an adjacent location on the compost pad, while placing
and mixing the material. Other equipment such as front-end loaders or
windrows
nce a week over 5 weeks, to maintain re-shifters may also be used for turning windrows. Windrow
aeration
e degradation turning ensures that outer layers of piles are moved to inner layers.
This process is repeated once every week for 5 weeks; high
temperatures within the windrow (55°C–65°C) sanitise the material.
During the rainy season where the interstitial spaces are filled with
water, more frequent turning is necessary (interval of 3–4 days).

Regular turning of the windrows helps oxygenate the pile; breaks up

particles to increase surface area; improves the porosity to prevent
settling and compaction; and allows trapped heat, water vapour, and
gases to escape. In general, the more frequently a pile is tuned, the
more quickly the composting process is completed. However, too
frequent turning has two disadvantages: (i) formation of heated pile in
the core area being hampered (necessary for pathogen kill), and (ii)
additional costs resulting from equipment and associated energy use. A
balance is therefore to be achieved between number of turnings and
cost of production.

A turning schedule should be established based on the rate of

decomposition, moisture content, porosity of the material, and the
desired composting time (often a function of land availability).
Normally, once a week turning is done but more frequent during rainy
season (once in 3–4 days).

In general, each windrow should be allowed to stay on the compost

pad for 35 days; at the end of the 35 th day, the compost is ready for use.
Each windrow should have a flag board depicting the age of the waste.
Fresh incoming waste is always depicted as “Age 1.” The numbering
on the windrow changes from Age 1 to Age 2 on the second day, Age
2 to Age 3 on the third day, and so on. Each windrow may be turned
manually or mechanically. This turning process has to be done every 7 th
ency of turning depends on: day. Hence, only those windrows having a flag board showing Age 7,
ure content,
14, 21, and 28 should be turned.
ity of material,
of microbial activity, and
ed composting time Figure 3.13 below illustrates an indicative arrangement of windrows.
Incoming waste on day 1 is placed in pile A1. Waste that comes in on
day 2 is placed in pile A2, waste on day 3 in pile A3, and so on. On the
7th day after receiving the first batch of waste A1, the pile or windrow is
turned or mixed, and the pile is moved to location B1. On the 14 th day,
pile B1 is turned or mixed and moved to C1, and so on. Pile D1 will
therefore be moved to E1 on the 28 th day. On the 35th day, the compost
pile from E1 should be screened for further refinement. Each of the
piles or windrows A2 to A7 are managed similarly. Waste that is
received on 8th day is placed in the initial location of pile A1, since
this pile would
 already move to B1 on the 7th day, hence this location would be free
to receive a new pile or windrow.

Figure 3.13: Arrangements and Turning of Windrows 18

Fresh water or leachate stored in the leachate tank should be sprinkled

during the turning process to maintain the moisture content of the
waste. Figure 3.14 depicts a quick and simple method to test moisture
content.

18 IEC brochure for windrow composting, GIZ (2012).

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 249

 Figure 3.14: Squeeze Test to Estimate Moisture Content 19

Squeeze the waste

Waste

If water drips then the moisture content is too high, hence addMoisture
bits of paper or hay.
content is O.K If it is dry then sprinkle water

Temperature should also be monitored and maintained within 55°C–

60°C. This is important because low or high moisture and variation in
temperature can slow down the composting process.

On the 35th day, the compost is successively sieved through two stage
screening system of 35 mm followed by 16 mm. Screened material
coming out of this section is uniform in texture but contains semi-solid
organic compost, which requires further stabilisation. The rejects from
the 35 mm screen are sent to the RDF and the screened material is sent
to the 16 mm screen. The rejects from the 16 mm (16 mm+) screen are
to be put back on the windrow as protective covering from bird
weeks in a covered area ensuresmenace
complete
andmaturation
vermin, andoffor
compost
odour control, as illustrated in Figure 3.11.

Curing: Screened material coming out of the coarse segregation section

requires further maturation and moisture control for producing a
product that is beneficial for plants and soil. The degree of maturity is
determined
through either oxygen uptake or CO2 production rate.

Maturity may also be determined through a simple test, wherein the

material is placed in a plastic bag and moistened to 60% water content,
the mouth of the bag is then closed. The plastic bag containing the moist
material is allowed to sit for 24–48 hours at room temperature (30°–
35°C). If foul odours are released when the bag is opened at the end of

19 IEC brochure for windrow composting, GIZ (2012).

 24–48 hours, it indicates that the material is not fully matured and needs to
undergo further decomposition.

The cured material does not release odours because of carbon stabilisation
during aerobic decomposition of biodegradable material in the windrow.
Microbial activity continues during the curing phase also, but at a lower rate
compared to the main composting phase.

Nevertheless, also during curing, the supply of adequate oxygen is ensured

through passive movement of air through the pile and moisture content is
maintained within 25%–30%. The curing piles are placed either in a storage
area or covered area for a minimum duration of 2 weeks. Mature and highthe
In general, quality
area compost should have a
Compost with either
needed for the curing process is one quarter of the size needed for the windrow higher or lower C/N ratio is
or composting process. The completely cured well-composted material does not
release foul odour and is ready for final screening and for the preparation of the
finished product for marketing.

Compost Refinement: At the end of composting phase, the material usually

contains 30%–35% moisture. The composting is normally taken to be
complete when the active decomposition stage is over and the carbon-to-
nitrogen (C/N) ratio is around 20.

The refinement section also consists of a feeder conveyer and a trommel with
4 mm perforations. The screened product less than 4 mm is passed through
air density separator (ADS) or de-stoner to remove sand and grit. Then the
compost can be put in bags and stored for sale. The remaining material
Final compost product should be less than 4 mm. Remaining material should be put o
greater than 4 mm should be put on top of the fresh incoming waste heap to
speed up the process of composting and for absorbing excess leachate. The
residue material from the ADS is inert laced with fine organic material. This
should be kept out of the composting stream. This material can be used for
landscaping.

The finished product is dark brown with an earthy smell, fragile, and rich in
organic matter content and nutrients.

Value-added product can be produced depending on the market demand

by enriching compost with beneficial microorganisms and nutrient sources
such as rock phosphate, pyrite, etc. The product is bagged and dispatched for
marketing to be used on farmer’s fields.

Based on the desired end use, the compost should comply with
specifications of the Fertiliser Control Order (FCO), 2009 & 2013 and
SWM Rules, 2016.

ctively set up 7 new processing plants producing compost and crude RDF at several locations through State Governmen
BBMP and then handed over to private operators for O&M through competitive bidding.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 251

 Figure 3.15: Unit operations in windrow composting20

Incoming waste at compost yard Rain shed

Primary screening Bagging machine

Leachate Management: Leachate is generated during composting as

the biodegradable matter is fermented. It is a thick liquid with strong
odour with very high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical
oxygen
uced should be collected and used for demand (COD). However, it has moisture and nutrients, which
waste heap can be put to good use. Leachate can be treated biologically. Control of
leachate is a very important part of operating a compost plant safely.
But design of an effective treatment for leachate is tricky.

For open aerobic composting windrows, leachate formation is low

during non-rainy season, and it can be rolled back into the windrows
by placing partially composted relatively dry material around the
windrows every day and pushing the absorbed leachate back to the
windrows. With a good standard operating procedure (SOP), this is
possible and beneficial for composting, as this step puts back some of
the nutrients and microbes back into the composting windrows.

During rainy season, depending on the rainfall, the leachate gets diluted
with rain water and significant volume is generated, which is beyond
the capacity of a leachate treatment plant designed for fair weather.
If the design is done for rainy season, the facility is completely under
utilised during rest of the year and its cost is very high. For strong
20 Taken from Nashik Waste Processing Facility, Nashik Municipal Corporation.
 leachate, single step treatment may be inadequate. Dilution with fresh
water followed by treatment in a stabilisation pond requires large
space and is not suitable for places near habitation (possible vector
breeding).

In high rainfall areas, it is necessary to cover the windrows either

temporarily (using water proof cover) or permanently using sheds
which have side cladding at the top with the roof and low wall at
ground level but otherwise open from the sides. Great care has to be
taken to design the height of the shed because adequate ventilation is
necessary. The design has to balance the higher cost of a heavy
structure needed for high wind load and the need for adequate
ventilation. Due to low height, fully covered windrows in high rainfall
areas suffer from slower process and higher moisture leading to
difficulty in screening.

Multilayered patented fabric covers are available, which allow

moisture to go out (causing odour) but the larger molecules are held
back. Such covers can be made a permanent feature, either in the form
of direct cover over the windrows or in tent-like formations, within
which the compostable material is stacked.

Another efficient way of controlling moisture is by using aerated

static pile technology, where there is direct control over aeration and
consequently on leachate generation.

Typical Equipment Required for Windrow Composting21

limited to suit the specialised compost turners. There are numerous turners available that are dependent on the desire

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 253

 21 Operation Manual for the Establishment of a Commercial Composting Facility, Prepared by Brent Hansen Environmental
in co-operation with the City of Brandon, USA; Available at: http://www.composting.ca/files/op_manual.pdf

254 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 3.2.8.4 AERATED STATIC PILE COMPOSTING

In the case of aerated static pile composting, forced aeration is used to

spread excess air through the windrows unlike the aerobic windrow
y requires mechanical aeration of composting piles
composting, where aeration is achieved by turning the windrows so
that new cut sections are exposed to air. The composting piles are
placed over a network of pipes connected to a blower, which supplies
the air for composting. Air can be supplied under positive or negative
pressure. When the composting process is nearly complete, the piles
are broken up for the first time since their construction. The compost is
then taken through a series of post-processing steps.

Unlike aerobic windrow composting, the aerated static pile has direct
control over aeration. This is the strength of this system, which can be
used to reduce the fermentation time and also save precious fuel
(diesel) used by the turning equipment. It has also been noted that
leachate generation is significantly reduced in case of aerated static pile
system.

eedstock Preparation of Feedstock: As the aerated static pile does not receive
ects from trommels, straw and wood chips
periodic to ensure
turnings, theair circulation
selection and initial mixing of raw materials is
critical to avoid poor air distribution and uneven composting. It should
be ensured that the feedstock is mixed with a stiff bulking agent such as
straw or wood chips. Other possible bulking agents and amendments
for static pile composting could include rejects from the 16/14 mm
pore size trommels, peat moss, crop residues, bark, leaves, etc.

Pre-processing: Aerated static piles can produce excellent compost,

provided two basic operating conditions are met:
 The pile of raw material has adequate porosity.
 The airflow system is efficient and provides adequate air flows
during the active composting period.

Pre-processing of raw MSW for composting in aerated static pile

plastics in the raw materials and hence facilitates efficient air circulation
involves:
 separation and removal of oversize, non-compostable inert materials;
 size reduction through chipping, grinding, or shredding if necessary;
and
 blending with composting trommel rejects, wood chips, and other
bulking agents to allow proper air distribution.

Detailed pre-processing requirements are discussed in detail in Section

3.2.7 of this chapter.

Process: The blended material is placed in stationary or static piles.

The piles are constructed above an air source, such as perforated
plastic pipes, aeration cones, or a perforated floor. Aeration is
accomplished
either by forcing or drawing air through the compost pile. It is very
important that the pile should be placed after the floors are first
covered with a layer of decay-resisting bulking agents such as wood Pre-processing involves:
chips or rejects from the 16 mm trommel. Segregation
Size
reduction
The size of the pile depends on the material to be composted, air flow
Blending with bulking agen
capabilities, and the type of handling equipment. The initial height
of the piles should be about 1.5–2.5 m high, depending on material
porosity, weather conditions, and the reach of the equipment used to
build the pile. Extra height is advantageous in lower temperatures as it
helps retain heat.

It may be necessary to top off the pile with 15 cm of finished compost

or bulking agent to provide insulation. This layer protects the surface
Controlled
of the pile from drying, insulates it from heat mechanical
loss, discourages aeration
flies, and enables construction o
the demand for land
filters ammonia and potential odours generated within the pile.

The air supply blower either forces air into the pile or draws air out of
it. Forcing air into the pile generates a positive pressure system, while
drawing air out of the pile creates negative pressure. The blowers are
controlled by a timer or a temperature feedback system similar to a
home thermostat. Air circulation in the compost piles provides the
needed oxygen for the composting microbes and also prevents
excessive heat buildup in the pile. Removing excess heat and water
vapour cools the pile to maintain optimum temperatures for microbial
It is suggested
activity. to cover
A controlled the top
air supply of the construction
enables pile with finished compost
of large piles,or bulking agent to ensur
which decreases the need for land.

Blowers used for aeration serve not only to provide oxygen, but also
to provide cooling. Blowers can be run continuously or at intervals.
When operated at intervals, the blowers are activated either at set time
intervals or based on compost temperature. Temperature-set blowers
are turned off when the compost cools below a particular temperature.
Blower aeration with temperature control allows for greater process
control than windrow turning.

In well-designed and operated aerated static pile composting system,

odour is much less than the aerobic windrow composting system. Even
then odours from the exhaust air could be controlled by filters. The
suction method of aeration allows better odour control than positive
pressure aeration, particularly if the air is directed through an odour
filter. An odour filter is essentially a pile of finished compost that has an
affinity for odour causing molecules. The disadvantage of using suction
is that not as much air can be pulled through the pile as can be pushed
through using positive pressure. Figure 3.16 illustrates composting in
an aerated static pile.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 255

 Figure 3.16: Aerated Static Pile22

er of matured
could also act as an odour filter Yard trimmings, source separated organics, or mixed MSW

4-8 ft
Blanket of finished compost, 6-12 inches

pile helps in Finished compost

eat and should be ideally at least Perforated aeration pipe
.5 m

Odour filter Blower

The temperatures in the inner portions of a pile are usually adequate

to destroy a significant number of pathogens and weed seeds. The
surface of piles, however, may not reach the desired temperatures for
atic pile technology usually takesdestruction of pathogens because piles are not turned in the aerated
s for producing
static pile technology. This problem can be overcome by placing a layer
mpost
of finished compost 6–12 inches thick over the compost pile.

Producing compost using this technology usually takes 6–12 weeks

depending on pre-processing of feedstock, air movement, and
temperature control.

Post processing: The compost produced needs to undergo post-

ng of compost involves separation
processing as it is mixed with bulking agents like wood chips. A
from the finished products through
trommel screen is used to separate the bulking agent from the finished
en
product, which is fine-grained and uniform compost. The size of the
compost particles depends on the usage, and the quality should comply
with the specifications of FCO, 2009 and 2013 and SWM Rules, 2016.

3.2.8.5 IN-VESSEL COMPOSTING

In-vessel composting systems enclose the feedstock in a chamber or

vessel that provides adequate mixing, aeration, and moisture. There are
several types of in-vessel systems available: drums, silos, digester bins,
and tunnels. These vessels can be single or multi-compartment units.
rtment vessels that provide mixing, aeration
In some cases,and
themoisture to waste
vessel rotates; feed the vessel is stationary and
in others,
a mixing or agitating mechanism moves the material around. Most in-
vessel systems are continuous-feed systems, although some operate in
a batch mode. Figure 3.12 below is a depiction of the in-vessel
composting process.

22 Decision Maker’s Guide to Solid Waste Management- Vol I, USEPA (1995). Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/ municipal/dmg2/chapter7.pdf.
Figure 3.17: Composting Process in In-Vessel Composting23

Exhaust to atmosphere
Exhaust air treatment
In-Vessel composting is recommended especially for k

Process Air Process Air

Biosolids and Enclosed composting vessels

amendments Mixing
Product curing

Optional screening or bagging

Air supply system

Product distribution

MSW Feedstock: The ideal feedstock for in-vessel composting will

be organic MSW commingled with food waste, which is highly
biodegradable. In fact, in-vessel composting is recommended especially
for kitchen and canteen food waste and even slaughterhouse wastes.

Pre-processing: In-vessel systems vary in their requirements for pre-

Types of In-
processing materials: some require minimal pre-processing vessel
(e.g., foodreactors:
Vertical plug flow
waste), while others require extensive pre-processing (mixed waste). and horizontal plug flow: fe
a periodic basis
All in-vessel systems require further curing after the material has been
Agitated bin: feedstock
discharged from the vessel. is loaded and agitated continuously

Process: In-vessel composting is accomplished inside an enclosed

container or vessel. Mechanical systems are designed to minimise
odour and process time by controlling environmental conditions such
as airflow, temperature, and oxygen concentration.

There are several types of in-vessel composting reactors: vertical plug

flow, horizontal plug flow, inclined rotary drum type, and agitated bed.

In vertical plug flow systems, the feedstock is introduced into the top
of the reactor vessel, and compost is discharged out at the bottom by
a horizontally rotating screw auger. Air is introduced in these systems
either from the bottom and travels up through the composting mass
where it is collected for treatment, or through lances hanging from the
top of the reactor.

In horizontal plug flow systems, the compost feedstock and bulking

agent mixture are loaded into one end of the reactor. A steel ram
pushes the mixture through the reactor. Air is introduced and
exhausted

23 Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet – In Vessel Composting of Biosolids (2000), USEPA. Available at:
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/ wastetech/upload/2002_06_28_mtb_invessel.pdf).

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 257

 through slots in the floor of the reactor. Compost is discharged from
the end of the reactor opposite the ram.

In the rotary drum type, the composting mass is introduced through

el, all environmental conditions can be controlled
a hopper from thetohigher
enhance
end.composting.
The material gets stabilised fast due to
ed the cascading process and the air flow introduced in the drum. The
material goes out in 5–7 days and cured further for 2 weeks followed
by screening.

The agitated bed reactors are typically open topped; the feedstock
is loaded from above. The composting mass is periodically agitated
using a mechanical device, and air is introduced through the floors of
the reactors. The vessel is emptied when the feedstock processing is
complete.

The detention time in the vessel varies from 3–10 days. Curing period
of 2–3 weeks is required after the active composting period. Since in-
vessel facilities are highly rated and highly capital-intensive, the design
involves a shorter residence period inside the vessel followed by a
relatively longer curing period outside the vessel.

A major advantage of in-vessel systems is that all environmental

conditions can be carefully controlled to allow rapid composting. These
es at least 12-14 weeks to produce mature compost
systems, if properly operated, produce minimal odours with little or
no leachate. In addition, the air supply can be precisely controlled.
Some units are equipped with oxygen sensors, and air is preferentially
supplied to the oxygen deficient portion of the vessel. In-vessel systems
enable exhaust gases from the vessel to be captured for odour control
and treatment.

3.2.8.6 DECENTRALISED COMPOSTING

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties of local authorities

(m)collect waste from vegetable, fruit, flower, meat, poultry and fish
market on day to day basis and promote setting up of decentralised
compost plant or biomethanation plant at suitable locations in the
markets or in the vicinity of markets ensuring hygienic conditions;
(t) involve communities in waste management and promotion of home
composting, bio-gas generation, decentralised processing of waste
at community level subject to control of odour and maintenance of
hygienic conditions around the facility;
(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste
processing facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or
 with private sector participation or through any agency for
Colony optimum
level and utilisation
ward levelofdecentralised composting
various components should
of solid be adopting
waste promoted by ULBs for source sep
suitable technology including the following technologies and
adhering to the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban
Development from time to time and standards prescribed by the
Central Pollution Control Board. Preference shall be given to
decentralised processing to minimize transportation cost and
environmental impacts such as-
a) biomethanation, microbial composting, vermi-composting,
anaerobic digestion or any other appropriate processing for bio-
stabilisation of biodegradable wastes;

Transportation of MSW through cities is a big issue. Decentralised

composting is one of the options to reduce the burden of
transportation of MSW in the urban local body (ULB).

Decentralised composting is the composting of source separated

organic waste in limited quantities from households, apartments,
neighbourhoods, markets, gardens, or the entire ward. The
decentralised composting approach reduces transportation costs and
makes use of low-cost technologies based mainlycomposting
Decentralised on manual can
labour.
be practiced in either box or bi
feed and cost implications
Decentralised composting facilities generally handle waste from very
small quantities up to 20 TPD depending on the size of the community
and volume of compostable waste material in the waste stream.

cified in its Solid Waste Management Plan that urban local bodies (ULBs) should give directions for installing composting

Municipal Solid Waste Feedstock: The feedstock for decentralised

composting should include kitchen waste like food, fruit, and vegetable
leftovers (rich in nitrogen content); and yard waste like leaves, twigs,
straw, and paper (rich in carbon content).

Pre-processing: The waste that reaches the decentralised composting

facility should be segregated at source so that only minimal sorting at
the facility is required.

Processing: Decentralised composting can be practiced using box or

bin composting. Box composting is typically carried out at the
community level, whereas bin composting may be practiced at
individual household level as well.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 259

3.2.8.6.1 Bin Composting

Depending on the quantum of input material, the size of the bin may
be decided. A series of bins may be used to accommodate all incoming
waste, as shown in Figure 3.18. The bottom of the bin should be
covered with a thick layer (15 cm) of coarse material, such as twigs,
broken pieces of stone, or mulch, if available. Over this drainage layer,
the feedstock is to be placed in layers. The feedstock should ideally
contain a mix of garden or yard waste, kitchen waste, dried leaves, and
paper. Water may be sprinkled to keep the heap moist. Care should be
taken not to add excess water; the heap should not be wet. Excessively
wet conditions can be prevented by placing more dried waste like dried
leaves, twigs, and paper. Finished compost may be sprinkled on top to
provide the required inoculum and to contain odour. This waste should
be turned regularly to hasten the composting process. High
temperatures are produced upon turning once every 5–10 days. This
also helps to kill larvae and weed seeds, and provides a conducive
environment for decomposer organisms. The composting process may
take between 45 days and 6 months, depending on the feedstock and
turning condition.

Figure 3.18: Bin Composting24

3.2.8.6.2 Box Composting

Box composting is practiced at the local community level and can cater
to wastes up to 3–5 tonnes. The total space requirements for box are
lower than for the windrow technology. The slab on which the boxes
are built should be sealed and sloped towards one side. Leachate
collection channels should be constructed, leading the leachate away
from the boxes toward a central collection point. To improve oxygen
supply to the pile within the boxes, the box wall contains gaps between
the bricks. The base of the box should be perforated and resistant to
corrosion to ensure aeration and drainage of excessive water from
the pile. The base should be equipped with small polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipes or a coated metal grid to facilitate aeration and drainage
of excessive water
24 Composting Methods, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, British Columbia (2004).
from the pile. Perforated PVC pipes placed vertically inside the box
provide additional oxygen exchange within the composting material.

Indicative cross sections for a 3-tonne compost box with shed, a

composting box, and drainage and aeration for box composting are
shown in Figure 3.19, Figure 3.20, and Figure 3.21.

The sorted organic waste is loosely spread in layers of 20 cm into the

box, around the vertical aeration pipes. If one box is not sufficient, the
remaining waste has to be spread in a second box. Assuming an input
load of 3 TPD of organic waste, two boxes are filled within 5–6 days.
The boxes receive one layer of waste per day. Every time a layer is
added, it is loosely mixed with the previous layer using a fork or shovel.
When the box is full, the waste is left for 40 days to go through a
thermophilic- mesophyllic composting process similar to the windrow
system.

Temperature and moisture are frequently monitored. If the material is

too dry, water is to be sprayed over the compost and the material is
leveled again. Since the waste is thoroughly mixed with coarse material
like straw, passive aeration takes place and there is no need to turn the
waste. After 40 days, one side of the box is opened and the fresh
compost is removed from the box and stored as a pile for further
maturation.
26
2
M
an
ua
l
on
M
un
ici
Figure 3.19: Cross Section of Typical 3 Tonne Composting Box25
pa
l
So
lid
W 100mm ø PVC Rain Ridge
aS
water pipe 100mm ø PVC Rain 50mm x 50mm x 6mm MS. angle
te
M Water Pipe 12mm ø MS. Bar
an 50mm x 50mm x 6mm MS. angle purlin
ag 150mm ø GI.
e 0.45mm thick C.I sheet
M
en
Pipe 300 L

900
t
4825 4825 4825
27
150 L 00
75mm ø G.I pipe
MS.
angle

900
support
500 L P. L.
GL
250mm x 300mm drain 75mm x 75mm hole or void
500mm x 500mm x 75mm
6mm MS. angle post 75mm sandbrick
fillingflat soling
& x frame

25 Decentralised composting for cities of low and middle income countries – a user’s manual; Available at: http://www.ircwash.org/resources/decentralised-composting-cities-low-and-middle-income-countries-users-
manual
Figure 3.20: Typical Cross Section of Composting Box 26

Figure 3.21: Cross Section of Drainage Channels and Vertical Pipes 27

Vertical pipe placed in the pile

Screening: The mature compost has a rather coarse texture. The

particle size of the compost strongly depends on the size and
composition of input material. Further screening is required to produce
finer compost. A flat frame sieve or a rotating drum sieve is used for
screening. Each size and type of sieve with its particular mesh size is
suited for a particular throughput and application. Selection of screen
sizes is dependent on the desired final compost characteristics.
26 Ibid.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 263

 27 Ibid.

264 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Decentralised Composting in a Residential Colony

At General Pool Residential Accommodation (GPRA) Complex, New Moti Bagh, New Delhi, a
facility has been established with the support from the Ministry of Urban Development and
as biofuel. Plastics from waste are converted into mixture of liquid fuel, which is close to lig
This model may be replicated for large gated community with necessary financial support.

.g., dry leaves, and grasses) media. The process involves mixing and initiation of aerobic digestion of organic waste wi
 An Institutional Model for Decentralised Waste Management: Miranda
CASE
STUDY
House, University of Delhi

Miranda House, University of Delhi has had a

paper recycling plant since 2004. However, an effort of the
college towards creating a zero-waste campus was started in
2013 by the initiative of MH Vatavaran, the Environment
Society, with encouragement and active support from the
Principal. Under this initiative, the college has set up a
composting unit in addition to the paper recycling unit. The
handmade paper unit is managed by operating staff specially
employed by the college, while the operation of the
composting unit has been contracted out to GreenBandhu—
the firm which installed the plant—for 1 year.

The composting facility manages about 150 kg of organic

waste on a daily basis including waste from the hostel kitchen
and canteen, as well as horticultural waste. The segregated
kitchen waste that is received at the plant sometimes
needs further segregation. This segregated waste is
pulverized and dewatered, mixed with horticulture waste and
cured compost, and put in covered containers for
composting. The final product is utilized for the college
garden, and the surplus manure is bought by the service
provider at the rate of Rs. 5 per kg.

The handmade paper unit consisting of a shredder,

beater, univat, screw press, and calendering machine
handles the paper waste from the college. On average,
approximately 12–15 sheets are produced per day. Initially,
file folders, gift envelopes, and carry bags were being
produced. The college is now experimenting with producing
printing quality handmade paper for internal use.

The overall cost for the installation of the composting facility

was Rs. 4,00,000, and the college pays Rs. 5,000 and Rs.
1,200 per month to the service provider as salary for an
operator and a helper respectively. Approximately 50 kg of
compost is produced on average every day. The cost for
installation of the currently functional handmade paper unit is
approximately Rs. 4,50,000.

Section 1.4.5.8 of Part II contain case studies of successful

decentralised SWM initiatives.

3.2.8.7 VERMICOMPOSTING

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 265

 C orities:-
l
a (t) involve communities in waste management and
u promotion of home composting, bio-gas
s generation, decentralised processing of waste at
e community level subject to control of odour and
maintenance of hygienic conditions around the
1 facility;
5
(v) facilitate construction, operation and
:
D maintenance of solid waste processing facilities
u and associated infrastructure on their own or
t
i
e
s

a
n
d

r
e
s
p
o
n
s
i
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s

o
f

l
o
c
a
l
a
u
t
h

266 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 with private sector participation or through any agency for
optimum utilisation of various components of solid waste adopting
suitable technology including the following technologies and
adhering to the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban
Development from time to time and standards prescribed by the
Central Pollution Control Board. Preference shall be given to
decentralised processing to minimize transportation cost and
environmental impacts such as-
a) biomethanation, microbial composting, vermi-composting,
anaerobic digestion or any other appropriate processing for bio-
stabilisation of biodegradable wastes;

Vermicompost is the castings of earthworms. In the present context,

vermicomposting is the process of composting the biodegradable
fraction
isms to turn kitchen waste into black andofnutrient
MSW richwithhumus
the help of earthworms, resulting in the
production of vermicompost which can be used in agricultural fields as a
soil conditioner and nutrient supplier. Vermicompost is richer in plant
nutrients compared with normal compost prepared from similar
material; it has some cocoons which develop into worms when put in the
soil and continues to do their work of conversion. Vermicompost draws
better market price as compared with compost and, in addition, sale of
worms can bring in additional revenue. The worms can be further
utilised for initiating a fresh vermicomposting process and also as bait
for fishing. The efficiency of vermicomposting process depends on
selection of proper species of earthworms and their optimal growth.

Vermicomposting is typically suited for managing smaller waste

quantities. It is an ideal technology for towns that generate up to 50
mmonly used earthworms: TPD of MSW which is thoroughly segregated either at source or in the
eretima elongata plant. The worm species that are considered efficient for conversion of
mpito mauritii waste are Eisenia fetida, Perionyx excavatus, Lampito mauritii, Eudrilus
enia fetida
eugeniae, Lumbricus rubellus, Pheretima elongata, etc.
ionyx excavatus
drilus eugeniae
Municipal Solid Waste Feedstock: Kitchen waste is the preferred
feedstock for vermicomposting; however, some materials like meat
waste, greasy and oily food, and dairy products tend to foul the bed and
cause bad odour. Other suitable feedstock are vegetable market waste,
garden waste, cow dung, and agricultural waste. In fact, stabilised
cattle manure is very useful in preparing the bed and initiating the
vermicomposting process.

Vermi bed or pit: A vermicompost pit of any convenient dimension

can be constructed in the backyard or garden, field, or shed. It may be a
single pit, two or four interconnected pits, or preferably above ground
chambers with proper water outlets. However, the depth or height
should not be more than 0.75 m so that the bottom part also gets some
aeration and the earthworms are not put under a heavy moist load.
Two
important points to keep in consideration while vermicomposting are
the protection of the worms from predators (ants, birds, snakes, etc.)
Vermicomposting takes place at 20- 30°C which is the most favourable t
and maintenance of high temperature (above 40°C) and dry
environment (low moisture below 40%). Temperature of 20°C–30°C
and moisture of about 70% is ideal for most of the earthworm species
employed for vermicomposting. This means that the climatic
conditions should be conducive unless the whole process is carried out
in a carefully controlled climate. Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio of 15–
35: 1 is suitable. Typical density of earthworms should be 1–4 kg per
m2 on average.

The vermin bed is a multilayered chamber lined with coarse sand or

gunny bags, or straw and stalks at the bottom, above which a 15–20 cm
layer of lightly moist composted cattle manure is placed. Some
operators prefer to mix loamy soil with the composted manure.
Suitable number of earthworms are introduced in this layer. After 1–2
days, segregated biodegradable waste is introduced. In small
operations, the waste can be directly put over the cattle manure in thin
layers. The worms move up to Worm
reach the waste
casting or material
vermicastwhich is their
food. The bed is covered looselyshould be stored in sacks for at
with wet gunny bags or palm leastor
fronds a month to ensure complet
any available material, serving two purposes: (i) moisture is retained,
and (ii) darkness is maintained as the worms usually want to stay away
from light. One has to take care that any material containing toxic
matter or heavy metals does not get into the vermin bed.

For large operations, it is necessary to pre-compost the input material

so that the heat generated during the initial phase gets dissipated and
the material cools down to ambient conditions. Pre-composting is
best done in aerobic windrows or aerated static piles for faster results.
Building up a large workforce of worms is essential for processing large
quantity of waste.

Under Indian conditions, the entireSince

cycleearthworms are very sensitive
of vermicomposting takes towards heavy metals
waste feed is not contaminated
about 10 weeks. In case of pre-composted material, about 7-8 weeks
is required. For harvesting, great care is required to ensure that the
worms are not injured. Coning of the vermicompost is done when the
worms move downwards to the bottom. The vermicompost is carefully
scooped out from the top. As the pit progressively gets emptied, the last
15–20 cm layer which retains the worms is used for next load of waste
to be treated. Commonly encountered problems, as well as possible
causes and solutions are tabulated below in Table 3.4

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 267

 Table 3.4: Vermicomposting- Problems, Possible Causes and Solutions 28

PROBLEMS POSSIBLE CAUSES SOLUTIONS

Foul odour Overfeeding Remove the excess food, remove meat
or dairy products if any
Not enough air Fluff up or loosen bedding
circulation or anaerobic
conditions
Bed too wet Add bedding to absorb moisture
Flies Waste exposed Bury the waste completely
Ant Immerse the base or feet of the vermi
infestation bed in water
A barrier of chalk or petroleum jelly
may repel the ants
If bedding seems dry, add water
Mite Avoid adding foods with high
infestation moisture content
Worms are Bed too wet Do not water till it reaches
dying or appropriate moisture
crawling away Bed too dry Sprinkle water till it turns moist
Excess temperature, not Sprinkle water till it turns
enough air, not enough moist and temperature drops,
food add waste appropriately
Bed packed tightly Turn bed and make it fluffy

3.2.9 YARD WASTE COMPOSTING

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(p) collect horticulture, parks and garden waste separately and process
in the parks and gardens, as far as possible.

ULBs should ensure that horticulture waste in parks and gardens

should be used in the most optimum ways to minimise the cost of
collection and transportation of such waste. Yard waste such as leaves,
grass clippings, straw, and nonwoody plant trimmings can be
composted on site, thereby reducing the amount of waste to be handled
by ULBs. However, some of these contain higher percentage of
lignocellulosic material which takes much longer time for composting
process to complete, e.g., straw, dried stems, etc. These can be readily
converted into mulch in shorter time.

In places where large quantities of horticultural waste are generated,

e.g., leaves and pruning, especially during rainy, autumn, and spring
seasons, it may be a good idea to convert such leftover material into
mulch which could not be composted.

28 IEC brochure for Vermicomposting, GIZ (2012).

Feedstock: Leaves, grass clippings, and weeds make good compost.
Additionally, fruit and vegetable scraps can also be composted. Woody
brown materials such as autumn leaves are high in carbon while green,
moist material such as grass clippings are high in nitrogen.

 high nitrogen ‘green’ ingredients include grass clippings, weeds,

fruit and vegetables, coffee grounds, tea bags, eggshells, manure,
alfalfa hay or meal.
 high carbon ‘brown’ ingredients include autumn leaves, straw,
cornstalks, wood chips, saw dust, pine needles.

Using approximately three parts of ‘brown’ material to one part ‘green’

material optimises the composting process and prevents odours from
developing.

Process: Barrel or drum composter can be used for composting to save

space and hasten decomposition. Bins made of wire, wood, or even
garbage cans with drainage holes can be used for the purpose. It should
be ensured that the bins are rodent resistant and have a secure cover.
The bottom of the pile should consist of coarse material like corn
stalks to build in air passages. Alternating layers of ‘brown’ and ‘green’
material with shovel full of compost or farmyard manure on top of each
layer should be added. Shredding of leaves and twigs will shorten the
composting time. A nitrogen source like manure should be placed on
top of this layer to increase microbial activity and hasten the process.
Water should be added to the pile to keep it moist; however, care
should be taken to prevent waterlogging. The pile should be turned
every few days to provide aeration and prevent odours. A properly
mixed and adequately turned compost pile does not produce odour.

If only leaves are to be composted, layering is not required. Fallen

leaves can be added as they are collected and should be moistened.
However, addition of manure will be required to hasten
decomposition.

Generally, the compost from a well-managed pile made up of shredded

material under warm conditions will be ready in about 2 months. When
the compost is ready, the pile will be reduced to half of its original
size and will have an earthy smell to it. Table 3.5 lists some of the
common problems encountered during yard waste composting and
their solutions.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 269

Table 3.5: Yard Composting-Problems and Solutions29

PROBLEMS POSSIBLE CAUSES SOLUTION

Material • Not enough nitrogen • Add enough nitrogen-rich
in the bin • Not enough oxygen sources like manure, grass
not clippings, or food scraps
• Not enough moisture
decomposing or • Mix the material regularly
not heating
• Add water to moist the pile
up at all
Matted leaves • Poor aeration • Loosen material with rake
or grass due to self • Avoid adding thick layers of
clippings are not compaction, same material.
decomposing especially when
• Shred material before mixing
wet
• Lack of moisture
Stinks like • Lack of oxygen • Turn the material to
rancid butter, • Bin is too wet provide aeration
vinegar, or or compacted • Add coarse dry material like
rotten eggs straw, hay, or leaves to soak
• Presence of
cooked food excess moisture and mix well
Vermin problem • Inappropriate • Adjust the moisture by adding
or fly larvae material (meat, dairy dry material or ash.
products) • Place the bin where there is
• Bin is too wet sun so that heat can destroy fly
• Poor aeration larvae, weed seeds, and other
pathogens.
• Change to fly-proof closed bin
with enough aeration.
Odour like • Not enough carbon • Add brown material like dried
ammonia leaves, straw, hay, shredded
paper, etc.
Attracts rodents, • Inappropriate • Remove inappropriate
flies, or other material (meat, oil, materials from compost bin.
animals bones) • Switch to a rodent-proof safe
• Material like fresh bin.
food scrap is too
close to the surface
of the bin
29 Practical Action, “Home Composting Bins”. Available at: http://practicalaction.org/media/preview/12742/lng:en.
 3.2.10 SUMMARY: CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF
COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGIES

The choice of composting technology depends on a number of criteria

which include quantity of waste to be processed, land requirement,
climatic conditions, stability, energy requirements, financial
implications, monitoring requirements, and aesthetic issues. Table 3.6
gives a brief overview of different composting technologies.

Table 3.6: Summary of Different Composting Technologies30

PARAMETER WINDROW AERATED IN-VESSEL VERMICOMPOSTING

S STATIC PILE
General Simple Effective for Large-scale Small scale
technology farm and systems for
for large municipal use commercial
scale applications
application
Amount of 1–500 tonnes 1–500 tonnes 1–300 tonnes upto 50 tonnes
input waste
per day to
be treated
Land 8 ha for 5 ha for 500 4 ha for 2 ha for 50 TPD
requirement 500 TPD TPD 500 TPD
including (Less land (Limited land
buffer zones required given due to rapid
faster rates and rates)
effective pile
volumes)
Time 8 weeks 5 weeks 4 weeks 8 -10 weeks
(3–5 days
in vessel;
3 weeks
to
mature)
Ambient Not Not temperature Not Temperature sensi-
temperature temperature sensitive temperature tive (20°C–40°C ideal
sensitive sensitive range, maximum
40°C)
Energy input Moderate Moderate (2-3 High Low
hours aeration)
Financial Moderate Costly Very costly Moderate but
implications purchase of exotic
earthworms
suitable for MSW
vermicomposting are
expensive
Odour and Odour is Moderate but Minimum None
aesthetic an issue if controls can be due to
issues turning is used such as equipment
inadequate pile insulation failure or
and filters on system
air system design failure

30 Expert Committee for the revision of MSWM Manual (2014).

272 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 3.2.11 MONITORING OF COMPOST PLANTS

Routine testing and monitoring is an essential part of any composting

operation. Monitoring the composting process provides information
necessary to maintain a high-quality operation. At least the following
parameters should be monitored:
 windrow temperature (daily);
 oxygen concentrations in the compost mass (daily);
 moisture content (daily); and
 full analysis as per FCO, 2009 and 2013 for each batch after
preparation of finished compost.

Compost quality should be monitored by the operator of the compost

facility per batch of compost being sold to the market. If the facility
O, 2009 and its amendments before being used as soil conditioner
does not have sufficient laboratory capacity to perform all the tests,
National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories
(NABL) accredited laboratories should be contracted to perform these
tests on a regular basis. Compost that does not meet specified
standards should be put to uses other than for application to food
crops. A standard operating procedure for windrow composting is
given in Annexure 5.

3.2.11.1 qUALITY PARAMETERS FOR COMPOST PRODUCTION

The compost which is to be used as fertiliser for food crops should

ds abide by the more stringent FCO, 2009, while compost used as a soil
M are included in the FCO, 2013 conditioner and for other purposes should at least meet the
requirements of SWM Rules, 2016. Phosphatic fertiliser is in short
supply in the country. The use of phosphate rich organic manure
(PROM) can reduce the use of phosphatic fertilisers to some extent;
PROM is formed by the mixing of rock phosphate with MSW derived
compost. The FCO, 2013 specified quality standards for PROM, while
retaining the standards specified in FCO, 2009 for organic compost.

As per SWM Rules, 2016, Table 3.7 specifies the compost quality
standards. Table 3.8 presents the standards for vermicompost quality
as specified by the FCO, 2009.

street sweeping coupled with appropriate pre-sorting and segregation of raw material for composting will, to a large ex
 Table 3.7: Compost quality Standards as per Solid Waste Management Rules,
2016; Fertiliser Control Order, 2009; and Fertiliser Control
Order, 2013

PARAMETERS ORGANIC COMPOST PHOSPHATE RICH ORGANIC

MANURE (PROM)
FCO 2009 FCO (PROM) 2013
Arsenic (mg/kg) 10.00 10.00
Cadmium (mg/kg) 5.00 5.00
Chromium (mg/kg) 50.00 50.00
Copper (mg/kg) 300.00 300.00
Lead (mg/kg) 100.00 100.00
Mercury (mg/kg) 0.15 0.15
Nickel (mg/kg) 50.00 50.00
Zinc (mg/kg) 1000.00 1000.00
C/N ratio <20 less than 20:1
pH 6.5 - 7.5 (1:5 solution) maximum
6.7
Moisture, % by 15.0-25.0 25.0
weight, maximum
Bulk density (g/cm3) <1.0 Less than 1.6
Total organic carbon, % 12.0 7.9
by weight, minimum
Total nitrogen (N), % 0.8 0.4
by weight, minimum
Total phosphate (P2O5), % 0.4 10.4
by weight, minimum
Total potassium (K2O), % 0.4 _
by weight, minimum
Colour Dark brown to black _
Odour Absence of foul odour _
Particle size Minimum 90% Minimum 90% material
material should pass should pass through 4.0 mm
through 4.0 mm IS IS sieve
sieve
Conductivity 4.0 8.2
(as dsm-1), not more than
Note:
• Tolerance limits as per FCO:
i. For compost- A sum total of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium nutrients shall
not be less than 1.5% in compost
ii. For PROM- No such directive
• “–” Not applicable

274 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Table 3.8: Vermicompost Standards as per Fertilizer Control Order, 2009

S.NO CRITERIA VALUE

1. Moisture % by weight 15.0–25.0
2. Colour Dark brown to black
3. Odour Absence of foul odour
4. Particle size Minimum 90% material
should pass through 4.0 mm
IS sieve
5. Bulk density 0.7–0.9
6. Total organic carbon, % by weight, minimum 18.0
7. Total nitrogen (N), % by weight, minimum 1.0
8. Total phosphates (P2O5), % by weight, 0.8
minimum
9. Total potash (K2O), % by weight, minimum 0.8
10. Heavy metal content (mg/kg) by weight,
maximum
a. Cadmium (Cd) 5.00
b. Chromium (Cr) 50.0
c. Nickel (Ni) 50.0
d. Lead (Pb) 100.0
Note:
Tolerance Limit for vermicompost: The sum total of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
nutrients should not be less than 2.5 % in the case of vermicompost.

3.2.12 INTEGRATION OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR

Integrating waste pickers into organised or formal waste management

programmes can improve the quality of their working conditions
vide livelihood opportunities to the informal sector
and their earning . Waste pickers could be trained and employed in
the pre- processing facility at the compost plant. Since they are
already used to work with waste material, they have good acumen
and aptitude for such work. Refer to Section 3.1.6 and Section
1.4.5.9 of Part II for further details on integrating the waste pickers
into formal systems.

3.2.13 HUMAN RESOURCE REqUIREMENT

Compost plant operators shall ensure that all personnel assigned to

the operation shall be trained in subjects pertinent to operation and
maintenance (O&M), physical contaminants, and hazardous material
ity recognition and screening, with emphasis on odour impact
in waste management plants is essential
management and emergency procedures. A record of such training
shall be maintained on the site.
The level and nature of staffing and training should be adequate for
environmentally responsible and safe management of the composting
facility. Staffing levels should be high enough to ensure that the facility
can comply at all times with provisions of the SWM Rules, 2016 and
other applicable guidance or consent.
 Staff training should be effective enough to ensure the following:
 all operators of the plant and its equipment are skilled at undertaking
all the tasks required of them;
 all personnel who inspect incoming waste are skilled at identifying
unacceptable waste and recording data accurately;
 laboratory staff is well informed of sampling practices and requisite
analysis. They should be conversant with the impacts of different
parameters to be able to suggest process modifications based on an
analysis of the results. Constant communication with plant operating
staff on related matters is crucial;
 compost quality should be regularly checked through NABL accredited
laboratories, at least once a month or as per direction of the State
Pollution Control Board (SPCB).

Staffing requirements will vary as a function of the size of the facility, the
type of waste input, and the diversity and complexity of site operations.

Indicative staff requirement for a 300 TPD windrow composting plant is

given in Table 3.9:

Table 3.9: Indicative Staff Requirement for a 300 TPD Compost Plant (Windrow) 31

S. NO. GRADE qUALIFICATION ExPERIENCE NUMBER

1. General Bachelor of Engineering 2-3 years 1
manager (BE)
2. Shift in-charge Diploma 1 to 2 years 2
3. Mechanic Industrial Training Institute 3 years 2
(ITI)
4. Plant operator Higher Secondary School 1-2 years 3
5. Chemist Bachelor of Science 3 years 2
6. Accounts officer Bachelor of Commerce 3 years 1
7. Skilled worker - 2-3 years 4
8. Semi-skilled - - 6
workers
9. Unskilled worker - - 12
10. Drivers - 3-4 years 20
11. Contractual - - 24
labour

3.2.14 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION AVOIDANCE

THROUGH COMPOSTING

MSW contains large fractions of organic waste, which is a potential

source of methane and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Methane is a highly polluting GHG with a global warming potential 21
times more than that of carbon dioxide. Composting, an aerobic
process, transforms a

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF PROCESSING AND TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID 275

WASTE
 31 Inter-Ministerial Task Force on Integrated Plant Nutrient Management Using City Compost (2005).

276 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 range of organic substrates into stable humus like material through microbial
decomposition. In the process, methane emissions to the atmosphere are
avoided, which would otherwise result from anaerobic decay of waste in a
disposal site, e.g., open waste disposal site or landfills.

Composting is acknowledged by the United Nations Framework Convention

on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as one of the emission reduction methodologies
in waste management. However, the potential for realising financial gain
through sale of carbon credits is rather limited in the current global climate
regime.

3.3 WASTE TO ENERGY

Waste to energy (WtE) refers to the process of generating energy in the form
of heat or electricity from MSW. Energy from MSW can be achieved through:
1. thermal processes like incineration or combustion of refuse derived fuel
(RDF); and
2. biological processes like biomethanation and further conversion into
electrical power or automotive fuel (compressed biogas).

3.3.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016: GUIDANCE ON

WASTE TO ENERGY

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-
(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste
processing facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or
with private sector participation or through any agency for optimum
utilisation of various components of solid waste adopting suitable
technology including the following technologies and adhering to the
guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban Development from time to
time and standards prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board.
Preference shall be given to decentralised processing to minimize
transportation cost and environmental impacts such as-
b) waste to energy processes including refused derived fuel for
combustible fraction of waste or supply as feedstock to solid waste
% of
vered as heat energy through waste based power
to energy plants or cement kilns;
technologies

Clause 18: Duties of the industrial units located within one hundred km
from the refused derived fuel and waste to energy plants based on solid
waste- All industrial units using fuel and located within one hundred km from
a solid waste based refused derived fuel plant shall make arrangements
within six months from the date of notification of these rules to replace at
least five percent of their fuel requirement by refused derived fuel so
produced.
 Clause 21. Criteria for waste to energy process.-
(1) Non recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500 K/cal/kg or
more shall not be disposed of on landfills and shall only be utilised
for generating energy either or through refuse derived fuel or by
giving away as feed stock for preparing refuse derived fuel.
(2) High calorific wastes shall be used for co-processing in cement or
thermal power plants.
(3) The local body or an operator of facility or an agency designated
by them proposing to set up waste to energy plant of more than five
tones per day processing capacity shall submit an application in
Form-I to the State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control
Committee, as the case may be, for authorisation.
(4) The State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee,
on receiving such application for setting up waste to energy facility,
shall examine the same and grant permission within sixty days.

3.3.2 WASTE TO ENERGY (WtE) IN THE

INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
HIERARCHY Since recovering energy value in waste prior to final di
to direct landfilling, WtE option lies above landfilling in
The integrated solid waste management (ISWM)
ISWM hierarchy indicates
hierarchy
that recovery of energy from waste is preferable only after considering
the potential for recovery of material. Valuable energy is sought to be
recovered after ensuring that all possible reduce, recycle, and recover
mechanisms have been adopted.

Figure 3.22: WtE in the Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy

Most Preferred
At Source Reduction & Reuse
Recycling Composting Waste to Energy
Landfills
Recovering energy before final disposal of waste (e.g. RDF, biomethanation,
Least Preferred
co-processing of combustible non- biodegradable dry fraction of MSW, incineration)

Proven WtE technologies include incineration of MSW with recovery of

energy, either as heat or converted to electricity and production of high
calorific value RDF, which is fast gaining acceptance. However, stringent
norms specifying quality standards and conditions for its utilisation are
awaited from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC). There are various other technologies under discussion, such
as pyrolysis and gasification, which are not yet proven under Indian
conditions for treatment of MSW.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF PROCESSING AND TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID 277

WASTE
 Combustion technologies in India have to cope with the comparably
high moisture and inert content, as is common in Indian waste.
However, doorstep segregation of waste, segregated management of
inert wastes, and pre-treatment to separate the high calorific fraction
(RDF) can enable efficient thermal processes (refer to Section 3.5 of
Part II).

Application of technologies like pyrolysis and gasification to treat MSW

is at a very nascent stage in the country, with one or two experimental
plants in the process of being set up. Nevertheless, Section 3.6 of Part II
provides an overview of these technologies.

WTE plants are an expensive option for managing MSW, requiring

skilled staffing and adoption of high-level technologies. They also
have the potential to cause significant environmental impacts through
emissions and fly ashes if plants are not operated efficiently and if
appropriate emission control mechanisms are not adopted.

tE)

ssing optimally to manage the ever growing waste quantities. The draft guidelines by the Task Force constituted by the
-case basis and should only be considered after waste reduction and responsible recycling programs are implemented
are the following:
ve bidding to set up, operate and maintain the waste processing facility for a long term not below 20 years;
onstruct, operate and maintain the plant;
g term contract;
M) of at least one such plant.

nergy recovery) can reduce the volume of waste to be landfilled by 90%

3.3.3 INCINERATION

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves combustion of

waste at very high temperatures in the presence of oxygen and results
in the production of ash, flue gas, and heat. Incineration is a feasible
technology for combustion of unprocessed or minimum processed
refuse and for the segregated fraction of high calorific value waste.
 The potential for energy generation depends on the composition,
density, moisture content, and presence of inert in the waste. In
practice, about 65%–80 % of the energy content of the organic matter
can be recovered as heat energy, which can be utilised either for direct
thermal applications or for producing power via steam turbine
generators.

Besides the potential for energy use, incineration of MSW helps to

reduce landfill volumes. Incineration is an option especially where
other better options of processing of waste are not feasible and land for
landfilling and other waste processing methods is scarce.

3.3.3.1KEY CRITERIA FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE INCINERATION

MSW incineration projects are appropriate only if the following overall

criteria are fulfilled: The success of waste incineration projects depends en
characteristics
 a mature and well-functioning waste management and quantity
system has been
in place for a number of years;
 incineration is especially relevant for the dry bin content in a two-
bin system. For unsegregated waste, pre-treatment is necessary;
 the lower calorific value (LCV)32 of waste must be at least 1,450
kcal/kg (6 MJ/kg) throughout all seasons. The annual average LCV
must not be less than 1,700 kcal/kg (7 MJ/ kg);33
 the furnace must be designed in line with best available technologies
to ensure stable and continuous operation and complete burnout
of the waste and flue gases. MSW is usually incinerated in a grate
incinerator. Uniform combustion of waste is dependent on the grate
design. Please refer to section 3.3.3.6.1 for further detail;
 the supply of waste should be stable and amount to at least 500 TPD
of segregated waste;
 produced electricity or stream can be sold on a sustainable basis
(e.g., feeding into the general grid at adequate tariffs).
 it is possible to absorb the increased treatment cost through
management charges and tipping fees.
 skilled staff can be recruited and maintained.
 since the capital investment is very high, the planning framework of
the community should be stable enough to allow a planning horizon
of 25 years or more.
 pre-feasibility study for the technology lead to positive conclusions
for the respective community.
 strict monitoring systems are proposed and followed.

32 LCV or net calorific value (NCV) is determined by subtracting the heat of vaporization of the water vapor in the
combustion reaction products from the higher heating value or gross calorific value (GCV), giving a lower
value than the GCV.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 279

 33 Decision Maker’s Guide to Municipal Solid Waste Incineration, The World Bank, 1999

280 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 3.3.3.2 KEY CONSIDERATIONS FOR INCINERATION OF
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
s, the supply of waste feed should be at least 1000 TPD of mixed waste
Incineration of municipal solid waste should meet with the following
criteria:
 minimum gas phase combustion temperature of 850°C and a
minimum residence time of the flue gases, above this temperature,
of two seconds after the last incineration air supply;
 optimum oxygen content (lower than 6%) should be maintained to
minimise corrosion and ensure complete combustion. The carbon
monoxide content of the flue gas is a key indicator of the quality of
combustion;

Operational Incineration Plants in India (as of January 2015)34

Currently, five waste to energy (WtE) plants are operational or under

construction, which are expected to receive grants from the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) as per their Programme on Energy
from Urban, Industrial and
Agricultural Waste or Residues. MNRE is aiming at compliance with international
emission standards for WtE plants in India. Some details of the plants supported
by MNRE are given below:

Delhi: Timarpur-Okhla Waste Management Company is an initiative of Jindal ITF

Ecopolis. The incineration plant was commissioned in January 2012 and is processing
about 1,600 TPD of waste. The MSW after pre-processing is being fed into the
incineration plant and is generating about 16 megawatts (MW) of electricity.

Delhi, Ghazipur: Of the 2,000 TPD of waste received at the landfill, the facility will
process about 1,300 TPD to generate 433 TPD of RDF which will be utilised for
generation of 12 MW power. The project is under construction. The public private
partnership (PPP) operator is Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services
(IL&FS).

Bengaluru: An 8-MW power plant is in the process of being set up in

Bangalore. This initiative is carried out under a PPP framework between M/s
Srinivasa Gayithri Resources Recovery and Bruhat Bangaluru Mahanagara Palike
(BBMP). The plant is not yet operational.

Pune: A 10-MW WTE plant based on gasification technology is being set up in

Pune by Rochem Separation Systems as one of the pilot projects. The plant will
utilize 700 TPD of waste for production of 10 MW of electricity. The plant is
not yet operational.

Hyderabad: An 11-MW power plant will utilize 1,100 TPD of MSW. It is being
installed in the Nalgonda district of Telangana by RDF Power Projects. The plant will
produce refuse- derived fuel (RDF) for in-house incineration and power
generation. The plant is under construction.
34 Waste incineration for urban India: valuable contribution to sustainable MSWM or inappropriate high-tech solution
affecting livelihoods and public health? Dube. R, Nandan. V & Dua. S (2014). Int. J. Environmental Technology and
Management, Vol. 17, Nos. 2/3/4 and further updated information by MNRE (2015).
  fly ash acts as catalyst for de novo synthesis (at 200°C–450°C) of
dioxins and furans. In order to reduce formation of dioxins and
furans, it is imperative that maximum fly ash is removed before
gases cool to the range of 200°C–450°C;
 the flue gases produced in the boilers should be treated by an
elaborate flue gas treatment system.

3.3.3.3 OVERVIEW OF THE INCINERATION PROCESS

The following general description of an incineration plant includes the

crucial processing steps and aspects:
 siting of an incineration plant;
 waste reception and handling (storage, on-site pre-treatment
facilities);
 combustion and steam generation system;
 flue gas cleaning system;
 energy generation system (steam turbine and generator in case the
unit is equipped for WTE recovery);
 residual hauling and disposal system; and
 monitoring and controlling incineration conditions.
The siting of incineration plants should consider all th
In designing each of these process steps, theto waste
type(s)generation point,
of waste that aretraffic and transport, air q
to energy
treated in a concrete installation has to be reflected. distribution networks, utilities and landfills

3.3.3.4 SITING OF INCINERATION PLANT

The location of a MSW incineration plant should always be determined

with respect to both economic and environmental issues. Some of the
key criterias for siting an incineration facility are the following:
 a controlled and well-operated landfill must be available for
disposing residues (bed and fly ash);
 MSW incineration plants should be located in land-zones dedicated
to medium or heavy industry;
 MSW incineration plants should be at least 300–500 meters from
residential zones;
 in case of steam production, the plants should be located near
suitable energy consumers.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 281

 Figure 3.23: Typical Mass Burn Incinerator35

Waste bunker Combustion boiler Electrostatic

chamber precipitator

Primary air system

Slag discharger Wet scrubberDeNOx - PlantStack
Horizontal grate Flue gas fan
Turbine or generator steam or water cycle

orage area should 3.3.3.5 WASTE RECEPTION AND HANDLING

way as to allow for daily and weekly variations
and for mixing Figure 3.23 provides an overview of the design of an incineration plant.
The incoming waste reception area is usually a waterproof concrete
ze, composition etc. bed which receives waste from vehicles usually after visual control and
weighing. Enclosure of the delivery area can be one of the effective
means of avoiding odour, noise, and emission problems from the waste.

The waste is piled and mixed in the bunker using cranes equipped
with grapples. The mixing of waste helps to achieve a balanced heat
value, size, structure, composition, etc. of the material dumped into the
incinerator filling hoppers. The bunker must have a storage capacity
for at least 3–5 days depending on the plant’s operational capacity. The
storage area will also depend on local factors and the specific nature of
the waste.

Waste Feeder: The key objective behind the waste feeder system is to
supply exactly the right amount of fuel to the grate that is necessary to
achieve minimum negative pressure and desired temperature for
waste is essential to ensure combustion efficiency
stable combustion and energy generation. The feed rate must be
constantly and continuously adapted to the transport capacity of the
grate to obtain a uniformly distributed layer of fuel on the grate and
thus achieve uniform energy generation. Consistent feeding also
ensures minimal environmental pollution, especially as it fosters
optimal controllable combustion.

35 Waste-Non-Hazardous Waste-Municipal Solid Waste, USEPA (2013).

 The waste is discharged from the storage bunker into the feeding chute
by an overhead crane, and then fed into the grate system by a hydraulic
Waste feeder systems should be d
ramp or other conveying systems. The grate moves the wastetothroughmaintain optimum combustion,
the various zones of the combustion chamber in a tumblinginmotion. minimal environmental pollutio
The filling hopper is used as a continuous waste supplier. It is filled in
batches by the overhead crane. As the filling hopper surface is exposed
to great stress, material with high friction resistance are selected (e.g.,
boilerplates or wear-resistant cast iron). The material must survive
occasional hopper fires unscathed. The waste hopper may sometimes
be fed by a conveyor. In that case, the overhead crane discharges waste
into an intermediate hopper that feeds the conveyor.

It is recommended to divide the total plant capacity into two or more

identical incineration lines, thus improving the plant’s flexibility
and availability—e.g., when one line is closed for maintenance. This
is required since the plant needs to be shut down for mandatory
maintenance and inspection of boilers for a minimum of 4–6 weeks.

3.3.3.6 COMBUSTION AND STEAM GENERATION SYSTEM

Combustion takes place above the grate in the incineration chamber. As

a whole, the incineration chamber typically consists of a grate situated
at the bottom, cooled and non-cooled walls on the furnace sides, and a
ceiling or boiler surface heater at the top. As MSW generally has a high
volatile content, the volatile gases are driven off and only a small part
of the actual incineration takes place on or near the grate.
The design of the incineration chamber depends on the following:
 Form and size of the incineration grate. The size of the grate
determines the size of the cross-section of the incineration chamber.
Typical incineration chamber con
 Vortexing and homogeneity of flue gas flow. Complete mixing grate at the bottom
of the
flue gases is essential for good flue gas incineration. cooled and non- cooled walls
ceiling or boiler surface heater at
 Residence time for the flue gases in the hot furnace. Sufficient
reaction time at high temperatures must be assured for complete
incineration.
 Partial cooling of flue gases. In order to avoid fusion of hot fly ash at
the boiler, the flue gas temperature must not exceed an upper limit
at the incineration chamber exit.

The detailed design of a combustion chamber is usually linked to the

grate type. Its precise design demands certain compromises as the
process requirements change with the fuel characteristics.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 283

 3.3.3.6.1 Grate Incinerators
are best suited for MSW that is mixed, non
has low calorific value The incineration grate accomplishes the following functions:
 transport of material to be incinerated through the furnace;
 stoking and loosening of the material to be incinerated; and
 positioning of the main incineration zone in the incineration
chamber, possibly in combination with furnace performance control
measures.

Figure 3.24: Grate Furnace and Heat Recovery Stages of a Municipal

Waste Incineration Plant36

Grate incinerators (Figure 3.24) are widely applied for the incineration
of mixed municipal wastes and can be used for untreated, non-
homogenous, and low calorific municipal waste. An overhead crane
feeds waste into the hopper, where it is transported via the chute to the

36 “Reference Document on the Best Available Techniques for Waste Incineration”, European Commission
(2006) . Available at: http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/wi.html
 grate in the furnace. On the grate, the waste is dried and then burned at
high temperature with supply
Grate of air. Theare
incinerators ash,ofincluding noncombustible
two types:
Moving
fractions of waste, leaves grate
the gratefurnace
as slagsystem:
or bottomwaste
ash enters
throughfrom
the one end while ash is disc
ash chute. Fixed grates: series of steps with drying stage and initial combustion phas

Different grate systems can be distinguished by the way the waste is

conveyed through the different zones in the combustion chamber. The
type of grate system determines the efficacy of primary air feeding,
conveying velocity and raking, as well as mixing of the waste.

Advantages of Grate Incinerators:

There is no need for prior sorting or shredding.
Technology is widely tested and meets the standards of technical performance.
It accommodates large variations in waste composition and calorific value.
It allows for an overall thermal efficiency of up to 85%.

Disadvantage of grate incinerators:

Capital and maintenance costs are relatively high.

Reciprocating grates: Many modern MSWM incinerator facilities use

reciprocating grates. The quality of burnout achieved is generally good.
Reciprocating grates consist of sections that span the width of the
furnace but are stacked above each other. Alternate grate sections slide
back and forth, while the adjacent sections remain fixed. Waste tumbles
off the fixed portion and is agitated and mixed as it moves along the
grate.

There are essentially two main reciprocating grate variations:

1. Reverse reciprocating grate: The grate bars oscillate back and
forth in the reverse direction to the flow of the waste. The grate is
sloped from the feed end to the ash discharge end and is comprised
of fixed and moving grate steps.
2. Push forward grate: The grate bars form a series of many steps
that oscillate horizontally and push the waste in the direction of the
ash discharge.

Other grate types that have been in use include rocking grates,
travelling grates, roller grates, and cooled grates.

s one of the few waste-to-energy (WTE) facility in India which is using a reciprocating forward moving grate incinerato

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 285

 Other types of incinerators including the fluidised bed incinerator and rotary kiln incinerato

3.3.3.7 INCINERATOR AIR FEEDING

The incineration air fulfills the following objectives:

 provision of oxidant
 cooling
 avoidance of slag formation in the furnace
 mixing of flue-gas

Air is added at various places in the combustion chamber; depending

on the location, it is described as primary and secondary air. Tertiary air
and re-circulated flue gases may also be used.

Primary air is generally taken from the waste bunker. This lowers the
air pressure in the bunker hall and eliminates most odour emissions
from the bunker area. This primary air is blown by fans into the areas
below the grate, where its distribution can be closely controlled using
multiple wind boxes and distribution valves. Primary air is forced
through the grate into the fuel bed. It cools the grate bar to preserve
structural integrity of the grate and carries oxygen into the
incineration bed.

Secondary air is blown into the incineration chamber at high speed

via, for example, injection lances or internal structures. This is carried
out to secure complete incineration and is responsible for the intensive
mixing of flue gases and prevention of the free passage of unburned gas
streams.

3.3.3.8 FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION

Flue gas recirculation is an integral part of the furnace design. After

passing through the dust filter, part of the flue gas is retained and
recirculated through an insulated duct to the furnace. The recirculated
flue gas is injected through separate nozzles in the furnace. The
primary advantages of flue gas recirculation are the following:
perational, economic and environmental advantages
 10%–20% of secondary combustion air can be replaced with flue gas.
 Mono-nitrogen oxides (NOX) reduction is achieved because the
supplied re-circulated flue gases have lower oxygen concentration
and, therefore, lower flue gas temperature, which leads to a decrease
of the nitrogen oxide levels.
  It stabilises and improves the flow and turbulence conditions,
particularly at partial load.

3.3.3.9 RESIDUAL HAULAGE AND DISPOSAL SYSTEM

During the incineration process, most of the waste is combusted and

converted to gases such as carbon dioxide (CO 2), water vapor, and toxic
gases, which are cleaned through a complex flue gas treatment system.
However, part of the waste is incombustible and is removed from the
incineration furnace as slag or bottom ash, a solid residue. The amount
of slag generated depends on the composition of the waste and
amounts to 20%–25% by weight of the waste combusted.

The flue gas cleaning process also produces residues, either directly
(fly ash) or by the subsequent treatment of the spent scrubbing
Fly ash liquids,
should be transported in ‘silos’ and dispo
depending on the flue gas cleaning method applied. Fly ash from filter
systems is highly contaminated and, hence, care must be taken to
collect bottom ash and fly ash separately. Bottom ash can be treated for
further use.

The slag from a well-operated waste incinerator will be well burned

out, with only a minor content of organic material. Besides, the heavy
metals in the slag, which are normally leachable, will, to some extent,
become vitrified and thus insoluble.
Residual wastes from incinerators like slag could be use
while
Bottom ash may be treated either on-site or fly ash from
off-site by a flue
dry gas cleaning should be disposed
system
in hazardous landfill
or wet system suitably combined with or without ageing. Dry bottom
ash treatment installations combine the techniques of ferrous metals
separation, size reduction and screening, nonferrous metals separation,
and ageing of the treated bottom ash, usually for 6–20 weeks. The
product is a dry aggregate which can be used as a secondary
construction material.

Wet bottom ash treatment system in the ash quench tank allows the
production of a material for recycling with minimal leachability of
metals. The economy of the bottom ash treatment depends on the
market price of the produced fractions. Revenue can be generated by
the sale of nonferrous and ferrous metals fractions.

The fly ash generated in the boilers (approximately 1%–2% of

input MSW quantity) and air pollution control equipment is highly
contaminated and must be disposed appropriately. Since the salt and
heavy metal content is very high in the ash, it cannot be used for
construction purposes. Depending on the heavy metals constituents of
fly ash, it should be appropriately mixed with binding agents like
cement which would reduce the solubility of heavy metals, thus
preventing their leaching and making the safe disposal of fly ash
possible. If the treatment, storage, and disposal facility (TSDF) is not
available, then

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 287

 solidified and stabilised fly ash blocks should be disposed in an
identified cell of municipal sanitary landfill.

3.3.3.10 CONSUMPTION OF RAW MATERIALS AND

ENERGY BY INCINERATION PLANTS

Waste incineration plants (process dependent) may consume:

ogy and flue gas treatment  electricity, for process plant operation;
ng would ensure environmentally safe incinerator facilities
 heat, for specific process needs;
 fuels, support fuels (e.g., gas, light oils, coal, char);
 water, for flue gas treatment, cooling, and boiler operation;
 flue gas treatment reagents, e.g., caustic soda, lime, sodium
bicarbonate, sodium sulfite, hydrogen peroxide, activated carbon,
ammonia, and urea;
 water treatment reagents, e.g., acids, alkalis, trimercapto triazine,
sodium sulphite, etc.; and
 high pressure air, for compressors.

3.3.3.11 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

MSW incineration
through potential emission of contaminants produces
and ash a range of volatile and gaseous emissions,
leachate
which, if untreated and released to the atmosphere, can compromise
environment quality. Fly ash and dust carry toxic contaminants. Ash
leachate might contaminate soil and water.

The actual range of emissions depends on the specific characteristics of

the waste stream and engineering design of the plant such as
combustion temperature, combustion chamber design, and ancillary
emission abatement technologies. Proper planning to minimise
environmental damage as well as public education and involvement are
essential to successful incineration programmes.

3.3.3.12 EMISSION REDUCTION IN INCINERATORS

Incineration of MSW generates large volumes of flue gases, which carry

ash, heavy metals, and a wide range of organic and inorganic
compounds. Major air emissions from MSW incinerators include
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, sulphur dioxide, NO x, carbon
monoxide, volatile organic compound, heavy metals, etc., which are
hazardous to human health and environment. Dioxins and furans are
especially potent and need to be controlled through appropriate
operating conditions and flue gas treatment technology.
 Primary control measures include initiatives that actually retard the
formation of pollutants, especially NOx and dioxins:

 efficient combustion process

– with long flue gas retention duration at high temperature
– appropriate oxygen content
– intensive mixing
– recirculation of flue gas
 precipitation of ashes in the boiler
 short flue gas retention time at intermediate temperature

Secondary measures include installation of air pollution control

equipment which comprise of bag house filters, dry, acid gas removal
systems, catalytic reduction systems etc. Table 3.10 briefly describes
available emission control technologies for different constituents of
flue gas.

Table 3.10: Air Emission Control Technologies37

FLUE GAS TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION

CONSTITUEN
TS
Total dust Effective maintenance of dust control systems is very
important. Controlling dust levels generally reduces metal
emissions too.
Flue gas treatment (FGT) (pre-dust control before FGT): bag
filters, ESPs, cyclones, and multi-cyclones
Additional flue gas polishing system: bag filters, wet
electrostatic precipitator (ESP), electro dynamic venture
scrubbers, agglo- filtering modules, ionizing wet scrubber
Hydrogen chloride (HCl), Waste control: Blending and mixing can reduce fluctuations
hydrogen fluoride (HF), in raw gas concentrations that can lead to elevated short-term
sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions.
FGT: Wet flue gas treatment systems generally have the
highest absorption capacity and deliver the lowest emission
levels for these substances, but are more expensive and
difficult to maintain.
Nitrogen monoxide Waste and combustion control techniques coupled with
(NO) and nitrogen selective catalytic reduction (SCR) generally result in
dioxide (NO2), operation within acceptable emission ranges. The use of SCR
expressed as NO2 for imposes an additional energy demand and costs. In general,
installations using at larger installations, the use of SCR results in less
SCR significant additional cost per ton of waste treated. Waste
with high nitrogen content may result in increased raw gas
NOx concentrations.
Nitrogen monoxide (NO) Waste and combustion control techniques with selective non-
and NO2, expressed as catalytic reduction (SNCR) generally result in operation
NO2 for installations within acceptable emission ranges.
using SNCR

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 289

 37 “Reference Document on the Best Available Techniques for Waste Incineration”, European Commission
(2006) . Available at: http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/wi.html

290 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 3.10: Air Emission Control Technologies [contd.]

FLUE GAS TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION

CONSTITUEN
TS
Gaseous and vaporous Techniques that improve combustion conditions reduce
organic substances, emissions of these substances. Carbon monoxide levels may be
expressed as total higher during start-up and shutdown, and with new boilers
organic carbon (TOC) that have not yet established their normal operational
or carbon monoxide fouling level.
(CO)
Mercury (Hg) and its Adsorption using carbon based reagents is generally required
compounds to achieve these emission levels with many wastes- as
metallic Hg is more difficult to control than ionic Hg. The
precise abatement performance and technique required will
depend on the levels and distribution of Hg in the waste. Some
waste streams have very highly variable Hg concentrations;
waste pre-treatment may be required in such cases to prevent
peak overloading of flue gas circulation system capacity.
Cadmium (Cd) and Dust and other metal control methods are more effective
thallium (Th) at controlling these substances.
Other metals Techniques that control dust levels generally also control
these metals.
Polychlorinated Combustion techniques destroy PCDD and PCDF in the waste.
dibenzodioxins (PCDDs)
and polychlorinated Specific design and temperature controls reduce de novo
dibenzofurans (PCDFs),
synthesis.
expressed as nanograms
of dioxin toxic equivalent FGT: static activated carbon filters or activated carbon is
per normal cubic meter injected into the gas flow. The carbon is filtered from the gas
(ng TEQ/Nm3) flow using bag filters. The activated carbon shows a high
absorption efficiency for mercury as well as for PCDD and
PCDF.
Catalytic bag filters are also used to reduce concentrations of
PCDD and PCDF.
Ammonia (NH3) Effective control of NOx abatement systems, including reagent
dosing contributes to reducing ammonia emissions.
Benzo(a)pyrene, Techniques that control PCDD and PCDF also control Benzo(a)
polychlorinated pyrene, PCBs, and PAHs.
biphenyls (PCBs),
polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHSs)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) Effective oxidative combustion and control of NOx abatement
systems contribute to reducing nitrous oxide emissions.

3.3.3.13 MONITORING REqUIREMENTS

The SWM Rules, 2016 provide emission standards for incineration.

Schedule II (C): Standards for Incineration:

Emission standards.

The stack emission standards for Incinerator/Thermal technologies in

solid waste treatment/disposal facility:-
 Table 3.11: The Stack Emission Standards for Treatment and Utilisation of
Municipal Solid Waste Using Incinerator or Thermal Technologies

PARAMETER EMISSION STANDARD

Particulates 50 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to half hourly average
value.
HCl 50 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to half hourly average
value.
SO2 200 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to half hourly average
value.
CO 100 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to half hourly average
value.
50 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to daily average value.
Total Organic Carbon 20 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to half hourly average
(TOC) value.
HF 4 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to half hourly average
value.
NOx (NO and NO2 expressed 400 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to half hourly average
as NO2 ) value.
Total dioxins and furans 0.1 ng Standard refers to 6–8 hours
TEQ/Nm3 sampling. Please refer guidelines for
17 concerned congeners for toxic
equivalence values to arrive at total
toxic equivalence.
Cd + Th + their 0.05 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to sampling time anywhere
compounds between 30 minutes and 8 hours.
Hg and its compounds 0.05 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to sampling time anywhere
between 30 minutes and 8 hours.
Sb + As + Pb + Cr + Co 0.5 mg/Nm3 Standard refers to sampling time anywhere
+ Cu + Mn + Ni + V + between 30 minutes and 8 hours.
their compounds
Note:
(a) Suitably designed pollution control devices shall be installed or retrofitted with
the incinerator to achieve the above emission limits.
(b) Waste to be incinerated shall not be chemically treated with any
chlorinated disinfectants. (c) Incineration of chlorinated plastics shall be
phased out within two years.
(d) if the concentration of toxic metals in incineration ash exceeds the limits
specified in the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Trans boundary
Movement) Rules, 2008, as amended from time to time, the ash shall be sent
to the hazardous waste treatment, storage and disposal facility.
(e) Only low sulphur fuel like LDO, LSHS, Diesel, bio-mass, coal, LNG, CNG, RDF
and bio- gas shall be used as fuel in the incinerator.
(f) The CO2 concentration in tail gas shall not be more than 7%.
(g) All the facilities in twin chamber incinerators shall be designed to achieve a
minimum temperature of 950˚C in secondary combustion chamber and with a gas
residence time in secondary combustion chamber not less than 2 (two)
seconds.
(h) Incineration plants shall be operated (combustion chambers) with such
temperature, retention time and turbulence, as to achieve total Organic Carbon
(TOC) content in the slag and bottom ash less than 3%, or the loss on
ignition is less than 5% of the dry weight.
(i) Odour from sites shall be managed as per guidelines of CPCB issued from time

292 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 to time
(j) All values corrected to 11% oxygen on a dry basis.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 291

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) shall prescribe standards for
maintenance of ambient air quality and permissible levels of dioxins and
furans around the waste to energy (WtE) plants other than small facilities,
treating less than 5 TPD waste, and circulate the same to all State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB) and committees for uniform application.

The SPCB or committee shall prescribe standards for maintenance of ambient

air quality and permissible levels of dioxins and furans around the waste to
energy plants in consonance with the emission standards prescribed by the
CPCB. If the proposal includes the technology other than the one for which
standards have been prescribed by the CPCB, the SPCB or committee shall
forward the proposal with its recommendations to CPCB or prescribing
suitable standards.

As waste processing plants are often near a city or even within it, it is
necessary to have stringent standards for emission control in order to
safeguard public health and environment. It is desirable that for existing
plants, a time frame of about 3 years may be set for conversion into the new
norms.

International air emission (European Union) standards for MSW based

incineration plants are more stringent as compared with those in the SWM
Rules, 2016. Consolidated Emission norms from EU-Directive on the
incineration of wastes (2000/76/EC) and its subsequent amendments.38 As
mentioned in Table Table 3.12.

Table 3.12: Emission Norms for Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste as per
European Union Directive

(a) Daily average values:

Total dust 10 mg/m3
Gaseous and vaporous organic substances, expressed 10 mg/m3
as total organic carbon (TOC)
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 10 mg/m3
Hydrogen fluoride (HF) 1 mg/m3
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 50 mg/m3
Nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 200 mg/m3
expressed as nitrogen dioxide for existing incineration
plants with a nominal capacity of 6 tonnes per hour or
new incineration plants
Nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 400 mg/m
3

expressed as nitrogen dioxide for existing incineration

plants with a nominal capacity of 6 tonnes per hour
or less
(*) Until 1 January 2007 and without prejudice to relevant (Community)
legislation the emission limit value for NOx does not apply to plants only
incinerating hazardous waste.
Exemptions for NOx may be authorised by the component authority for existing
incineration plants.

38 Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Incineration of Waste (2000).
Available at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:2000L0076:20081211:EN:PDF
Table 3.12: Emission Norms for Incineration of MSW as per EU Directive [contd.]

* with a nominal capacity of 6 tonnes per hour, provided that the permit foresees the
daily average values do not exceed 500 mg/m3 and this until 1 January 2008.
* with a nominal capacity of >6 tonnes per hour but equal or less than 16 tonnes
per hour, provided the permit foresees the daily average values do not exceed 400
mg/m3 and this until 1 January 2010.
* with a nominal capacity of >16 tonnes per hour but <25 tonnes per hour and which
do not produce water discharges, provided that the permit foresees the daily average
values do not exceed 400 mg/m3 and this until 1 January 2008.
* Until 1 January 2008, exemptions for dust may be authorised by the competent
authority for existing incinerating plants, provided that the permit foresees the daily
average values do not exceed 20 mg/m3.
(b) Half-hourly average values:
(100%) A (97 %) B
Total dust 30 mg/m 3
10 mg/m3
Gaseous and vaporous organic substances, expressed 20 mg/m 3
10 mg/m3
as total organic carbon (TOC)
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 60 mg/m3 10 mg/m3
Hydrogen fluoride (HF) 4 mg/m3 2 mg/m3
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 200 mg/m3 50 mg/m3
Nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), 400 mg/m3 200 mg/m3
expressed as nitrogen dioxide for existing incineration (*) (*)
plants with a nominal capacity exceeding 6 tonnes per
hour or new incineration plants
(*) Until 1 January 2007 and without prejudice to relevant Community legislation
the emission limit value for NOx, does not apply to plants only incinerating hazardous
waste.
Until 1 January 2010, exemptions for NOx may be authorised by the competent
authority for existing incineration plants with a nominal capacity between 6 and 16
tonnes per hour, provided the half-hourly average value does not exceed 600
mg/m3 for column A or 400 mg/m3 for column B.
(c) All average values over the sample period of a minimum of 30 minutes and a
maximum of 8 hours:
Cadmium and its compounds, expressed as cadmium Total 0.05 Total 0,1
(Cd) mg/m3 mg/m3(*)
Thallium and its compounds, expressed as thallium (TI)
Mercury and its compounds, expressed as mercury (Hg) 0.05 mg/m3 0.1 mg/m3
Antimony and its compounds, expressed as antimony
(Sb)
Arsenic and its compounds, expressed as arsenic
(As)
Lead and its compounds, expressed as lead (Pb)
total 0.5 total 1 mg/
Chromium and its compounds, expressed as chromium mg/m3 m3 (*)
(Cr)
Cobalt and its compounds, expressed as cobalt (Co)
Copper and its compounds, expressed as copper (Cu)
Manganese and its compounds, expressed as
manganese (Mn)
Nickel and its compounds, expressed as nickel (Ni)
Vanadium and its compounds, expressed as vanadium
(V)
(*) Until 1 January 2007 average values for existing plants for which the permit to

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 293

 operate has been granted before 31 December 1996, and which incinerate hazardous
waste only.

294 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 3.12: Emission Norms for Incineration of MSW as per EU Directive [contd.]

These average values cover also gaseous and the vapour forms of the relevant heavy
metal emissions as well as their compounds.
(d) Average values shall be measured over a sample period of a minimum of 6
hours and a maximum of 8 hours. The emission limit value refers to the total
concentration of dioxins and furans calculated using the concept of toxic
equivalence:
Dioxins and furans 0.1 ng/m3
(e) The following emission limit value of carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations
shall not be exceeded in the combustion gases (excluding the start-up and shut-
down phase):
50 milligrams/m3 of combustion gas determined as daily average value.
150 milligrams/m3 of combustion gas of at least 95% of all measurement
determined as 10-minute average values or 100 mg/m3 of combustion gas of all
measurements determined as half-hourly average values taken in any 24-hour
period.
Exemptions may be authorised by the competent authority for incineration plants
using fluidised bed technology, provided that the permit foresees an emission
limit value for carbon monoxide (CO) of not more than 100 mg/m3 as an
hourly average value.

3.4 BIOMETHANATION
Biomethanation is the anaerobic (in the absence of free oxygen)
fermentation of biodegradable matter in an enclosed space under
controlled conditions of temperature, moisture, pH, etc. The waste
mass undergoes decomposition due to microbial activity, thereby
generating biogas comprising mainly of methane and carbon dioxide
(CO2), and also digested sludge, which is almost stabilised but may
contain some pathogen. Due to the anaerobic environment, hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) is generated with varying percentage depending on the
sulphur content in the system (in the form of protein, sulphate, etc.).
Like composting, biomethanation is one of the most technically viable
options for Indian municipal solid waste (MSW) due to the presence of
high organic and moisture content.

Simple small to medium scale systems have been developed in India,

especially for cattle manure; these plants are called Gobar Gas Plants.
According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE),
4.3 million family type biogas plants have been installed in India. Toilet
linked biogas plants have been installed at family, community, and
institutional levels. Application of biomethanation for MSW can be seen
broadly in three categories: (i) small biogas plants for canteen waste;
(ii) medium-sized digesters for market waste (flower, fruit, vegetable,
slaughterhouse, etc.); (iii) and large-scale plants.
 There are some well-known examples of installation of MSW based
biogas plants: (i) 16 tonnes MSW plus 4 tonnes per day (TPD)
slaughterhouse waste based facility in Vijayawada; (ii) 30 TPD flower-
fruit market waste based biogas plant in Koyambedu,
Production Chennai;
of biogas underand (iii)
controlled condition is often term
500 TPD MSW based facility at Lucknow. So far,digestion
as anaerobic large biogas plants
fed with MSW have not been successful in India although such plants
have been successful in some other countries. The failure of MSW
based biogas plants is not related to the basic technology; this is more
due to lack of understanding of the process and planning capability
and due to mismatch between the expectations of the concessionaire
and the consignee with respect to quality and quantity of MSW supply.
However, there are ongoing attempts by different urban local bodies
(ULBs) to set up MSW based biogas plants. Medium to large digesters
are appropriately designed and engineered for smooth operation.
Different designs and models of biogas plants are discussed later.

3.4.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016:

GUIDANCE ON BIOMETHANATION

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(m)collect waste from vegetable, fruit, flower, meat, poultry and fish
market on day to day basis and promote setting up of decentralised
compost plant or biomethanation plant at suitable locations in the
markets or in the vicinity of markets ensuring hygienic conditions;
(t) involve communities in waste management and promotion of home
composting, bio-gas generation, decentralised processing of waste
at community level subject to control of odour and maintenance of
hygienic conditions around the facility;
(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste
processing facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or
with private sector participation or through any agency for
optimum utilisation of various components of solid waste adopting
suitable technology including the following technologies and
adhering to the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban
Development from time to time and standards prescribed by the
Central Pollution Control Board. Preference shall be given to
decentralised processing to minimize transportation cost and
environmental impacts such as-
a) biomethanation, microbial composting, vermi-composting,
anaerobic digestion or any other appropriate processing for bio-
stabilisation of biodegradable wastes;

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 295

 Clause 4: Duties of waste generator:-

(6) All resident welfare and market associations shall, within one
year from the date of notification of these rules and in partnership
with the local body ensure segregation of waste at source by the
generators as prescribed in these rules, facilitate collection of
segregated waste in separate streams, handover recyclable material
to either the authorised waste pickers or the authorised recyclers.
The bio-degradable waste shall be processed, treated and disposed
off through composting or biomethanation within the premises
as far as possible. The residual waste shall be given to the waste
collectors or agency as directed by the local body.

(7) All gated communities and institutions with more than 5,000 sqm
area shall, within one year from the date of notification of these
rules and in partnership with the local body, ensure segregation of
waste at source by the generators as prescribed in these rules,
facilitate collection of segregated waste in separate streams,
handover recyclable material to either the authorised waste pickers
or the authorizsd recyclers. The bio-degradable waste shall be
processed, treated and disposed off through composting or
biomethanation within the premises as far as possible. The residual
waste shall be given to the waste collectors or agency as directed by
the local body.
(8) All hotels and restaurants shall, within one year from the date of
notification of these rules and in partnership with the local body
ensure segregation of waste at source as prescribed in these rules,
facilitate collection of segregated waste in separate streams,
handover recyclable material to either the authorised waste pickers
or the authorised recyclers. The bio-degradable waste shall be
processed, treated and disposed off through composting or
biomethanation within the premises as far as possible. The residual
waste shall be given to the waste collectors or agency as directed by
the local body.

3.4.2 MERITS OF BIOMETHANATION PROCESS

 Energy generation, the produced biogas can be used for cooking or

for the production of electricity and heat.
 Biogas may also be cleaned by removing CO2 and H2S. The resulting
methane enriched biogas containing more than 90% methane (CH 4)
is somewhat like compressed natural gas (CNG). However, for this
gas to be used as automotive fuel, the percentage of CO 2 has to be
less than 5%, which corresponds to methane percentage of 95% or
more. H2S has to be less than 10 parts per million (ppm) for use in
automobiles. Use of this fuel is more benign for the environment
than using petroleum-based automotive fuels. Like composting,
 biomethanation also leads to reduced landfill requirement, thus
extending the life of existing landfills.
 Biomethanation of biodegradable organic material would result in
stabilised sludge which can be used as a soil conditioner and
fertiliser. However, pathogen kill or inactivation may not be
complete during anaerobic digestion with the relatively short
hydraulic retention time (HRT) designed for optimisation of biogas
production. Therefore, aerobic composting of the sludge is
recommended to pass the material through temperature cycle of
above 60°C–70°C for at least 2 days.
 Although the total system of biomethanation is more cost intensive
than the total system of open aerobic composting, biomethanation
has certain advantages with respect to much less odour and bird
menace. The time frame (cycle time) is also less, so that less land is
required for the same capacity. These two can be a big advantage
where the only available sites are close to habitation. This way,
biomethanation can be compared to in-vessel composting, which is
again more expensive than open aerobic composting.

3.4.3 APPLICABILITY OF BIOMETHANATION

 Biomethanation is ideal for wet organic wastes, e.g., cooked food.

Biomethanation plants require a consistent source of degradable
organic matter, free from inert and toxic material. Slaughterhouse
waste is eminently suitable for biomethanation.
 Odour problems are also considerably reduced by adopting
biomethanation. If the proposed waste processing site is in close
proximity to residential areas, biomethanation is a preferred
treatment option, especially considering odour issues.
 Anaerobic digestion technology can be adopted in both
– decentralised systems—up to 5 TPD (much smaller quantities
can be processed where O&M is not outsourced); and
– centralised systems—in modules of up to 50 TPD digesters (for
higher capacity in one digester, the size may become unwieldy
and difficult to maintain).
 The design of the plant has to be done according to the substrate
(feed material) for smooth functioning. The next most important
challenge is to make the digester leak-proof. Proper O&M is a
critical factor for ensuring the success of the biogas plant which
can be achieved through a well-defined standard operating
procedure (SOP). Economic viability of the plants is ensured
when there is a sustainable and viable market for the generated
biogas in the vicinity of the plant and the sludge manure produced
during the process.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 297

3.4.4 GENERAL PROCESS INVOLVED IN BIOMETHANATION

Generally the overall process can be divided into four stages:

 pre-treatment
 anaerobic fermentation
 collection of biogas and its usage
 residue treatment

Pre-treatment: Most digestion systems require pre-treatment of

waste to obtain a homogeneous feedstock. For anaerobic
fermentation, pre-processing involves separation of non-digestible
material either through source segregation (e.g., two-bin system; see
Section 2.2 of Part II) or through mechanical sorting at the biogas
plant facility. Source segregation results in less contaminated sludge
compost. The separation ensures the removal of undesirable or
recyclable material such as glass, metals, stones, etc. The waste is
shredded before it is fed into the digester for better fermentation
especially when the incoming material has large pieces or whole
items.

Anaerobic Fermentation (Digestion): Anaerobic fermentation happens

in three steps brought about by different groups of microbes:
hydrolysis (hydrolytic bacteria), acidogenesis (acidogenic bacteria),
and finally biomethanation (methanogenic bacteria). Normally the
digesters (fermenters) are designed as single stage or single phase,
where all the three processes take place in micro environments
within the single vessel. Later, the concept of biphasic fermenters
were developed where the process up to acidogenesis happens in the
first phase in a slightly lower pH range and the methanogenesis
happens in the second phase at near neutral pH range. This mode is
supposed to be more efficient from the point of pH as well as time
management because of the flexibility to optimise each of these
reactions.

However, for MSW, the normal practice is to use suspended

particulate fermenter configuration in one digester or two digesters
in tandem. In the latter case, the efficiency as well as effluent quality
improves. The size of the fermenter (digester) depends on the input
volume of the substrate (feed material for microbial action) in
suspension and the HRT. There are other digester configurations
which have been discussed later in this chapter. Inside the digester,
the feed is diluted to achieve the desired solids content and remains
in the digester for a designated retention time. For dilution, a
varying range of water sources can be used such as clean water,
sewage, or re-circulated liquid from the digester effluent. Usually, the
solids concentration is around 6%–10%, but some of the well-known
systems have more than 20% total solids; such systems are called dry
fermentation or digestion. In batch mode, solids concentration of
even 40% can be used.
 A heat exchanger can be fitted for better utilisation of heat in the whole
system, especially for maintaining the desired temperature range in the
digesting vessel.
Segregated organic waste free from inert and toxic m
Gas Recovery: The biogas obtained may be scrubbed to ensure
biomethanation
automotive quality CNG-like gas (CO2 less than 5% and H2S less than
10 ppm). Biogas may also be used for generating electricity.

Residue Treatment: The digested sludge from the digester is

dewatered and the liquid recycled for use in the dilution of incoming
feed. The biosolids are dewatered to 50%–55% total solids with a
screw press, filter press, or other types of dewatering systems and
aerobically cured to obtain a compost product.

3.4.5 OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR BIOMETHANATION

Certain physical parameters should be controlled in the digester to

enhance microbial activity and increase efficiency of the system. These
parameters include the following:

 Temperature: Temperature affects bacterial growth and hence

the amount of biogas produced. Treatment of waste in anaerobic
reactors is normally carried out within two ranges: around 25°C–
40°C (ideally 35°C–37°C) known as mesophilic range, and higher
than 45°C (ideally 55°C–60°C) known as thermophilic range.

At higher temperatures (thermophilic range)

– the rate of digestion is faster, and thus shorter retention times
are required;
– smaller reactor volumes are required for treating the same
amount of waste;
Biomethanation provides an example of
– there is higher rate and efficiency of hydrolysis
an efficient technologyofwhere
the suspended
residue from waste treatment is a
particulate matter; and
– destruction of pathogens is more efficient.

 pH: The anaerobic digestion process is limited to a relatively

narrow pH band from 6.0 pH to 8.5 pH approximately, especially
that the methanogenic bacteria are very sensitive to pH (close to
neutral pH around 7.0).
 Moisture: The moisture content of waste is important as explained
above.
 Toxicity: A number of compounds are toxic to anaerobic
microorganisms. Methanogens are commonly considered to be the
most sensitive to toxicity.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 299

  Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio: Optimum carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio
in anaerobic digesters is 20:30. A high C/N ratio is an indication
of rapid consumption of nitrogen by methanogens and results in
lower gas production. On the other hand, a lower C/N ratio causes
ammonia accumulation and pH values exceeding 8.5, which is
process can be: toxic to methanogenic bacteria. Optimum C/N ratios of the digester
materials can be achieved by mixing material of high and low C/N
naerobic process occur in one reactor
ratios, such as organic solid waste (high in carbon) and sewage or
n- esis and methano- genesis are separated
animal manure (high in nitrogen).
 Organic loading rate: Organic loading rate is the frequency and
speed at which the substrate is added to the digester. For each plant
of a particular size, there is an optimal rate at which the substrate
should be loaded. Beyond this optimal rate, further increases in the
feeding rate will not lead to a higher rate of gas production. Agitation
or consistent stirring of the contents in the digester also plays an
important role in determining the amount of biogas produced.
 Retention time: The required retention time for completion of the
reactions varies with differing technologies, process temperature, and
waste composition. The retention time for waste treated in a
mesophilic digester ranges from 20 to 30 days. Lower retention times
are required in digesters operated in the thermophilic range. A high
solids reactor operating in the thermophilic range has a retention time
of about 14 days.

3.4.6 TYPES OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS IN USE

Different types of anaerobic digesters or biogas plants have been

designed and used mainly depending upon the following factors:
iii. monophasic or biphasic number of digesters in the monophasic
system;
iv. floating holder or fixed dome or combination of both;
v. concentration of substrate (feed material);
vi. operating temperature—mesophilic (near ambient) or
thermophilic (heated digesters maintained around 55°C–60°C);
vii. batch, semi-continuous or continuous; and
viii. suspended particulate, upflow anaerobic filter (UAF), upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), or hybrid systems.

The various systems have their merits and constraints. For example, the
fermentation is more efficient or more complete when the concentration
of solids is relatively less but the volumetric efficiency of the digester is
less.
This means that for unit quantity of substrate, total biogas production is
more, but biogas produced per unit volume of the digester is less. On the
other hand, when the concentration of the solids is more, gas production
per unit volume of the digester is more, but gas production per unit
Important operating parameters controllin
weight of the substrate is less. While designing a digester, one tries to
Temperature
make a balance between these factors. For this reason, Phthe single-stage
Moisture
high solids systems (22%–40% of total solids) are supposed to be more
efficient than the single-stage low solids systems (less Toxicity
than 10% total
solids). C/N ratio
Organic
loading rate
The predominantly used single-stage low solids Retention
reactor period
is the
continuously stirred tank reactor, where the digestate is continuously
stirred and completely mixed. Feed is introduced in the reactor at a rate
proportional to the rate of effluent removed. Generally, the retention
time is 14–28 days depending on the kind of feed and operating
temperature.

High solids systems require smaller reactor volumes per unit of biogas
production, but high concentrations of solids will result in higher feed
pumping costs. Some examples of patented single-stage high solids
anaerobic digester systems for solid waste are dry anaerobic composting
(DRANCO), Kompogas, and Valorga processes. The retention time in
these systems varies from 14 to 20 days.

The DRANCO process is a dry thermophilic process for treatment of the

organic fraction of MSW. This process requires high total solids content
in the reactor to have optimal performance. After the waste is pre-
treated and screened, it is mixed with recirculating material from the
reactor. Mixing of the waste with digested material ensures inoculation of
the incoming material. The reactor is a downward plug-flow type reactor
where mixing is deliberately minimised. The Valorga process could be
either a thermophilic or a mesophilic process, where the pre-treated
waste is mixed with recycled process water. After mixing with process
water, the influent is pumped into the reactor. The reactor is fully mixed
reactor type where mixing takes place by pneumatic stirring, i.e., the
produced biogas is compressed and sent through the contents of the
reactor.

Batch reactors are less efficient and hence not popular for treatment of
organic fraction of MSW. Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) and
upflow anaerobic filter process (UAFP) are typically used for treatment
of high strength industrial or municipal waste waters.
Organic loading rate for a plant of particular size deter
be added for optimum biogas production

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 301

 TERI Enhanced Acidification and Methanation (TEAM) Bioreactor
ions at the bottom should be removed on a routine basis to keep biogas
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)’s enhanced acidification
and methanation (TEAM) is a patented multi-stage high-rate
digester for
biomethanation of fibrous and semi-solid organic wastes.

The TEAM process is two-phase. The first phase, regarded as the acidification
phase, consists of extracting a high organic strength (chemical oxygen demand
of 15,000– 20,000 mg/l) liquid called leachate from the solid waste in the
acidification reactor. In the second phase, known as the methanation phase,
biogas is generated by treating the leachate in an upflow anaerobic sludge
blanket (UASB) reactor.

Before the process gets started, the organic solid waste is cut into small pieces
and fed into the acidification reactor. The waste bed is kept submerged in
water. Organic acids are formed as a result of bed degradation, leading to the
formation of leachate. This leachate is periodically recirculated through the bed
at a predetermined fixed rate to have uniform concentration of microorganisms
and nutrients through the bed and to wash off organic acids formed as a
result of further bed degradation.

Once a high chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentration is reached, the leachate
is extracted in the leachate collection tank. The acidification phase has a
retention time of 6 days; therefore, six such reactors are provided to ensure
continuous operation. Anaerobic conditions prevail inside the reactor during the
whole process. The phase separation provides suitable environment to the
microorganisms in acidification and methanation stages, thus enhancing the
activity. The residue inside the acidification reactor is dried in the sun and
then used as manure. This system is a variant of the UASB technology for
sludge and solid waste treatment.

A waste treatment plant with a capacity of about 50 kg green leafy vegetables

per day was installed at TERI’s Gual Pahari campus, Gurgaon. The plant has
been generating good quality biogas and manure from the organic wastes for a few
Examples of years. TEAM plant has also been installed in two more places in corporate units
single
like National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) India (for household waste
stage
management) and Sona Koyo Steering, Haryana (for canteen waste management).
anaerobic
digester This system has good scale-up potential.
include:
DRANCO
(thermophilic),
Adoption of the Nisargruna Biogas Technology: An Approach toward Decentralised Waste Management Operated by Wast
Kompogas
and Valorga
CASE STUDY

Location: Mumbai
(mesophilic)

Year of start: 1998

Stree Mukti Sanghatana (SMS), Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), waste pickers cooperatives, institutions, Nav

d rapid urbanisation, economic growth, and rising standard of living which has led to increase in the quantity of waste
The problems are multi-fold and cover issues that relate to the socio-political,
economic, and environmental sustainability. Several initiatives have been taken
to address these issues like adoption of technology, new management
approaches, imposition of regulation, etc. However, all these initiatives
remained largely unsatisfactory. In order to address the ever-increasing
problems related to waste management, the Advanced Locality Management
(ALM) scheme was started in 1997 by MCGM with the main objective of
mobilising citizens in a participative approach to set up a system for solid waste
management in an environmental friendly manner. Local non-government
organisations (NGOs) along with the MCGM have taken up new initiatives through
ALM scheme to improve on existing practices, striking the appropriate partnership
between MCGM and SMS.

SMS is a woman’s liberation organisation established in 1975. SMS has directed

its efforts toward uplifting women, primarily by creating awareness in the
society about women’s issues with the help of songs and theatre, family
counselling centres, day care centres, adolescent sensitisation programme,
publication of books, etc. About 85% of the waste pickers are women. To uplift
this sector, the Parisar Vikas Programme (PVP) was one of the initiatives
implemented by SMS in 1998. SMS has imparted training on segregation,
handling of waste, composting, and maintaining and operationalising the bio gas
plant through interactive sessions with the women waste pickers, who are
commonly addressed as “parisar bhaginis” (neighborhood sisters).

Institutional approach:

• SMS facilitated the formation of federation of self-help groups (SHGs)

and cooperatives of several women waste pickers and guided them for signing
a formal contract with municipality or individual apartments, institutions,
and public and private sector companies.
• SMS trained the waste pickers on the principles of zero waste, segregation
concept, pre-sorting and handling waste from multi-family dwellings,
operationalising composting and biogas plants.
• A team structure was organised for waste pickers for operating the
collection, segregation, and on-site processing unit: one supervisor at one
site for every four bhaginis.
• Innovative, locally viable technology for generation of biogas at the site
itself (Nisargruna biogas technology) was institutionalised and adopted; and the
workers were trained about the operation and maintenance of the plant.
• New training centre for biogas, composting, rain water harvesting, and
garbage gallery at Kopar Khairane, Navi Mumbai was developed.
• New training manual for composting and biogas maintenance was developed.

Technological approach:

• The Nisargruna technology developed by BARC was used to generate biogas

and manure. The technology has basically three stages of operation.
• The system is based on a floating dome design, a proven technology for manure
di- gestion in India and China. It is a two-stage continuous wet system. The
waste gets hydrolyzed in first stage; and in second stage, methane is produced.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 303

 The reactor is

304 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 constructed underground, reducing the building costs, and the reactor contents
flow under gravity by volume displacement.
• Mixing stage. Proper segregation of waste must be done before entering the
plant as some material may detrimentally affect the efficiency of the plant. On-
site sort- ing is a prerequisite. Waste is mixed with equal amount of hot
water to breakdown fibres, converting it into homogeneous slurry.
• Pre-treatment stage. Slurry is kept in a thermophilic aerobic pre-digester,
convert- ing it into organic acids (acetic acid, butyric acid). Every time the
digester is fed, an equal amount of reactor content will leave the pre-
digester and is fed to the meth- ane reactor.
• Anaerobic digestion stage. Acidic slurry is transferred to an anaerobic tank
(meth- ane reactor) to produce methane. Prior digestion helps in improving
the purity of methane gas up to 85%, thereby increasing the fuel
efficiency.
• Slurry from the methane reactor is then sent to sand pits, and high quality
manure is recovered and water is recycled in the plant again, resulting in a
zero effluent system.
• Simplified
plant Mixer
Solar heater
Manure pits
operation pro-
cess was de- Methane holder
signed to be
used by non-
Thermophilic
skilled workers aerobic
digester
• Training for
operation and Anaerobic
Platform digester
maint enanc
e (O&M) on
site was
Methane Recycle water
provided to utilisation tank
the workers
or bhaginis.
Nisargruna Biogas Plant
Outcome:

• 300 groups, with 10 Parisar Bhaginis each, have been established. 200 groups
are working as saving groups and a federation of these groups has been
registered as an independent organisation called Parisar Bhagini Vikas Sangha
(PBVS) along with six working cooperatives.
• 100% segregation of waste was achieved at the plant to produce biogas.
• Recycling efficiency was improved through market exploration and tie-ups
with recycling units by SMS.
• There was income from the sale of recyclables (Rs100–Rs150 per day)
apart from the service fee for collecting, sorting, and managing biogas
plant.
• Only 50 m2 (less space) was required for a plant processing 100 kg per day.
• Utilisation of the end product as cooking gas fuel for both domestic or
industrial purpose.
Success factors:

• Strategic partnership is required among SMS, BARC, MCGM, and waste

pickers cooperative. Stakeholders should be motivated to take forward the
decentralised waste management system.
• On behalf of cooperatives, SMS negotiates, markets, signs, and manages
contracts with the apartments and institutions.
• The approach is modular and adaptable to the demands of customer and has
simple components.

Overall sustainability:

The overall model should have collection, segregation, and on-site processing
that is modular and opportunistic, providing services to complement its customers’
needs. The simple components and integrated decentralised system has allowed
Parisar Vikas to bid for a variety of contracts. The model is self-sustaining and has
successfully demonstrated the viability of decentralised waste management as
income is generated from the sale of recyclables and at many sites a service fee
for collection and managing the biogas plants is charged. The initiative has helped
to mainstream the marginalised population of waste pickers giving them a
recognised role in the formal waste management system.

Source: SMS

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 305

30
6
M Figure 3.25: Biomethanation Plant for 50 TPD feed (biodegradable MSW and cattle manure)
an
ua
l Biogas
outlet
on
M

2m
Gap filled with waste
un engine oil
ici
pa Biogas
l
30⁰
So
lid Inlet 30⁰ Gl
W Biogas outlet Outlet
aS
Feed Filter press for digested slurry

(9.8 m)
te Digestate
M Feeder chamber
an Unloading conveyor F
6m

B C D
ag area
e
M (6 m) Screen
Shredder Inlet
en 2.5 m
E
t 18 m
A Screened effluent Use
Outlet Anaerobic
Gas holder digestor
Liquid

10 m
H Shed for further composting
Layout plan for solid residue
Biogas Biogas
inlet outlet
10 m
1m

Filled with effluent from D Gl

10.9 m
E

1 m Gas
Front end loader Feeder conveyor Shredder 0.5 m
holder
Feede
Unloading areas r
G

Water for removing soil/mud

for places with high Elevation
dust/mud content (optional) (Unloading and feeding area) Elevation

A = Slurry preparation tank for cattle manure (Cattle Dung) dia = 4m, depth =2 m, fitted with slurry pump for mixing
B = Screened cattle manure slury in which segregated, shredded MSW is fed dia = 4m, depth = 2m, Fitted with slurry pump for mixing
C = Primary digester dia = 18 m, Ht. = 9.8 m, Effective Volume (Slurry) 2520m³ (Outlet from ‘C’ feeds into Inlet of ‘D’)
D = Secondary Digester dia = 18 m, Ht. = 9.8 m, Effective Volume (Slurry) 2520m³ (Outlet from ‘D’ Feeds into Inlet of ‘A’)
E = Gas Holder dia = 16m, Ht. = 10.9 m, Volume = 2200m³ (50% Gas Storage Capacity)
F = Solid residue from filter press taken to F
G = Dirty water to be periodically drained into 4m dia, 4m deep pit and supernatant pumped into A/B; bottom sludge to be pumped out and land filled
H = Shed for Aerobic Windrow Composting / Vermi Composting

Note: In Case Cattle Mannure is not available ‘A’ and screen is not required
 The plant shown in Figure 3.25 is for a capacity of 50 tonnes per day
(TPD). For larger capacities, a series of such digesters (50 TPD capacity
or less) can be constructed. In the urban areas, there is accumulation
of large quantity of cattle manure in many cities because of the
presence of dairy farms within or in periphery of the city. Therefore,
two options of the drawings have been presented—one for 50 TPD
MSW (biodegradable portion) and the other for combination of the
biodegradable MSW and cattle manure (combined weight 50 TPD).
In case source segregated waste is not available, pre-sorting or pre-
treatment of the waste material will have to be done inside the plant
and adequate provision must be planned.

3.4.7 UTILITY OF BIOGAS PRODUCED IN

BIOMETHANATION PLANTS

The percentage of methane (CH 4) varies with the efficiency of the

anaerobic digestion and the composition of the substrate. With cattle
manure, about 55%–60% methane is obtained; whereas with water
hyacinth and some food waste, 70% methane is obtained. Biogas is
also water saturated (100% humidity). The calorific value of biogas is
5,000–6,000 kilocalories per cubic meter (kcal/m 3) depending on the
methane percentage. The biogas, by virtue of its high calorific value, has
tremendous potential to be used as fuel for power generation through
either internal combustion engines or gas turbines.

Broadly, biogas can be used for the following purposes:

 cooking or heating fuel;
 motive power (e.g., biogas pump);
 electrical power; and
 gaseous automotive fuel—after stripping carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and moisture called compressed biogas
(CBG).

Since the last couple of years, interest is rapidly growing in CBG.

3.4.7.1 LOCAL GAS USE

The simplest and most cost-effective option for use of biogas is local
use with limited pipe length and without stripping CO 2 and H2S.
Moisture is removed by using a condenser. Typically, such applications
are for cooking and mantle lamps. However, in urban areas, there is
very limited scope of such application due to presence of liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) cylinders and piped natural gas (PNG). Another
option is generation of electrical power, but this can happen only if the
volume of gas is sufficient for conversion in a gas engine or a dual fuel
engine.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 307

 3.4.7.2 PIPELINE INJECTION
ed at the plant, in case source segregated waste
Purified and is not
CBG can be received
injected into PNG line. Certain scale is required
for this conversion, especially for the removal of CO2 and compression
to the desired pressure. Practically, this can be done for large biogas
plants or battery of biogas plants where the biogas generation is at
least 500 m3 per hour (12,000 m3 per day).

3.4.7.3 ELECTRICITY GENERATION

Electricity can be generated from biogas for on-site processing or for

distribution through the local electric power grid. Internal combustion
engines and gas turbines are the most commonly used for biogas-to-
power generation projects. Unlike automotive use, the CO 2 is not
scrubbed, and H2S has to be removed to the extent of 50 parts per
million (ppm). Although this means lower efficiency, removal of CO2
requires a certain minimum scale depending on the method of
stripping. Their flexibility, especially for small generating capacities,
makes them the only electricity generating option for smaller gas
volumes.

ESPL), established India’s first demonstration plant for MSW processing 400 TPD based on biomethanation (thermophili
om the project is being wheeled to the grid for off take by MSEDCL since July 2013 onward.

3.4.7.4 PURIFICATION OF BIOGAS

Commercially biogas is purified according to the ultimate use

(automotive, electrical power, etc.) by one of the following methods:
i. cryogenic method;
ii. high pressure water scrubbing method;
iii. pressure swing adsorption (PSA) method;
iv. amine scrubbing method;
v. metal absorption for H2S using iron or copper foil; and
vi. biological oxidation (biological process for H2S).

Each of these has been developed to a commercial level with

substantial engineering inputs. However, high pressure water
scrubbing, PSA, amine scrubbing, and biological oxidation are in
greater use. For selecting the appropriate technology, one has to
consider the ultimate use, scale, investment required, space needed,
etc.
3.5 REFUSE DERIVED FUEL
The SWM Rules, 2016 defines refuse derived fuel (RDF) as fuel derived from
combustible waste fraction of solid waste like plastic, wood, pulp or organic
waste, other than chlorinated materials, in the form of pellets or fluff produced
by drying, shredding, dehydrating and compacting of solid waste. It is used as
a fuel for either steam or electricity generation or as alternate fuel in industrial
furnaces or boilers (co-processing or co-incineration of waste in cement, lime,
and steel industry and for power generation). The composition of RDF is a
mixture that has higher concentrations of combustible materials than those in
the parent mixed MSW.

3.5.1 LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR REFUSE DERIVED FUEL

PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-
(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste
processing facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or with
private sector participation or through any agency for optimum utilisation
of various components of solid waste adopting suitable technology
including the following technologies and adhering to the guidelines
issued by the Ministry of Urban Development from time to time and
standards prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board. Preference
shall be given to decentralised processing to minimize transportation cost
and environmental impacts such as-
b) waste to energy processes including refused derived fuel for
combustible fraction of waste or supply as feedstock to solid waste
based power plants or cement kilns;
18. Duties of the industrial units located within one hundred km from the
refused derived fuel and waste to energy plants based on solid waste- All
industrial units using fuel and located within one hundred km from a solid
waste based refused derived fuel plant shall make arrangements within six
months from the date of notification of these rules to replace at least five
percent of their fuel requirement by refused derived fuel so produced.
21. Criteria for waste to energy process.-
(1) Non recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500 K/cal/kg or more shall
not be disposed of on landfills and shall only be utilised for generating
energy either or through refuse derived fuel or by giving away as feed stock
for preparing refuse derived fuel.
(2) High calorific wastes shall be used for co-processing in cement or thermal
power plants.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 309

(3) The local body or an operator of facility or an agency designated by them
proposing to set up waste to energy plant of more than five tones per day
processing capacity shall submit an application in Form-I to the State
Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee, as the case may
be, for authorisation.
(4) The State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee, on
receiving such application for setting up waste to energy facility, shall
examine the same and grant permission within sixty days.

Also Schedule II A (d) states that pre-process and post-process rejects shall be
removed from the processing facility on regular basis and shall not be allowed to
pile at the site. Recyclables shall be routed through appropriate vendors. The
non- recyclable high calorific fractions to be segregated and sent to waste to
energy or for RDF production, co-processing in cement plants or to thermal
power plants. Only rejects from all processes shall be sent for sanitary landfill
site(s).

The SWM Rules, 2016 specifies that the “residual combustible wastes shall be
utilised for supplying as a feedstock for preparing RDF or for generating energy
or power from the waste by adopting proven waste to energy (WtE)
technologies for which emission standards as well as standards for dioxins and
furans have been prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).”
Currently, there are no binding legal definitions which specify the composition of
RDF, conditions of use, or environmental monitoring requirements for RDF
incineration.39

To put in a nutshell:

 RDF based power projects come under the purview of the Electricity Act,
2003.
 RDF facilities are also governed by the Environment Protection Act. These
facilities also have to obtain the consent for establishment and consent for
operation licenses from the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs).
 Emission standards are specified by the SPCB in accordance with the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 2009.
 All industrial units utilising RDF as fuel also have to adhere to applicable
laws (air, water, and environment protection acts). Stack emissions have to
be monitored once a year and submitted to the SPCB.
 Cement kilns using RDF also come under the purview of all the above acts.
 Emissions from industries like cement or power shall be governed by the
industrial norms.

In Europe, there is a separate directive for RDF. The Annex IIB of EU Directive
75/442/EEC as amended, defines RDF as waste used “principally as a fuel or
other means to generate energy.”This directive specifies the norms and
standards for production, utilisation, and monitoring mechanisms to regulate
RDF.
39 GIZ. (n.d.). Status Paper on Utilisation of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) in India.
http://www.igep.in/live/hrdpmp/hrdpmaster/igep/content/
e54413/e54441/e61172/e61173/20130425_RDFstatuspaper_final4.pdf
3.5.2 REFUSE DERIVED FUEL IN INTEGRATED SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

While according to the integrated solid waste management (ISWM)

The opportunity to produce
hierarchy (Figure 3.26) source reduction, reuse, and recycling are the
high calorific value RDF from mixed waste rather than dumping waste ma
most sustainable solid waste management options, recovery of energy
from MSW is the next desirable waste management strategy.

Production and combustion of RDF for energy recovery is not only

an economically viable option for municipal solid waste management
(MSWM), but it also greatly reduces the requirement for landfill space.
The techno-economic feasibility of producing high calorific value
RDF from mixed MSW has to be seen in the context of the concrete
framework conditions of a particular urban local body (ULB).

Figure 3.26: Refuse Derived Fuel in Integrated Solid Waste Management Hierarchy

Most Preferred
At Source Reduction & Reuse
Recycling Composting Waste to Energy
Landfills
Recovering energy before final disposal of waste (e.g. RDF, biomethanation,
Least Preferred
co-processing of combustible non- biodegradable dry fraction of MSW, incineration)

3.5.3 GENERAL COMPOSITION OF REFUSE DERIVED FUEL IN INDIA

RDF typically consists of the residual dry combustible fraction of the

MSW including paper, textile, rags, leather, rubber, non-recyclable
plastic, jute, multilayered packaging and other compound packaging,
cellophane, thermocol, melamine, coconut shells, and other high
calorific fractions of MSW. However from the ISWM hierarchy
perspective, the city should prioritise separately recycling relevant
components (e.g., paper, plastics, jute, metal, glass, multilayered
packaging used for liquid food items, etc.). The composition and
resultant energy content of RDF varies according to the origin of
waste material and the sorting, separation, and processing being
adopted in the facility.

Typical desired ranges of these parameters observed in various studies

are indicated in Table 3.13. Values given herein are specific to the
considered waste mix and are only indicative in nature. Required
quality of RDF is determined by the end use of the fuel.
 Table 3.13: Indicative Net Calorific Value of Refuse Derived Fuel vs. Coal 40

consists of high calorific fractions

ITEM of NET
er, textile, jute etc. CALORIFIC
VALUE
(KCAL)
Indian coal 2500-5000
Mixed plastic 6000
Segregated municipal solid waste (plastic, cloth, jute, paper, 2000-2500
multilayered polythene, multilayered packaging, thermocol,
melamine, coconut shells)

The suitability of RDF for use as a fuel is dependent on certain critical

parameters of the constituent waste:
 calorific value;
 water content;
 ash content;
 sulphur content; and
 chlorine content.

The required specific composition and characteristics of RDF for co-

processing will be determined by the kind of furnace, temperatures
achieved in the furnace, and the associated flue gas management
systems.

3.5.4 REFUSE DERIVED FUEL POTENTIAL FROM

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

RDF quantity and composition is determined by the nature of the waste

and extent of materials recovery or recycling processes implemented
position is determined by the nature
by the city. The quantity of RDF that can be produced per ton of
nt of material recovery or recycling processes
ty MSW varies depending on the type of collection, pre-processing, and
composition of waste source.

3.5.5 UTILISATION OF REFUSE DERIVED FUEL

RDF may be utilised in the following manner:

 co-processing in cement kilns;
 co-combustion in coal fired power plants (however, attempts to do
so are under way and has not been proven effective yet in India);
and
 on-site or off-site in an appropriately designed waste incinerator for
thermal recovery or power generation.

40 Exploring co-processing as an option for disposal of certain fraction of MSW. GIZ (2010).
312MANUAL ON MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
3.5.6 REFUSE DERIVED FUEL PRODUCTION PROCESS

The RDF production line (Figure 3.27) consists of several

The quality unit
of RDF depends on the characteristics
Segregation
operations in series to separate unwanted components andof condition
waste into combustibles and non-
the combustible matter to obtain required combustibles is a pre-requisite
RDF characteristics. In
general, segregation and processing may include:
 sorting or mechanical separation (in case of effectively source
segregated feed material, this process may not be required);
 size reduction (shredding, chipping, and milling);
 drying (where required);
 separation;
 screening;
 air density separation (for removing fine inert material);
 blending;
 packaging; and
 storage

The type and configuration of unit operations selected depend on the

type of secondary material that will be recovered and on the desired
quality of the recovered fuel fraction. The end use of the RDF
determines the necessary characteristics of RDF (size, moisture, ash
content, calorific value, chloride, heavy metals, etc.).

Figure 3.27: Refuse Derived Fuel Production Line (Pelletization) 41

Hot air
generator

Raw Pre-segregation unit

Primary shredding Hot air drying Secondary
garbage shredding

Storage Refused Air

derived fuel classification

Blender or
additives

41 International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives South Asia.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 313

 Historical Evolution of RDF Pilot Plants

Bengaluru, 1998

Pelletizer
Pellet conveyor

Pelletization: In the early days of refuse derived fuel (RDF) production, pelletization of RDF w

RDF Pellets: Light combustibles were ground to 10–15 mm particle size. The binder or addit

Hot air duct

Air classifier

Pelletizer

nnot be techno- 3.5.7 POTENTIAL USE OF REFUSE DERIVED FUEL IN INDUSTRY

used may be considered for co-processing as RDF
In keeping with the present state of technology, RDF is fired in a moving
grate furnace or a boiler equipped with some form of grate. RDF can
also serve as a feedstock for other types of thermal systems, e.g.,
pyrolysis and fluidised bed systems. The relative uniformity of
properties and higher quality of RDF as compared with mixed MSW has
led, in the past, to a preference for RDF in some applications.
3.5.7.1 CO-PROCESSING IN CEMENT KILNS OR COAL
BASED POWER PLANTS

RDF can be used in cement plants as a partial substitute for fossil fuels.
Any RDF produced in a municipal waste management plant should
be used for co-processing only in processes equipped with suitable
air pollution abatement technology. Emission standards are to be
prescribed by CPCB or relevant SPCB. In India, currently, the only
proven sustainable use of RDF is for co-processing in cement plants.
Depending on the characteristics of the RDF and the plant design, this
RDF can be fed into the kiln or the pre-calciner. It needs to be noted that
certain constituents of the RDF, such as chlorine, need to be controlled
to avoid adverse impacts on the production processes and end product
quality.

The suitability of RDF for use in a cement kiln as a fuel is contingent

on the material having the appropriate consistency, heat value, and
composition as per the requirements of the specific cement plant.

3.5.7.1.1 Technical Specification of Boilers

Boiler design dictates the final shape and size of RDF. Most boilers
designed to burn RDF use spreader stokers and fire fluff RDF in a semi-
suspension mode.

It is proven that RDF co-processing in cement kilns has several

advantages. The cement kiln process has wide ranging temperature
Long residence time, high temperature and t
zones with different residence times which provide opportunities to
kilns ensures minimal production of dioxins a
fine tune waste management systems appropriately. Different wastes
can be co-processed at different points within the kiln system
depending on their physical and chemical characteristics. The
temperature in the cement kiln process varies from about 850°C to
1,800°C. Excess level of oxygen and counter flow operation with flue
gases moving in a direction opposite to the materials lends a high
degree of turbulence to the process. The presence of an alkaline
reducing environment (lime) and the pre-heating of the raw materials
by a pre-heater tower (>100 m tall) acts as an ideal scrubber for hot
flue gases before they are emitted into the atmosphere. The long
residence time, temperature, and turbulence in cement kilns provides
extremely high destruction removal efficiency for all waste types
(>99.99%). Co-processing leaves no residue as the incombustible,
inorganic content of the waste materials are incorporated in the clinker
matrix.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 315

 Desirable Refuse Derived Fuel Characteristics for Co-processing in Cement Plants (Pre-calciner/Kiln) 49

Moisture, preferably < 20%

Size, 2D < 120 mm, 3D < 70 mm subject to process limitation of specific cement plant
Chlorine, preferably < 0.7% depending on particular raw mix and fuel mix
Calorific value, preferably > 3,000 kcal/kg
Sulfur, < 2% depending on particular raw mix and fuel mix
Free of restricted items (polyvinyl chloride, explosives, batteries, aerosol containers, biome

Advantages of co-processing RDF in cement kilns:

 High kiln temperature (1,800°C at main burner and 1,000°C at pre-
nt role in ensuring viability of RDF usage in cement plants.
calciner) ensures destruction of organic pollutants.
ement plants should be within 200 km radius
 Long residence time (5–6 seconds at 1,800°C and 2–6 seconds at >
800°C) yields complete combustion.
 Self-cleaning process of acid gas is done by lime.
 Ash is incorporated into the clinker matrix

Limitations of co-processing RDF in cement kilns:

 More often than not, cement industry enterprises are reluctant to
use RDF because of lack of established practice and requirements of
retro-fitting of the existing feeder mechanisms.
 Regular supply of adequate quantity and quality of RDF is not
available.
 Economics of producing and marketing RDF are largely contingent
on the distance to which the finished RDF needs to be hauled by
the ULB. Economic viability of the RDF system can be ensured by
supplying appropriate quality of RDF to cement plants within a 200
km radius from the RDF production plant.

In order to overcome some of these shortcomings, the RDF processing

facility may produce crude RDF. This RDF from multiple locations can
be transported to the cement plant by either the ULB or operator or
cement plant. Further refinement of the RDF may be accomplished at
the cement plant through installation of secondary shredders, hot air
generators, and air density separator, based on the specific
requirements.

42 Cement Manufacturer, India

Benefits of Refuse Derived Fuel Based Plants Vs. Mass Burn Plants
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is a buffer against fluctuating quality of incoming waste, since the waste is se
All boilers (incinerators), including those using RDF as fuel, require an annual shutdown for 4–6 weeks f

Co-processing of Segregated Plastic Waste: An Initiative of Jabalpur

CASE
STUDY
Municipal Corporation and ACC–Holcim

Location: Jabalpur, ACC–Kymore Cement Works

Main Players: Jabalpur Municipal Corporation (JMC), ACC–Kymore Cement

Works, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Madhya Pradesh Pollution
Control Board (MPPCB), waste pickers

Year of start: 2008

Approach: A committee was constituted by the High Court of Delhi under the
chairmanship of Justice R. C. Chopra to study the issue of environmental
hazards, including health hazards from the use of plastic bags and waste
generation. One of the recommendations submitted by the committee was to use
plastic waste as a partial fuel in the cement kilns. The matter was further
discussed in 54th Conference of Chairman and Member Secretaries of State
Pollution Control Board (SPCBs). These discussions in the APEX conference
prompted MPPCB to identify rotary cement kilns for co-processing of non-recyclable
plastic waste and to tie up with municipal corporations. Kymore Cement Works
of ACC Limited43 pioneered the initiative, and the trial of segregated plastic
waste was conducted successfully. The approach adopted includes:
1. planning and formulation of the strategy for the disposal of plastic
waste by identifying different stakeholders and linkages in the process;
2. assessment of plastic waste generation in the municipal corporation;
3. coordination with cement industries by MPPCB for conducting trial runs for
co- processing of plastic waste;
4. establishment of the system managed solely by waste pickers, sub-vendors,
and kabadi system;
5. ensuring the arrangements for the transportation of the plastic waste to the
cement plant;
6. development of appropriate storage and handling facility at ACC–Kymore; and
7. regular skill development and awareness programmes for the waste pickers.

43 ACC is a 77-year-old cement company in India. It is now under Holcim, a Swiss-based global cement company
which is a pioneering cement company providing cement kiln co-processing solutions for management

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 317

 of wastes.

318 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Outcome

1. Out of 340 tonnes of MSW generated in Jabalpur Municipal limits, 5% was

plastic and other combustible fractions (approximately 15–20 tonnes of waste per
day), which was sent to the cement plant.
2. JMC introduced door-to-door waste collection service from households in 6–7
colonies as a pilot service wherein waste pickers collect the waste.
3. Self-help groups (SHGs) of over 200 waste pickers were formed for collection
and segregation of waste.
4. JMC initiated a process of issuing identification numbers followed by issuing
identification cards to the waste collectors or waste pickers to formally integrate
them into the system.
5. Non-recyclable fractions of waste—e.g., double coated plastic, torn paper, jute,
tetrapaks, thermocol, waste tyres, etc.—were segregated and transported to
cement plants.
6. Until 2013, ACC–Kymore Cement Works had successfully co-processed 1,622 tonnes
of segregated waste, and the initiative is being replicated in other locations
as well.

Success Factor

• Proactive role of CPCB, MPPCB, and JMC

• Regular capacity building of workers
• Readiness of the cement plants to modify the equipment according to the feedstock

Overall sustainability

To demonstrate the co-processing methodology, ACC had conducted co-processing

trial of plastic waste at Kymore Cement Works plant, with support from CPCB and
MPPCB. The results of the trial run demonstrated that there are no negative
influences of the stack emissions on product quality. The presence of high
temperature and long residence time of the kiln ensures complete destruction,
thus making co-processing in cement kiln a safer and greener way of
management of segregated plastic waste. The pilot was replicated in Bhopal and
Indore in Madhya Pradesh and gradually spread in many states, e.g., Tamil Nadu,
Orissa, etc., wherever the SPCB and cement industry took an active role in the
subject.

Considering the importance and benefits of the co-processing technology and

based on the experience of various successful trial runs for hazardous and non-
hazardous waste across the country, CPCB formulated the “Guidelines on Co-
processing in Cement or Power or Steel Industry.” In these guidelines, CPCB has
included plastic as a non- hazardous fraction that can be co-processed.

However, co-processing of plastic fraction as a substitute to coal is still in its

nascent stage, and the business model is yet to be fully developed.

Source: ACC-Holcim
3.5.8 MONITORING REqUIREMENTS FOR FACILITIES
UTILISING REFUSE DERIVED FUEL

The SWM Rules, 2016 is the only legal document stipulating standards
for flue gas emissions from incineration. However, standards for
emissions from boilers using RDF are not specifically stated. Therefore,
until such standards are specified, stack emission standards for
treatment or utilisation of MSW using incinerators and thermal
technologies, as provided in Clause C of SWM Rules, 2016, should be
adhered to.

3.5.9 GREENHOUSE GAS MITIGATION POTENTIAL FROM

REFUSE DERIVED FUEL UTILISATION
SPCB orgas
Waste management practices can influence greenhouse CPCB set
(GHG)
environmental standards for emissions from
emissions by affecting energy consumption, methane generation,
carbon sequestration, and non-energy-related manufacturing
emissions.

There are a number of climate-related advantages of converting MSW

into fuel for power generation. These include reducing the methane
emission from landfills that would have been generated from anaerobic
degradation of the organic components. The production and
subsequent utilisation of the RDF as fuel for energy recovery processes
is a better option than mass burn. Uncontrolled combustion of
materials such as plastic waste increase the atmospheric concentration
of GHGs. RDF also reduces the consumption of depleting resources
such as fossil fuels.

3.6 TECHNOLOGIES UNDER DEVELOPMENTRecent technologies that are at their n

Pyrolysis
Prevalent MSW treatment and processing technologies are Plasma
basedpyrolysis
on vitrification
Gasification
long-lasting experiences in many countries. However, there are
upcoming technologies which have been successfully Bioreactor
tested landfill
in
laboratories and in pilot facilities, but remain to be validated
commercially. With respect to the applicability of upcoming
technologies, some of these are being tested with support from the
Government of India. The results of these tests should be awaited.

As indicated in the Report of the Task Force on Waste to Energy by

the Planning Commission, pyrolysis and gasification are some of the
technologies that could be explored by ULBs beside incineration,
biomethanation, and RDF. However, the economics of these
technologies is sensitive to waste characteristics and quantities. Until
these technologies are well established commercially, these should
be regarded as experimental technologies and should be handled
as a research and development (R&D) project or specially designed
concession agreements through public–private partnership (PPP)
mode in case of large plants. Five years of successful commercial

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 319

 operation of new technologies may be regarded as a safe bet. Pilot
projects based

320 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 on new technologies could be encouraged through private funding or a
combination of government and private funding. However, replication
of technologies in other cities should be allowed only after successful
implementation of the pilot project or when 100% capital cost is borne
by private entrepreneur and government provides generation based
support.

ctors for consideration while adopting Alternative Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Processing

tablished technologies for defined and clean substances don‘t work automatically for heterogeneous wastes.
Alternative technologies ha
existing stringent emis
iable continuous operation;
rification of a complete analysis of inputs and outputs; and
oof of reliable costs (investment, operation, maintenance).
ecisions to rely on alternative technologies need backup by other possibilities to dispose waste in case the new technolo
a solution for managing the arising waste is needed urgently, proven technologies are recommended.

This section details a few selected technologies, namely, pyrolysis and

gasification.

3.6.1 PYROLYSIS

Pyrolysis involves an irreversible chemical change brought about by

thesolid
liquid and gaseous fuel as well as action of heatand
residues in char
an atmosphere devoid of oxygen. Synonymous
at 500°C-1000°C
terms are thermal decomposition, destructive distillation, and
carbonisation. Pyrolysis, unlike incineration, is an endothermic
reaction and heat must be applied to waste to distil volatile
components. Process of converting plastic to fuels through pyrolysis is
possible, but it is yet to be proven to be a commercially viable venture.
Pyrolysis is carried out at 500°C–1,000°C and produces three
component streams:
1. Gas: It is a mixture of combustible gases such as hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, methane, carbon dioxide, and some hydrocarbons.
2. Liquid: It consists of tar, pitch, light oil, and low boiling organic
chemicals like acetic acid, acetone, methanol, etc.
3. Char: It consists of elemental carbon along with the inert material in
the waste feed.

Gas, liquid, char are useful because of their high calorific value. Part of
the heat obtained by combustion of either char or gas is often used as
 process heat for the endothermic pyrolysis reaction. It has been
observed that even after utilising the heat necessary for pyrolysis, extra
heat still remains which can be commercially exploited.

Although a number of laboratory and pilot investigations have been

made, only a few have led to full scale plants. German experience also
indicates that while several small scale pyrolysis and gasification plants
for MSW were set up a few decades ago, almost all have been shut
down due to operational and commercial issues.44

3.6.1.1 FEED STOCK FOR PYROLYSIS

Feedstock for pyrolysis should have high calorific value with very less
moisture content and should be homogenous in nature. Many plastics,
Ideal feedstock for pyrolysis should have high calorific value with very less m
particularly the polyolefins, which have high calorific values and simple
chemical constitutions of primarily carbon and hydrogen, are usually
used as a feedstock in pyrolysis. More recently, pyrolysis plants are
being tested to degrade carbon-rich organic material such as MSW.
For mixed MSW pre-processing is necessary to bring homogeneity to
increase efficiency.

3.6.1.2 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE PYROLYSIS

Sorted and pre-treated feedstock is supplied to pyrolysis reactor—

rotary kilns, rotary hearth furnaces, and fluidised bed furnaces are
commonly used as MSW pyrolysis reactors—where partial combustion
of material occurs at 500°C–800°C.

As a result of combustion of organic matter in an oxygen-deficient

environment, various products such as char (ash), pyrolysis oil, and
syngas are produced. Production of these is dependent on the organic
component of MSW, temperature, pressure, and time of retention
Syngas has a net in
calorific value of 2,800-
the reactor. Char or solid residue is a combination 4,800 kcal/Nm3
of non-combustible
material and carbon. Figure 3.28 shows an overview (10-20 MJ/Nm
of the 3)
pyrolysis
process. and can be further refined and combusted to

The syngas is a mixture of gases (combustible constituents include

carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, and a broad range of other
volatile organic compounds). Syngas is further refined to remove
particulates, hydrocarbons, and soluble matter, and is then combusted
to generate electricity. The syngas typically has a net calorific value
(NCV) of 2,800–4,800 kilocalorie per normal cubic meter (kcal/Nm 3)
or 10–20 megajoule per normal cubic meter (MJ/Nm 3). If required, the
condensable fraction can be collected by cooling the syngas, potentially
for use as a liquid fuel (oils, waxes, and tars).

44 Evolution of Waste Incineration and Co-Processing - In Germany and Europe - Dr.-Ing. Helmut Schnurer Deputy
Director General (retired) - Federal Ministry for the Environment Bonn and Berlin, Germany, Presented at the 2nd
Expert Committee Meeting for the Revision of the CPHEEO Municipal Solid Waste Management Manual

322 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 One key issue for use of syngas in energy recovery is tarring. The
deposition of tars can cause blockages and other operational challenges
and has been associated with plant failures and inefficiencies at some
pilot and commercial scale facilities. Tarring issues may be overcome
by higher temperature secondary processing.

In order to recover the energy content of syngas, it should be further

processed in the following ways:
1. Syngas can be burned in a boiler to generate steam, which may be
used for power generation or industrial heating;
2. Syngas can be used as a fuel in a dedicated gas engine;
3. Syngas, after reforming, may be suitable for use in a gas turbine;
4. Syngas can also be used as a chemical feedstock.

Figure 3.28: Municipal Solid Waste Pyrolysis 45

Raw MSW

Stack
Physical processing

Thermal oxidizer
Emission control system

Processed MSW

Syngas/ liquid
Pyrolysis reactor 500 – 800oC Power generation
Water quenching or condenser Refining
or chemicals
Clean Syngas

Metal, glass, ceramic

Tar heavy liquid Chemicals
Ash, char, metals, silica
Electricity

For plasma pyrolysis of MSW, it should be noted that—along with pre-

sorted MSW as feedstock—additional inputs, such as flux material and
carbonaceous material (e.g., coke) are required.

The first pyrolysis plant that uses MSW exclusively as feedstock is

under construction in Tees Valley in the United Kingdom. The plant is
to process 950 tonnes per day (TPD) of household waste and converts
it into 50 megawatts (MW) of electricity.

For hazardous waste, a plasma pyrolysis facility has been set up in

Taloja, near Mumbai.

45 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15).

 3.6.1.3 PLASMA PYROLYSIS VITRIFICATION
Plasma pyrolysis vitrification is a modified p
This is a modified pyrolysis technology aiming at energy or resource
which employs application of high voltage
recovery from organic waste. The system uses a plasma reactor, which
to decompose inorganic matter in waste str
generates, by application of high voltage between two electrodes, an
extremely high temperature (5,000°C–14,000°C). This hot plasma zone
dissociates the molecules in any organic material into the individual
elemental atoms, while all the inorganic material are simultaneously
melted into a molten lava. This process is still far away from any
proven practical and sustainable application in MSWM.

3.6.2 GASIFICATION

Gasification is a partial combustion of organic or fossil based

carbonaceous material, plastics, etc. into carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, and methane. This is achieved at high temperature
(650°C and above), with a controlled amount Gasification is a process
of air, oxygen, of converting carbonaceou
or steam.
and syngas
The process is largely exothermic, but some heat may be required to
(CO, The
initialise and sustain the gasification process. H2 and CH4product
main ) at highistemperatures
in the presence of controlled air or steam
syngas, which contains carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane.
Typically, the gas generated from gasification will have an NCV of 4–10
MJ/Nm3. The other main product produced by gasification is a solid
residue of non-combustible material (ash), which contains a relatively
low level of carbon.

3.6.2.1 GASIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE46

Feedstock Preparation: MSW should be pre-processed before it can

be used as feedstock for the gasification process. The pre-processing
comprises of manual and mechanical sorting, grinding, blending with
other material, drying, and pelletization.The purpose of pre-processing
is to produce a feed material with consistent physical characteristics
and chemical properties. Carbonaceous material of municipal waste
Gasification takes place in two chambers:
stream is most important feedstock for gasification. Primary chamber: operated below stochiome
Second chamber: under excess air condition
Gasification of MSW in the waste gasification plant as shown in Figure
3.29 is accomplished in two chambers: (i) the primary chamber is
operated below the stoichiometric air requirement and (ii) the
secondary chamber is operated under excess air conditions. The waste
is fed into the primary chamber and semi-pyrolyzed, releasing
moisture and volatile components. The heat is provided by the
controlled combustion of fixed carbon within the waste. The syngas
that is driven off contains a high calorific value and can act as a
feedstock for the secondary chamber. Combustion air is then added to
the syngas, making it highly combustible and prone to self-ignition.
The secondary chamber is equipped with

46 “Gasification of Municipal Solid Waste”. Zafar, S. (2009). Altenergymag. http://www.altenergymag.com/content.php?

issue_ number=09.06.01&article=zafar

324 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 a conventional burner to maintain operating temperature at all times.
The combined gases are combusted in the secondary chamber.

Figure 3.29: Waste gasification plant47

Waste Gasification Plant

NOx HG HCI Cd Pm
Dioxin
Smokestack
Waste
Input

Fly Ash Outlet

Bag Filter

Primary
Cyclone

sification are: fixed bed and fluidised bed.

upon available fuel quality, capacity and gas quality Boiler
Secondary

3.6.2.2 TYPES OF GASIFIERS FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTE TREATMENT

Gasification technology is selected on the basis of available fuel quality,

capacity range, and gas quality conditions. The main reactors used for
gasification of MSW are fixed beds and fluidised beds. Larger capacity
gasifiers are preferable for treatment of MSW because they allow for
variable fuel feed, uniform process temperatures due to highly
turbulent flow through the bed, good interaction between gases and
solids, and high levels of carbon conversion.
ate and more useful for small and medium scale power and thermal energy uses
(1) Fixed Beds

Fixed bed gasifiers typically have a grate to support the feed material
and maintain a stationary reaction zone. They are relatively easy to
design and operate, and are therefore useful for small and medium
scale power and thermal energy uses. The two primary types of fixed
bed gasifiers are updraft and downdraft.

47 Ibid.
 In an updraft gasifier, the fuel is also fed at the top of the gasifier but the
airflow is in the upward direction. As the fuel flows downward
Fixed through
bed gasifiers are of two types:
the vessel, it dries, pyrolyzes, gasifies, and combusts. The main use of wet waste with 50% m
Updraft: highly efficient,
updraft gasifiers has been with direct use of the gas Downdraft: notcoupled
in a closely preferred for MSW treatment
boiler or furnace. Because the gas leaves this gasifier at relatively low
temperatures, the process has a high thermal efficiency and, as a result,
wet MSW containing 50% moisture can be gasified without any pre-
drying of the waste.

In a downdraft gasifier, air is introduced into a downward flowing

packed bed or solid fuel stream and gas is drawn off at the bottom. The
air or oxygen and fuel enter the reaction zone from the top,
decomposing the combustion gases and burning most of the tars.
Downdraft gasifiers are not ideal for waste treatment because they
typically require a low ash fuel such as wood to avoid clogging.

(2) Fluidised Beds

Fluidised beds are an attractive proposition for the gasification of

MSW.48 In a fluidised bed boiler, a stream of gas (typically air or steam)
Fluidised bed are preferred for gasification of MSW as it can be used with multip
is passed upward through
and good a bed ofcontrol
operational solid fuel and material (such as
coarse sand or limestone). The gas acts as the fluidising medium and
also provides the oxidant for combustion and tar cracking. Waste is
introduced either on top of the bed through a feed chute or into the bed
through an auger. Fluidised beds have the advantage of extremely good
mixing and high heat transfer, resulting in very uniform bed conditions
and efficient reactions. Fluidised bed technology is more suitable for
generators with capacities greater than 10 MW because it can be used
with different fuels, requires relatively compact combustion chambers,
and allows for good operational control. The two main types of
fluidised beds for power generation are bubbling and circulating
fluidised beds.

In a bubbling fluidised bed (BFB), the gas velocity must be high enough
so that the solid particles, comprising the bed material, are lifted, thus
expanding the bed and causing it to bubble like liquid. A bubbling
fluidised bed reactor typically has a cylindrical or rectangular chamber
designed so that contact between the gas and solids facilitates drying
Two types of fluidised bed a
and size reduction (attrition). As waste is introduced into the bed, most
Bubbling fluidised bed
of the organics vaporise pyrolytically and are partially combusted Circulating
in fluidised bed
the bed. Typical desired operating temperatures range from 900°C to
1,000°C.

A circulating fluidised bed (CFB) is differentiated from a bubbling fluid

bed in that there is no distinct separation between the dense solids
zone and the dilute solids zone. The capacity to process different
feedstock

326 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

48 “Gasification of Municipal Solid Waste”. Zafar, S (2009). Altenergymag.
http://www.altenergymag.com/content.php?issue_number=09.06.01&article=zafar

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 325

 with varying compositions and moisture contents is a major advantage
in such systems.

Table 3.14: Thermal Capacity of Different Gasifier Design 49

GASIFIER DESIGN FUEL CAPACITY

Down draft 1kW – 1MW
Updraft 1.1 MW – 12 MW
Bubbling fluidised bed 1 MW – 50 MW
Circulating fluidised bed 10 MW – 200 MW

3.6.2.3 EMERGING TRENDS IN GASIFICATION

(a) Plasma Gasification

Plasma gasification or plasma discharge uses extremely high
temperatures in an oxygen-starved environment to completely
decompose input waste material into very simple molecules in a
process similar to pyrolysis. The heat source is a plasma discharge
torch, a device that produces a very high temperature plasma gas.
Plasma gasification has two variants, depending on whether the plasma
torch is within the main waste conversion reactor or external to it. It is
carried out under oxygen-starved conditions and the main products are
vitrified slag, syngas, and molten metal. Vitrified slag may be used as an
aggregate in construction; the syngas may be used in energy recovery
systems or as a chemical feedstock; and the molten metal may have a
commercial value depending on quality and market availability.50

waste (MSW) or up to 165 TPD of a 50/50 mixture of MSW and automotive shredder residue (ASR). The Eco-Valley facil

49 Ibid.
50 Ibid.
(3) Fine particulate entrained in the syngas that exits the gasifier attacked the
refractory in the afterburner and accumulated on the walls of the
afterburner.
The plant produced electricity through steam (Rankine cycle). The process employed
includes the following:

1) Waste Pit: MSW and ASR are

deposited in the waste pit. An Feed Port
Syngas outlet
overhead crane grabs waste and
drops it into a shredder to
reduce the size of the feedstock
to 2.5 inches. The shredded
material is returned to the waste
pit where it is mixed with ASR,
which arrives in shredded form.
(2) Gasifier: Waste material is conveyed Refractory

to the gasifier and enters at the top

Tertiary
of the vessel. Organic material in
the waste
Tuyeres
was converted into synthesis gas, Charge Bed Secondary
i.e., syngas, which consists Tuyeres
primarily of
Plasma
carbon monoxide, hydrogen, Coke
Torches
Bed
methane combustible gases as
well as carbon dioxide and nitrogen Tap Hole

non-combustible
gases. The syngas exits at the top Schematic Plasma Gasification Reactor used in the
of the gasifier. Inorganic material Eco valley plant
were melted and exits the
gasifier at the
bottom of the gasifier as a molten slag, which forms vitreous granules as it
is water quenched.
(3) The syngas travels to the afterburner, a refractory lined cylindrical vessel, in
which it is immediately combusted.
(4) The hot gas leaves the afterburner and travels to the heat recovery steam
boiler where it was cooled to produce steam.
(5) The steam was used to drive a steam turbine generator.
(6) The flue gas exits the heat recovery steam boiler and was cleaned in a bag
house system before being vented to the atmosphere.

Such systems are not only very expensive but require a high level of
understanding of the nature of the feedstock, may require feedstock other than
MSW for commercial viability, and require experienced and advanced technical
capacity to ensure smooth and continuous operation. As such, this and similar
technologies are not yet proven in the Indian context.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 327

3.6.2.4 INTEGRATED GASIFICATION WITH POWER
GENERATING EqUIPMENT

MSW gasification can be integrated with power turbines, steam cycle,

and other power generating equipment to provide thermal energy.
Combination of MSW gasification with power turbines and fuel cells
increases overall efficiency of the system. Development is happening on
the following lines:
1. Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is based on the
concept of integrating MSW gasification with gas turbines and
steam cycle.
2. Fuel cells are integrated with MSW gasifier. Tubular solid oxide fuel
cells have been found to be most effective for these applications.

3.6.2.5 CHALLENGES OF OPERATING GASIFICATION PLANTS

Gasification takes place in low oxygen environment that limits the

emission of pollutants. It also generates fuel gas that can be further
used in a number of ways, as suggested in the section on pyrolysis.
During gasification, tars, heavy metals, halogens, and alkaline
compounds are released within the product gas and can cause
environmental and operational problems. Tars are high molecular
weight organic gases that ruin reforming catalysts, sulfur removal
systems, and ceramic filters and increase the occurrence of slagging in
boilers, on other metal and refractory surfaces. Alkalis can increase
agglomeration in fluidised beds that are used in some gasification
systems and can also ruin gas turbines during combustion. Heavy
metals are toxic and accumulate, if released into the environment.
Halogens are corrosive and a cause of acid rain, if emitted to the
environment. The key to achieving cost efficient, clean energy recovery
from MSW gasification will be overcoming problems associated with
the release and formation of these contaminants.

3.6.2.6 CHALLENGES OF UTILISING PYROLYSIS

AND GASIFICATION IN THE INDIAN
CONTExT

 High calorific value waste, which may otherwise be processed

in more sustainable processes, is required as feedstock. Organics
can be converted into compost in a much more cost-effective and
environmentally safe process, as against using them as feedstock for
these processes.
 Pyrolysis and gasification processes require specific feedstock quality,
which has a direct impact on the efficiency and commercial viability of
the product. Pre-treatment of waste is a must. Specific size and
consistency of solid waste should be achieved before MSW can be used
as feed.
3.7 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE
(C&D WASTE)
With the growing importance of construction and demolition waste,
the Government of India has deemed it appropriate to formulate
a separate regulation for construction and demolition waste namely
Construction and Demolition Waste Rules, 2016 describing the roles
and responsibilities of the different stakeholders as well as the
compliance criteria for the management of the construction and
demolition waste.

According to the rules, construction and demolition waste “means the

waste comprising of building materials, debris and rubble resulting
from construction, remodeling, repair and demolition of any civil
structure.

C&D waste includes bricks, tiles, stone, soil, rubble, plaster, drywall
or gypsum board, wood, plumbing fixtures, non-hazardous insulating
material, plastics, wall paper, glass, metal (e.g., steel, aluminium),
asphalt, etc. However, C&D waste does not include any hazardous
waste as defined under the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management
and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016.

3.7.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 –

REqUIREMENTS ON CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
WASTE

Clause 4: Duties of waste generators:-

(c) store separately construction and demolition waste, as and when

generated, in his own premises and shall dispose off as per the
Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016;

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(s) transport construction and demolition waste as per the provisions

of the Construction and Demolition Waste management Rules,
2016;

3.7.2 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE RULES

Since construction and demolition waste was not given its due
importance, there were very little efforts to keep records of its
generation, composition, etc. However, it is estimated that 25–30
million tonne of C&D waste is generated annually in India. It has been
further estimated that 40–60 kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m 3) of C&D
waste is generated during construction and minor repair or renovation.
During demolition of proper concrete and masonry buildings (locally
called pucca building), about 500 kg/m 3 of C&D waste is generated
Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 329
 whereas 300 kg/m3 is generated for structures with partial concreting
and masonry. Presence of excavated soil and silt may change this

330 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 composition. Even in metro cities like Delhi and Mumbai, where C&D
waste is collected separately, waste is mixed containing about 50% of
soil and silt. Natural calamities like earthquakes, landslides, etc. result
in generation of large quantities of C&D waste.

Construction and demolition waste does not include any waste which
may have any chance of getting contaminated with nuclear waste
or exposed to nuclear radiation. Special care shall be taken before
demolition of any nuclear establishment.

Material generated from de-silting activity is also excluded from

construction and demolition waste category as it contains decomposed
organic material and may also contain heavy metals and other toxic
materials. However, de-silted materials from natural drains and storm
water drains, not contaminated with organic material, may be accepted
as construction and demolition waste.

ferent types of building materials being used. In general, C&D waste may comprise the following materials:
steel (from reinforced concrete, door or window frames, roofing support, railings of staircase, etc.); rubble; stone (mar
); electrical fixtures (copper or aluminum wiring, wooden baton, Bakelite or plastic switches, wire insulation); panels (w

C&D wastes are heavy (due to high density), often bulky, and occupy
considerable storage space. C&D wastes stored outside construction
sites and along road sides are a cause of both traffic congestion and
mishaps. These wastes are quite often given away for filling in low
lying areas or plots to private agencies, or disposed at open spaces or
on the road side illegally. Waste from small generators quite often finds
its way into the nearest municipal bin, vat, waste storage depots,
making the municipal waste heavy and degrading its quality for further
treatment like composting or energy recovery. C&D waste is also often
dumped in surface drains obstructing the flow of waste water leading
to urban flooding.

The C&D Waste Rules have introduced the concept of “De-

construction,” which means that a planned selective demolition in
which salvage, reuse, and recycling of the demolished structure is
maximized. This is made possible by a planned regime of
construction
 so that demolition is facilitated when desired. In a way, de-construction
is “construction in reverse.” De-construction leads to less wastage and
higher environmental sustainability.

3.7.3 RESPONSIBILITIES OF VARIOUS STAKEHOLDERS

FOR CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE
MANAGEMENT

The waste generator, service provider, urban local body (ULB), and
State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) and Pollution Control Committee
(PCC) are the most important stakeholders for appropriate
management of C&D waste. Construction and demolition waste rules,
2016 details out the duties of waste generator, service provider, ULBs,
etc., and Schedule I explicitly describes the management of C&D
waste.

Clause (4) Duties of the waste generator:-

(1) Every waste generator shall prima-facie be responsible for

collection, segregation of concrete, soil and others and storage
of construction and demolition waste generated, as directed or
notified by the concerned local authority in consonance with these
rules.
(2) The generator shall ensure that other waste (such as solid waste)
does not get mixed with this waste and is stored and disposed
separately.
(3) Waste generators who generate more than 20 tonnes or more in
one day or 300 tonnes per project in a month shall segregate the
waste into four streams such as concrete, soil, steel, wood and
plastics, bricks and mortar and shall submit waste management
plan and get appropriate approvals from the local authority before
starting construction or demolition or remodeling work and keep
the concerned authorities informed regarding the relevant
activities from the planning stage to the implementation stage and
this should be on project to project basis.
(4) Every waste generator shall keep the construction and demolition
waste within the premise or get the waste deposited at collection
centre so made by the local body or handover it to the authorised
processing facilities of construction and demolition waste; and
ensure that there is no littering or deposition of construction and
demolition waste so as to prevent obstruction to the traffic or the
public or drains.
(5) Every waste generator shall pay relevant charges for collection,
transportation, processing and disposal as notified by the
concerned authorities; Waste generators who generate more than
20 tonnes or more in one day or 300 tonnes per project in a month
shall have to pay for the processing and disposal of construction

332 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

and demolition waste generated by them, apart from the
payment for

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 331

 storage, collection and transportation. The rate shall be fixed by
the concerned local authority or any other authority designated by
the State Government.

Clause (5) Duties of service provider and their contractors:-

(1) The service providers shall prepare within six months from the
date of notification of these rules, a comprehensive waste
management plan covering segregation, storage, collection, reuse,
recycling, transportation and disposal of construction and
demolition waste generated within their jurisdiction.
(2) The service providers shall remove all construction and demolition
waste and clean the area every day, if possible, or depending upon
the duration of the work, the quantity and type of waste generated,
appropriate storage and collection, a reasonable timeframe shall
be worked out in consultation with the concerned local authority.
(3) In case of the service providers have no logistics support to
carry out the work specified in sub- rules (1) and (2) , they shall
tie up with the authorised agencies for removal of construction
and demolition waste and pay the relevant charges as notified
by the local authority.

Clause (6) Duties of local authority-The local authority shall:-

(1) issue detailed directions with regard to proper management

of construction and demolition waste within its jurisdiction
in accordance with the provisions of these rules and the local
authority shall seek detailed plan or undertaking as applicable,
from generator of construction and demolition waste;
(2) chalk out stages, methodology and equipment, material involved
in the overall activity and final clean up after completion of the
construction and demolition ;
(3c) seek assistance from concerned authorities for safe disposal of
construction and demolition waste contaminated with industrial
hazardous or toxic material or nuclear waste if any;
(4) shall make arrangements and place appropriate containers for
collection of waste and shall remove at regular intervals or when
they are filled, either through own resources or by appointing
private operators;
(5) shall get the collected waste transported to appropriate sites
for processing and disposal either through own resources or by
appointing private operators;
(6) shall give appropriate incentives to generator for salvaging,
processing and or recycling preferably in-situ;
(7) shall examine and sanction the waste management plan of the
generators within a period of one month or from the date of
approval of building plan, whichever is earlier from the date of its
submission;
(8) shall keep track of the generation of construction and demolition
waste within its jurisdiction and establish a data base and update
once in a year;
(9) shall device appropriate measures in consultation with expert
institutions for management of construction and demolition waste
generated including processing facility and for using the recycled
products in the best possible manner;
(10)shall create a sustained system of information, education and
communication for construction and demolition waste through
collaboration with expert institutions and civil societies and also
disseminate through their own website;
(11)shall make provision for giving incentives for use of material made
out of construction and demolition waste in the construction
activity including in non-structural concrete, paving blocks, lower
layers of road pavements, colony and rural roads.

Clause (8) Duties of State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control

Committee:-

(1) State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee

shall monitor the implementation of these rules by the concerned
local bodies and the competent authorities and the annual report
shall be sent to the Central Pollution Control Board and the State
Government or Union Territory or any other State level nodal
agency identified by the State Government or Union Territory
administration for generating State level comprehensive data.
Such reports shall also contain the comments and suggestions of
the State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee
with respect to any comments or changes required;
(2) State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee
shall grant authorization to construction and demolition waste
processing facility in Form-III as specified under these rules after
examining the application received in Form I;
(3) State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee
shall prepare annual report in Form IV with special emphasis on
the implementation status of compliance of these rules and
forward report to Central Pollution Control Board before the 31 st
July for each financial year.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 333

 (10) Duties of the Central Pollution Control Board - (1) The Central
Pollution
specific locations in each zone for Control
separate Board
collection of shall,-
D waste. (a) prepare operational guidelines related to environmental
should be periodically transported to bulk storage areas
management of construction and demolition waste management;
(b) analyze and collate the data received from the State Pollution
Control Boards or Pollution Control Committee to review these
rules from time to time;
(c) coordinate with all the State Pollution Control Board and Pollution
Control Committees for any matter related to development of
environmental standards;
(d) forward annual compliance report to Central Government before
the 30thAugust for each financial year based on reports given by
State Pollution Control Boards of Pollution Control Committees.

(11) Duties of Bureau of Indian Standards and Indian Roads Congress

-The Bureau of Indian Standards and Indian Roads Congress shall be
responsible for preparation of code of practices and standards for use
of recycled materials and products of construction and demolition
waste in respect of construction activities and the role of Indian Road
Congress shall be specific to the standards and practices pertaining to
construction of roads.

3.7.4 MANAGEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION AND

DEMOLITION WASTE

Schedule I of the construction and demolition waste management rules,

specifies the management of construction and demolition waste. It
details out guidance on storage, collection, transportation, processing,
and disposal and also the use of the recycled products. Reuse,
processing, and recycling have been emphasized. Large generators
have to be incentivized for setting up in-situ processing facility. For
large facilities, say for million plus cities, processing should be done
through appropriate technology which minimizes process residues for
landfilling, e.g., “wet” process, which can retrieve sand grade material
(4.75 mm to 75 µ) from soil and other fine inert material.

Schedule II provides for further use of processed C&D products in

operation of sanitary landfill. It must be clarified that while
processed C&D waste shall be utilized in sanitary landfill for MSW
of the city or region, residues from C&D waste processing or
recycling industries shall be landfilled in the sanitary landfill for
MSW.
3.7.5 STORAGE COLLECTION TRANSPORTATION AND
DISPOSAL OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
WASTE

3.7.5.1 SITE SELECTION FOR STORAGE, COLLECTION,

PROCESSING AND RECYCLING OR PROCESSING
FACILITIES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
WASTE

Schedule I details out the compliance criteria for storage and

processing or recycling facilities for C&D waste:-

(1) The concerned department in the State Government dealing with

land shall be responsible for providing suitable sites for setting up
of the storage, processing and recycling facilities for construction
and demolition and hand over the sites to the concerned local
authority for development, operation and maintenance, which shall
ultimately be given to the operators by Competent Authority and
wherever above Authority is not available, shall lie with the
concerned local authority.
(2) The Local authority shall co-ordinate (in consultation with
Department of Urban Development of the State or the Union
territory) with the concerned organizations for giving necessary
approvals and clearances to the operators.
(3) Construction and demolition waste shall be utilized in sanitary
landfill for municipal solid waste of the city or region as mentioned
at Schedule I of thse rule. Residues from construction and
demolition waste processing or recycling industries shall be land
filled in the sanitary landfill for solid waste.
(4) The processing or recycling shall be large enough to last for 20-25
years (project based on-site recycling facilities).
(5) The processing or recycling site shall be away from habitation
clusters, forest areas, water bodies, monuments, National Parks,
Wetlands and places of important cultural, historical or religious
interest.
(6) A buffer zone of no development shall be maintained around solid
waste processing and disposal facility, exceeding five Tonnes per
day of installed capacity. This will be maintained within the total
area of the solid waste processing and disposal facility. The buffer
zone shall be prescribed on case to case basis by the local authority
in consultation with concerned State Pollution Control Board.
(7) Processing or recycling site shall be fenced or hedged and provided
with proper gate to monitor incoming vehicles or other modes of
transportation.

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 335

(8) The approach and or internal roads shall be concreted or paved so
as to avoid generation of dust particles due to vehicular movement
and shall be so designed to ensure free movement of vehicles and
other machinery.
(9) Provisions of weigh bridge to measure quantity of waste brought
at landfill site, fire protection equipment and other facilities as
may be required shall be provided.
(10)Utilities such as drinking water and sanitary facilities (preferably
washing/bathing facilities for workers) and lighting arrangements
for easy landfill operations during night hours shall be provided
and Safety provisions including health inspections of workers at
landfill sites shall be carried out made.
(11)In order to prevent pollution from processing or recycling
operations, the following provisions shall be made, namely:
(a) Provision of storm water drains to prevent stagnation of
surface water;
(b) Provision of paved or concreted surface in selected areas in the
processing or recycling facility for minimizing dust and
damage to the site.
(c) Prevention of noise pollution from processing and recycling
plant:
(d) provision for treatment of effluentif any, to meet the discharge
norms as per Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.
(12) Work Zone air quality at the Processing or Recycling site and
ambient air quality at the vicinity shall be monitored.
(13)The measurement of ambient noise shall be done at the interface
of the facility with the surrounding area, i.e., at plant boundary.
(14)The following projects shall be exempted from the norms of
pollution from dust and noise as mentioned above: For
construction work, where at least 80 percent construction and
demolition waste is recycled or reused in-situ and sufficient buffer
area is available to protect the surrounding habitation from any
adverse impact.
(15)A vegetative boundary shall be made around Processing or
Recycling plant or site to strengthen the buffer zone.
 ULBs should make bye-laws as well as special arrangements for storage,
transportation, processing and disposal of Construction and Demolition
waste.

Small municipalities under 1 Lakh population should make

simple arrangements as under:
 Notify locations, preferably in each zone (North, South, East, West) and centre
of the city, where waste generators having small quantities of C&D waste
under 1 MT load should be allowed to deposit their waste. Construct an
enclosure at each notified location for storage of small quantities of waste
or place tractor trolley at each such location for storage of C&D waste.
 Arrange for transportation of C&D waste deposited at collection centres
through covered tractor trolleys or trucks to the area designated for
bulk storage.
 Citizens to avail of the facility at designated locations and refrain from
disposal of C&D waste at any other location or in MSW bins.
 Plan for reuse and recycling of such waste with private sector participation
or use the same for land reclamation by filling in low lying areas or for
carrying out bio engineering works to prevent mosquito breeding, by using
C&D waste to fill in areas where stagnant water is repeatedly observed.

In cities above 1 Lakh population, the municipality should make

elaborate arrangements as under:
 Notify suitable locations in different parts of the city where waste generators
having small quantities of C&D waste under 1MT load can deposit their waste
conveniently.
 Create a system of renting skips or containers for storage of C&D waste at
source departmentally or through an authorised private operator, where the
generation of such waste is greater than 1 MT.
 Prescribed rates for collection and transportation of C&D waste to be
published or notified.
 Citizens to avail the facility and refrain from disposal of small quantities of
C&D waste anywhere else.
 Arrange for transportation of C&D waste through skip lifting system
departmentally or through designated contractor. Normally 4.5 cu.m open
skips and 10 cu.m roll on and roll of open containers (to be hauled by hook
loaders are suitable for C&D waste.
 Plan for reuse and recycling of such waste with private sector participation.
The rejects from these plants (soft fines) are used for filling in low lying
areas.
 While depositing waste in the bins, care should be taken by the small
generators to see that waste material is not dumped outside the bin or
skip. These bins or skips should be periodically inspected by the municipal
authority to ensure that they are cleared before they over flow. Littering
should be strictly prohibited, particularly C&D waste should never be
allowed to be deposited in open or covered drains.
 Large generators who are provided with open skips or tractor trolleys on
rent by the local body or its authorised private operators, should inform

Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of municipal solid wasTe 337

 the municipal authority or concerned agency when the containers are likely
to be full in order to replace the filled skip or trolley with an empty one and
transport the waste at

338 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 a designated site. In case of very large generators responsible for
demolition, renovation, construction of infrastructure projects like bridges,
fly-over, roads, large commercial or housing complex or demolition of
unauthorised structures by municipality etc., the area should be screened
and cordoned off and the material should be stacked systematically without
obstructing traffic or causing any hindrance to the neighbourhood. Different
waste components may be segregated and stored separately. Segregated
material should be loaded into tipper lorries or tractors with the help of
front end loaders or back hoes and transported to designated sites for
further processing or other use. Private sector may be encouraged to
facilitate reuse and recycling of C&D waste.
 The ULB should fix and notify charges for door step collection and
transportation of C&D waste, based on the volume generated.
 Placement of Skips on Public Roads: Normally for bulk generators
dedicated hook loader bins or skips may be provided at a cost wherever
required and should be kept within the construction sites. The ULB should
notify byelaws with regard to management of C&D waste and safety
requirements of such containers on public roads.

3.7.5.2 BENEFITS OF PROCESSING CONSTRUCTION

AND DEMOLITION WASTE

 C&D waste can be put to a profitable use, given the scarcity of sand
and stone for construction, thereby saving natural resources.
 It prevents public nuisance and traffic congestion issues arising
from indiscriminate dumping of C&D waste.
 It saves valuable space at landfill sites.
 It reduces cost of bulk transportation if recycled close to source of
generation.
 Experiences of first pilot project of Construction and Demolition waste
CASE
STUDY
Management in India

In 2009, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD)

and IL&FS Environmental Infrastructure and Services Ltd.
(IEISL) took an initiative of setting up a pilot project to
process 500 tonnes per day (TPD) of construction and
demolition (C&D) waste at Burari, Jahangirpuri, Delhi, which is
a first of its kind plant in the country. A concession agreement
for 10 years had been signed on public–private partnership
(PPP) model, and 7 acres of land was provided by MCD for
setting up the processing unit. Presently the project is in the
jurisdiction of the North Delhi Municipal Corporation.

The project is based on an integrated approach covering collection

and transportation of C&D waste from designated points by
using skips and bins of different sizes (hauled by dumper
placers or hook loaders) or tipping trucks with front-end loaders
followed by transportation to the processing facility in vehicles
fitted with GPS.

Process flow
 Incoming waste is subjected to weighment at the site.
 Undesirable items like rags, plastics, metal, fibre reinforced
plastic (FRP) sheets, etc. are segregated through
mechanical and manual means.
 Remaining waste is segregated into
three parts:
– whole bricks (kept for internal use and
sale),
– large concrete, and
– mixed C&D waste.
 Depending on the waste inflow and its quality, the waste is processed.

Process Technology

Initially, the dry process was developed, in which loose soil was
removed and the C&D waste was crushed and screened in
stages to get the desired range of product sizes. However, in
mixed C&D waste, considerable quantity of loose soil and grit
is present which cannot be converted into useful products. To
overcome this problem, the “wet” process was developed. In this
process, the size grade of sand—4.75 mm to 75 μ (0.075 mm)—
was extracted in the form of “manufactured sand.” The remaining
fraction <75 μ was silt, which was removed. In this process,
residue was drastically reduced.

 Collected C&D waste is first screened through the grizzly to remove loose soil
and grit.
 Oversized screened materials are collected in the hand sorting
section where bricks and concrete are separated.
 Segregated bigger concrete boulders as well as mixed
concrete are broken using rock breakers. Thereafter
crushing is done by jaw or impact (horizontal or vertical
s ration, and targeted end use.
h  Multilayered vibro-screens with suitably sized interchangeable
a screens have been used for size grading the crushed
f material. This is the “dry” process. The different sizes of
t aggregates are used to make value-added products as
) mentioned below.
 In the wet process for extracting manufactured sand, C&D
c
waste is crushed and then passed through a washing and
r
screening train comprising log washer, vibro-screens (3-deck
u
pro- grade screen), evo-wash, evo-screen, thickener and filter
s
press to remove the silt material and recycle the water. Only
h
about 15% make up water is needed to run the wet
e
process.
r
,
Technical aspecTs of processing and TreaTmenT of
municipal solid wasTe 339
d
e
p
e
n
d
i
n
g

o
n

t
h
e

m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
,

s
i
z
e

o
f

o
p
e
 The wet processing technology is effective in controlling dust and noise, which is also import

Final Products

The processed waste is being used for making road sub-base—granular sub-base (GSB)—and m
In order to test the application of the recovered
GSB from the plant, the roads within the plant as well as the access road to the plant (about
Source: IEISL

3.7.5.3 REUSE AND RECYCLING POTENTIAL

Use of recycled C&D waste products (such as in non-structural

concrete, manufactured sand, paving blocks, lower layers of road
pavements, colony and rural roads etc.) shall be incentivised in places
where there is an operational facility for recycling C&D waste. Such
applications shall be subject to quality requirements for the specific
application.

ii) Procurement of such materials shall be made mandatory (10-20%)

in municipal and government contracts subject to strict quality control.

Many components of the C&D material have a high potential of

reuse and recycling, as detailed in Table 3.15, provided they are
properly segregated. Construction material such as aggregate,
bricks, paving blocks etc. can also be made out of this waste.

n that it is possible to use construction and demolition (C&D) waste for road and embankment construction such as em
exemption of VAT for tiles and curbstones made from C&D waste or “malba”.51

51 Construction, demolition debris chokes Delhi. Hindustan Times. 1 April. Singh, D. 2013.
http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/construction-demolition-debris-chokes-delhi/article1-1035318.aspx

340 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 The following table indicates some use potential of different
components of recycled C&D waste material. However, care has to be
taken in keeping durability and structural considerations in mind while
planning such use.

Table 3.15: C&D Wastes and Their Reuse Potential 52

MATERIAL PROCESS END

USE
Demolition waste Crushed and sorted Recycled aggregate
Construction waste Washed to remove Recycled aggregate
cement and recover
aggregate
Reinforced concrete Crushed, sorted and Recycled concrete aggregate
steel bars removed For recycling
Steel recycled
Clay bricks and roof tiles Cleaned Reused for masonry
Crushed and sorted Aggregate
Pulverised Mixed with lime to produce
mortar
Calcium silicate bricks Cleaned Reused for masonry
Crushed Aggregate
Pulverised Recycled into new calcium silicate
bricks
Natural stone masonry Cleaned Reused for masonry
Crushed Aggregate
Natural stone slabs Cleaned Flooring, cladding
Crushed Aggregate
Ceramic tiles Cleaned Flooring, cladding
Crushed Aggregate
Asphalt paving Crushed and Road construction excluding wearing
cold mixed course
Crushed and
hot mixed
Mixed demolition waste Crushed Fill material
(ABC i.e. asphalt, bricks,
concrete)
Steel Cleaned Reused steel components
Recycled New steel components
Aluminium Cleaned Aluminium recycling streams
Recycled
Timber beams, doors etc. Cleaned Reused as beams, doors etc. (if
free of hazardous preservatives).
Timber boards Cleaned Reused as shuttering and other
products
Feedback for engineered woods
Plastics Recycled Plastic recycling streams
Gypsum plasterboard Cleaned Reuse as boards
Crushed Soil conditioner
Recycled New gypsum products
Glass Cleaned Glass recycling streams
Crushed
Recycled
52 “Reuse and Recycling of Construction and Demolition Waste”. Holcim & GIZ, (2007).
 3.7.5.4 PROPOSED USE FOR PROCESSED CONSTRUCTION
AND DEMOLITION WASTE

The use of the processed construction and demolition waste has been
described below, primarily mixed aggregates or recycled aggregates
(RA) as well as recycled concrete aggregates (RCA).

(i) Recycled aggregate (RA) may be used in making concrete for non-
structural purposes. The extent of use would be limited to non-
load bearing structures only, provided the conditions mentioned
below at point no. 2 is complied with. Examples of use – wall
between two RCC load bearing members, filling walls between RCC
frame, non-industrial flooring, etc.
(ii) The RA shall be free from deleterious material, such as, organic
content, vegetable matter, coal, clay lumps, external substances
such as, soft fragments like pieces of plastics, paper etc. RA shall
also be free from chemicals, known to be detrimental for the
strength or durability of concrete or steel reinforcement, such as,
chlorides, etc. beyond the threshold value.
(iii) Percentage of replacement of natural aggregates by RA can be up
to 20% for any type of plain concrete work. The percentage can be
increased up to 30% for road sub-base / base / other road related
applications except wearing course. However, this shall be backed
up by laboratory test reports.
(iv) RA of appropriate quality (as mentioned above) can be used for
various purposes, such as, in making kerb stones, paving blocks,
concrete blocks and bricks, road sub-base, pathways for
pedestrian use, rural roads (used for walking and bicycles) etc.
However, it has to be ensured that the existing norms for strength
(such as, M20, M25 etc.) are complied with for desired
application.
(v) Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) can be used in all grades of
PCC (non-structural and structural).
(vi) Recycled concrete aggregates have to be pre-wetted near to SSD
(saturated surface dry) conditions before use to avoid rapid slump
loss due to its high water absorption rate. Admixtures with better
slump retention effect would be useful.
(vii)Fine washed aggregates in the range of 4.75 mm to 0.075 mm (75
µ) separated from C&D waste using ‘wet’ process may be used as
‘manufactured sand’ for non-load bearing structures.

342 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

3.7.6 SITING AND MANAGING CONSTRUCTION AND
DEMOLITION RECYCLING PLANTS

3.7.6.1 IDENTIFICATION OF APPROPRIATE LAND

FOR CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
PROCESSING FACILITIES

The Town and Country Planning Department or Urban Development

Department of the State or other Competent Authority should identify
suitable site(s) for setting up processing facilities for construction
and demolition waste according to the parameters necessary for such
projects. The identified land should be incorporated in the approved
land use plan so that there is no disturbance to the processing facility
on a long term basis. ‘No Development Zone’ should be notified around
the site to safeguard the facility.

3.7.6.2 SITING CRITERIA FOR STORAGE AND

PROCESSING FACILITIES

Consideration of environmental issues and suitability as well as

adequacy of the chosen sites are the main criteria. A ‘buffer zone of
no development’ shall be maintained–20 m for handling less than 500
tonnes per day (TPD) of C&D waste and 30 m for 500 TPD or more–
around processing or recycling site and shall be incorporated in the
land use plans of the concerned authority. In the case of successful
implementation of ‘no development zone,’ the buffer zone inside the
facility boundary should be limited to 6 m (for less than 500 TPD of
C&D waste) and 10 m (for 500 or more TPD of C&D waste). Thus,
land required for the facility would reduce.

In case the urban local body (ULB) or development authority is unable

to procure a site where it is not feasible to provide any ‘no
development zone,’ the ULB would constitute a committee comprising
representation from the State Urban Development Department, State
Pollution Control Board (SPCB) and Pollution Control Committee, and
at least one expert institution to deliberate on the long-term impact
and then give recommendations to the ULB. In case they recommend
any specific technology or modification in design of the facility, the
same should be incorporated in the bid. This way the project would
be secure from objections from the neighbourhood for siting of the
plant or facility. C&D recycling plants should ideally be installed in an
industrial area or zone or adjacent to an existing or future landfill
site.
 In-situ Recycling of C&D Waste at Redevelopment Site by National Build- ings
Construction Corporation (NBCC): A New Example for India

An old government colony of about 2,500 dwelling units is being

redevel- oped at East Kidwai Nagar in New Delhi. The huge quantity of
construction and dem- olition (C&D) waste generated at the site is being
recycled at a facility set up within the site. The process involves crushing of the
C&D waste material in a crusher housed underground followed by further
grinding in an overground milling machine. The fine material is mixed with a
patented catalyst in a pan mixer and the mixture is passed through a brick
making machine. The green bricks are sun dried or cured in the sun for 4
weeks. The bricks are of standard size and would be used in the buildings
coming up at the site. This in-situ recycling of C&D waste has avoided the need
of transportation of C&D waste, resulting in substantial saving in transportation
cost, and has minimised environmental degradation. The initiative will also save
scarce land resource which is also increasingly getting difficult to procure.

away from the boundary of residential areas, preferably in industrial zones or adjacent to landfill sites

Note: This being a new experiment in India, strength and durability of the bricks need
to be monitored on a long-term basis.

3.7.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Dust and noise are usually the main issues with processing facilities for
C&D waste. Table 3.16 provides a summary of environmental issues
which need to be addressed during installation and operation of C&D
plants.

344 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 3.16: Potential Environmental Issues with Siting and Managing a
Construction and Demolition Recycling Facility53

ACTIVITY POTENTIAL ISSUE IMPACTS

Site clearing Dust and noise Health
Loss of biodiversity Air pollution
Ambience or visual impact
Flora and fauna habitat
Site operations or contouring Odour Health
that permits water to pond on-
site Ambience or visual
impact
Uncontrolled or poorly managed Surface water run- Water pollution
site run-off off resulting in
Soil erosion
transportation of
sediments (i.e. erosion)
Transporting materials to or from Dust Health
site or stockpiling of wastes or
recycled products on site. Noise Air pollution
Crushing, grinding or screening Ambience
operations

Asbestos contamination in waste Asbestos pieces pass Health

loads through crushing
Air pollution
operations
Land contamination
Asbestos from
stockpiled material
remains in soil
Sorting of C&D waste Hazardous waste Health
components of C&D
Air pollution
waste
Land contamination
Litter Litter from operations Littering, choking of
or during transportation drains
to or from site

For prevention of pollution from processing or recycling operations,

certain provisions have been mandated such as storm water drain and
paving or concreting of selected areas in the processing or recycling
facility.

53 Source: Environment Guideline for C&D waste recycling Facilities, Department of Environment and Conservation,
The Government of Western Australia
 Table 3.17: Ambient Air quality at the Processing or Recycling Site and in the
Vicinity54

SL. NO. PARAMETERS ACCEPTABLE LEVEL

(i) Suspended Particulate Matter 500 µg/m3 (24 hours)
(ii) Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) 100 µg/m3 (24 hourly)
or Particulate Matter (PM10) 10 Micron
60 µg/m3 (annual)
(iii) Particulate Matter ≥ size (PM2.5) 60 µg/m3 (24 Hourly)
40 µg/m3 (Annual)

The ambient air quality monitoring (Table 3.17) shall be carried out
at processing or recycling sites by the concerned authority as per the
following schedule:
a. six times a year for cities having a population of more than 5 million;
b. four times a year for cities having a population between 1 million
and 5 million;
c. two times a year for town or cities having a population between
100,000 and 1 million; or
d. once a year for all towns (including census towns) having a
population below 100,000.

For noise levels, the noise standards recommended by Central

Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and notified in the Environment
(Protection) Rules, 1986 for industrial area shall be applicable
(daytime 75 dB ALeq and night time 70 dB ALeq). The measurement
would be done at the interface of the facility with the surrounding area,
i.e., at plant boundary.

However, exemption from dust and noise provisions has been granted
for the following projects:

1. for redevelopment of colonies and markets, where in-situ recycling

is carried out, provided (a) the project is completed within 5 years,
(b) minimum 80% of the C&D waste generated at the site is
recycled or reused within the same site, and (c) sufficient buffer
area is available to protect the surrounding habitation from any
adverse impact; and
2. in-situ recycling at large construction sites (minimum 1 hectare
so that some buffer area is available), provided (a) the project is
completed within 3 years, and (b) minimum 50% of the C&D waste
generated at the site is reused or recycled within the same site.

54 Revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change,
2009. http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/notification/Recved%20national.pdf

346 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

3.8 ACTION POINTS FOR AWARENESS
GENERATION THROUGH INFORMATION,
EDUCATION, AND COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITIES FOR TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF
PROCESSING AND TREATMENT OF
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
 Ensure active participation of the community for recycling waste at
household level. Recycling reduces the overall quantities of waste to
be treated.
 Success of any recycling programme depends on community
cooperation.
– Sensitise community toward waste pickers.
– Conduct recycling programmes at ward level and schools to
generate public awareness.
 Generate public awareness to segregate dry and wet waste at
source. The success of any waste treatment technology will depend
on raw materials received, which eventually depends on segregation
of waste.
 Ensure community participation toward successful implementation
of decentralised waste management system like composting and
vermicomposting.
 Involve community while planning and designing any waste
management system to avoid disagreement at later stages,
especially during siting of plant.
 Inform community about various existing and new waste treatment
technologies and requirements.
 Encourage the utilisation of compost for farming and gardening.
Increasing public awareness and knowledge about compost use
and benefits will subsequently lead to increased market demand of
compost.
 Involve agricultural department officers in generating awareness on
compost usage.
 Public support for adopting decentralised waste treatment
technologies (e.g., vermicomposting and biomethanation) ensures
success of treatment technologies and minimises financial
implications for ULBs.
 Generate community awareness to avoid “not in my backyard”
(NIMBY) syndrome, so that land can be earmarked for a
decentralised waste treatment facility.
348 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent
 4
Technical Aspects:
Municipal Sanitary
Landfills

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 349

 IN THIS SECTION

4.1 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 - on Landfills 351

4.2 Environmental Impacts and its Minimisation 359
4.3 Types of Municipal Solid Waste to be Accepted at Landfills 359
4.4 Essential Components of Municipal Sanitary Landfills 360
4.5 Planning and Design of a Landfill 361
4.6 Action Points for Awareness Generation through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Municipal Sanitary Landfills 423

350 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

4. TECHNICAL ASPECTS: MUNICIPAL
SANITARY LANDFILLS
4.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES,
2016 - ON LANDFILLS
As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(zh) stop land filling or dumping of mixed waste soon after the timeline
as specified in rule 23 for setting up and operationalisation of
sanitary landfill is over;
(zi) allow only the non-usable, non-recyclable, non-biodegradable, non-
combustible and non-reactive inert waste and pre-processing
rejects and residues from waste processing facilities to go to
sanitary landfill and the sanitary landfill sites shall meet the
specifications as given in Schedule–I, however, every effort shall
be made to recycle or reuse the rejects to achieve the desired
objective of zero waste going to landfill;
(zj) investigate and analyse all old open dumpsites and existing
operational dumpsites for their potential of bio- mining and bio-
remediation and wheresoever feasible, take necessary actions to
bio-mine or bio-remediate the sites;
(zk) in absence of the potential of bio-mining and bio-remediation of
dumpsite, it shall be scientifically capped as per landfill capping
norms to prevent further damage to the environment.

Clause 20: Criteria and actions to be taken for solid waste

management in hilly areas:

(a) Construction of landfill on the hill shall be avoided. A transfer

station at a suitable enclosed location shall be setup to collect
residual waste from the processing facility and inert waste. A
suitable land shall be identified in the plain areas down the hill
within 25 kilometers for setting up sanitary landfill. The residual
waste from the transfer station shall be disposed of at this sanitary
landfill.
(b) In case of non-availability of such land, efforts shall be made to set
up regional sanitary landfill for the inert and residual waste.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 351

SCHEDULE I: SPECIFICATIONS FOR LANDFILLS SITES
(A) Criteria for site selection:-

Specifications for Sanitary Landfills

(i) The department in the business allocation of land assignment shall

provide suitable site for setting up of the solid waste processing
and treatment facilities and notify such sites.
(ii) The sanitary landfill site shall be planned, designed and developed
with proper documentation of construction plan as well as a
closure planin a phased manner. In case a new landfill facility is
being established adjoining an existing landfill site, the closure
plan of existing landfill should form a part of the proposal of such
new landfill.
(iii) The landfill sites shall be selected to make use of nearby wastes
processing facilities. Otherwise, wastes processing facility shall be
planned as an integral part of the landfill site.
(iv) Landfill sites shall be set up as per the guidelines of the Ministry of
Urban Development, Government of India and Central Pollution
Control Board.
(v) The existing landfill sites which are in use for more than five years
shall be improved in accordance with the specifications given in
this Schedule.
(vi) The landfill site shall be large enough to last for at least 20-25
years and shall develop ‘landfill cells’ in a phased manner to avoid
water logging and misuse.
(vii)The landfill site shall be 100 meter away from river, 200 meter
from a pond, 200 meter from Highways, Habitations, Public Parks
and water supply wells and 20 km away from Airports or Airbase.
However in a special case, landfill site may be set up within a
distance of 10 and 20 km away from the Airport/Airbase after
obtaining no objection certificate from the civil aviation authority/
Air force as the case may be. The Landfill site shall not be
permitted within the flood plains as recorded for the last 100
years, zone of coastal regulation, wetland, Critical habitat areas,
sensitive eco- fragile areas..
(viii) The sites for landfill and processing and disposal of solid waste
shall be incorporated in the Town Planning Department’s land-use
plans.
(ix) A buffer zone of no development shall be maintained around solid
waste processing and disposal facility, exceeding five Tonnes per
day of installed capacity. This will be maintained within the total
 area of the solid waste processing and disposal facility. The buffer
zone shall be prescribed on case to case basis by the local body in
consultation with concerned State Pollution Control Board.
(x) The biomedical waste shall be disposed of in accordance with
the Bio-medical Waste Management Rules, 2016, as amended
from time to time. The hazardous waste shall be managed in
accordance with the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management
and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, as amended from
time to time. The E-waste shall be managed in accordance with the
e-waste (Management ) Rules, 2016 as amended from time to time.
(xi) Temporary storage facility for solid waste shall be established in
each landfill site to accommodate the waste in case of non-
operation of waste processing and during emergency or natural
calamities.

(B) Criteria for development of facilities at the sanitary landfills:-

(i) Landfill site shall be fenced or hedged and provided with

proper gate to monitor incoming vehicles, to prevent entry of
unauthorised persons and stray animals
(ii) The approach and / internal roads shall be concreted or paved
so as to avoid generation of dust particles due to vehicular
movement and shall be so designed to ensure free movement
of vehicles and other machinery.
(iii) The landfill site shall have waste inspection facility to monitor
waste brought in for landfilling h, office facility for record
keeping and shelter for keeping equipment and machinery
including pollution monitoring equipment. The operator of
the facility shall maintain record of waste received, processed
and disposed.
(iv) Provisions like weigh bridge to measure quantity of waste
brought at landfill site, fire protection equipment and other
facilities as may be required shall be provided.
(v) Utilities such as drinking water and sanitary facilities
(preferably washing/bathing facilities for workers) and
lighting arrangements for easy landfill operations during night
hours shall be provided.
(vi) Safety provisions including health inspections of workers at
landfill sites shall be carried out made.
(vii)Provisions for parking, cleaning, washing of transport vehicles
carrying solid waste shall be provided. The wastewater so
generated shall be treated to meet the prescribed standards.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 353

(C) Criteria for specifications for land filling operations and closure on com-
pletion of land filling:-

(i) Waste for land filling shall be compacted in thin layers using heavy
compactors to achieve high density of the waste. In high rainfall areas
where heavy compactors cannot be used, alternative measures shall
be adopted.
(ii) Till the time waste processing facilities for composting or recycling
or energy recovery are set up, the waste shall be sent to the sanitary
landfill. The landfill cell shall be covered at the end of each working
day with minimum 10 cm of soil, inert debris or construction
material.
(iii) Prior to the commencement of monsoon season, an intermediate
cover of 40-65 cm thickness of soil shall be placed on the landfill
with proper compaction and grading to prevent infiltration during
monsoon. Proper drainage shall be constructed to divert run-off away
from the active cell of the landfill.
(iv) After completion of landfill, a final cover shall be designed to
minimise infiltration and erosion. The final cover shall meet the
following specifications, namely :--
a) The final cover shall have a barrier soil layer comprising of 60 cm
of clay or amended soil with permeability coefficient less than 1 x
10-7 cm/sec.
b) On top of the barrier soil layer, there shall be a drainage layer of 15
cm.
c) On top of the drainage layer, there shall be a vegetative layer of 45
cm to support natural plant growth and to minimise erosion.

(D) Criteria for pollution prevention.-In order to prevent pollution from

land- fill operations, the following provisions shall be made,
namely:-

(i) The storm water drain shall be designed and constructed in such a
way that the surface runoff water is diverted from the landfilling site
and leachates from solid waste locations do not get mixed with the
surface runoff water. Provisions for diversion of storm water
discharge drains shall be made to minimise leachate generation and
prevent pollution of surface water and also for avoiding flooding and
creation of marshy conditions.
(ii) Non-permeable lining system at the base and walls of waste disposal
area. For landfill receiving residues of waste processing facilities or
mixed waste or waste having contamination of hazardous materials
(such as aerosols, bleaches, polishes, batteries, waste oils, paint
products and pesticides) shall have liner of composite barrier of 1.5
mm thick high density polyethylene (HDPE) geo-membrane or geo-
synthetic liners, or equivalent, overlying 90 cm of soil (clay or
amended
 soil) having permeability coefficient not greater than 1 x 10-7 cm/sec.
The highest level of water table shall be at least two meter below the
base of clay or amended soil barrier layer provided at the bottom of
landfills.
(iii) Provisions for management of leachates including its collection and
treatment shall be made. The treated leachate shall be recycled or
utilized as permitted, otherwise shall be released into the sewerage
line, after meeting the standards specified in Schedule- II.. In no case,
leachate shall be released into open environment.
(iv) Arrangement shall be made to prevent leachate runoff from landfill
area entering any drain, stream, river, lake or pond. In case of mixing
of runoff water with leachate or solid waste, the entire mixed water
shall be treated by the concern authority.

(E) Criteria for water quality monitoring:-

(i) Before establishing any landfill site, baseline data of ground water
quality in the area shall be collected and kept in record for future
reference. The ground water quality within 50 meter of the periphery
of landfill site shall be periodically monitored covering different
seasons in a year that is, summer, monsoon and post-monsoon period
to ensure that the ground water is not contaminated.
(ii) Usage of groundwater in and around landfill sites for any purpose
(including drinking and irrigation) shall be considered only after
ensuring its quality. The following specifications for drinking water
quality shall apply for monitoring purpose, namely :-

S. NO. PARAMETERS IS 10500:2012, EDITION 2.2(2003-09)

DESIRABLE LIMIT (MG/L ExCEPT
FOR PH)
1 Arsenic 0.01
2 Cadmium 0.01
3 Chromium (as Cr ) 6+
0.05
4 Copper 0.05
5 Cyanide 0.05
6 Lead 0.05
7 Mercury 0.001
8 Nickel -
9 Nitrate as NO3 45.0
10 pH 6.5-8.5
11 Iron 0.3
12 Total hardness (as CaCO3) 300.0
13 Chlorides 250
14 Dissolved solids 500
15 Phenolic compounds as 0.001
(C6H5OH)
16 Zinc 5.0

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 355

 17 Sulphate (as SO4) 200

356 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

(F) Criteria for ambient air quality monitoring:-

(i) Landfill gas control system including gas collection system shall be
installed at landfill site to minimize odour, prevent off-site migration
of gases, to protect vegetation planted on the rehabilitated landfill
surface. For enhancing landfill gas recovery, use of geomembranes in
cover systems along with gas collection wells should be considered.
(ii) The concentration of methane gas generated at landfill site shall not
exceed 25 per cent of the lower explosive limit (LEL).
(iii) The landfill gas from the collection facility at a landfill site shall be
utilized for either direct thermal applications or power generation, as
per viability. Otherwise, landfill gas shall be burnt (flared) and shall
not be allowed to escape directly to the atmosphere or for illegal
tapping. Passive venting shall be allowed in case if its utilisation or
flaring is not possible.
(iv) Ambient air quality at the landfill site and at the vicinity shall be
regularly monitored. Ambient air quality shall meet the standards
prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board for Industrial area.

G. Criteria for plantation at landfill site:- A vegetative cover shall be

provided over the completed site in accordance with the following
specifications, namely:-

(a) Locally adopted non-edible perennial plants that are resistant to

drought and extreme temperatures shall be planted;
(b) The selection of plants should be of such variety that their roots do
not penetrate more than 30 cms. This condition shall apply till the
landfill is stabilized;
(c) Selected plants shall have ability to thrive on low-nutrient soil with
minimum nutrient addition; (d) Plantation to be made in sufficient
density to minimise soil erosion.
(e) Green belts shall be developed all around the boundary of the landfill
in consultation with State Pollution Control Boards or Pollution
Control Committees.

H. Criteria for post-care of landfill site:-

(1) The post-closure care of landfill site shall be conducted for at least
fifteen years and long term monitoring or care plan shall consist of
the following, namely :-‘
(a) Maintaining the integrity and effectiveness of final cover, making
repairs and preventing run-on and run-off from eroding or
otherwise damaging the final cover;
 As per Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules 2000, to monitor the
ambient air quality at the landfill site, the following specified standards
should be met:

Standards for Ambient Air quality around Landfill Sites

S. NO. PARAMETERS ACCEPTABLE LEVELS

(i) Sulphur dioxide 50 µg/m3 (Annual*)
80 µg/m3 ( 24 hours**)
(ii) Nitrogen dioxide 40 µg/m3 (Annual*)
80 µg/m3 (24 hours**)
(iii) Particulate matter (size less than 10µ) 60 µg/m3 (Annual*)
or PM10 100 µg/m3 (24 hours**)
(iv) Particulate matter (size less than 2.5 µ) 40 µg/m3 (Annual*)
or 60 µg/m3 (24 hours**)
PM2.5
(v) Carbon monoxide 1 hour ** : 04 mg/m3
8 hours** : 02 mg/m3
(vi) Ammonia (NH3) µg/m3 100 µg/m3 (Annual*)
400 µg/m3 (24 hours**)
(vii) Benzo (a) pyrene (BaP)- particulate 01 ng/m3 (Annual*)
phase only, ng/m3

Notes:
* Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a
particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals.
** 24 hourly or 08 hourly or 01 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be
complied with 98% of the time in a year, 2% of the time, they may exceed the
limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.

 The ambient air quality monitoring shall be carried out by the

concerned authority as per the following schedule, namely:-
(a) Six times in a year for cities having population of more than fifty lakhs;
(b) Four times in a year for cities having population between ten and fifty lakhs;
(c) Two times in a year for town or cities having population between one
and ten lakhs.

(b) Monitoring leachate collection system in accordance with the

requirement;
(c) Monitoring of ground water in and around landfill;
(d) Maintaining and operating the landfill gas collection system to
meet the standards.
(2) Use of closed landfill sites after fifteen years of post-closure
monitoring can be considered for human settlement or otherwise only
after ensuring that gaseous emission and leachate quality analysis
complies with the specified standards and the soil stability is ensured.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 357

I. Criteria for special provisions for hilly areas:-
Cities and towns located on hills shall have location-specific methods
evolved for final disposal of solid waste by the local body with the
approval of the concerned State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution
Control Committee. The local body shall set up processing facilities for
utilisation of biodegradable organic waste. The non-biodegradable
recyclable materials shall be stored and sent for recycling periodically.
The inert and non-biodegradable waste shall be used for building roads or
filling-up of appropriate areas on hills. In case of constraints in finding
adequate land in hilly areas, waste not suitable for road-laying or filling
up shall be disposed of in regional landfills in plain areas.

J. Closure and rehabilitation of old dumps:-

Solid waste dumps which have reached their full capacity or those which
will not receive additional waste after setting up of new and properly
designed landfills should be closed and rehabilitated by examining the
following options:
(i) Reduction of waste by bio mining and waste processing followed by
placement of residues in new landfills or capping as in (ii) below.
(i). Capping with solid waste cover or solid waste cover enhanced
with geomembrane to enable collection and flaring / utilisation of
greenhouse gases.
(iii) Capping as in (ii) above with additional measures (in alluvial and
other coarse grained soils) such as cut-off walls and extraction wells
for pumping and treating contaminated ground water.
(iv) Any other method suitable for reducing environmental impact to
acceptable level.
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND ITS MINIMISATION
In line with the Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016 as
documented in Section 4.1, sanitary landfills minimise the harmful
impact of solid waste on the environment through the use of the
following mechanisms:
a) reduction of groundwater contamination through leachate
collection and treatment;
b) control of surface water contamination through runoff;
c) reduction of air contamination due to gases, litter, dust, or bad odour;
d) control of other problems due to rodents, pests, fire, bird menace,
slope failure, erosion, etc.

4.3 TYPES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

TO BE ACCEPTED AT LANDFILLS
Waste categories suitable for sanitary landfills are the following:
i) non-biodegradable and inert waste by nature or through pre-
treatment;
ii. commingled waste (mixed waste) not found suitable for waste
processing; C&D waste should be landfilled separately so that it could
iii. pre-processing and post-processing rejects from waste processing
sites; and
iv. non-hazardous waste not being processed or recycled.

Sanitary landfilling is not mandated or required for the following waste

streams in the municipal solid waste (MSW):

(i) biodegradable waste or garden waste,

(ii) dry recyclables, and
(iii) hazardous waste or industrial waste (to be disposed in hazardous
waste sites with special containment).

Hazardous wastes have to be disposed of in special facilities–e.g.,

treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDF)–that are designed
for the respective types of waste. MSW having limited contamination
of hazardous materials–e.g., aerosols, household chemicals, used
batteries, contaminated containers like paint, etc. can be disposed of
in a sanitary landfill with adequate liner systems (see requirements in
SWM Rules, 2016). However, in line with this manual, such wastes
should be segregated at source and managed appropriately, minimising
their disposal in sanitary landfills.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 359

 Landfilling of construction and demolition (C&D) waste, where
processing options are not available, will be done in a separate landfill
or cell where the waste can be stored and mined for future use in
earthwork or road projects. C&D waste can be used as a daily cover or
for road construction at the MSW sanitary landfill.

4.4 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF MUNICIPAL

SANITARY LANDFILLS
The term sanitary landfill is used herein to describe a unit operation
for final disposal of ‘Municipal Solid Waste’ on land, designed and
constructed with the objective of minimising impact to the
environment and according to the SWM Rules.

Figure 4.1: Section of Typical Sanitary Landfill1

1. Geological barrier
8. Landfill body
2. Impermeable base liner
9. Filling and compacting in layers
3. Drainage layer
10. Gas venting system
4. Leachate collection
11. Protective cover system
system
12. Gas collectors
5. Storm - water drain
ditch 13. Groundwater control
6. Bordering dams 14. Re-planting
7. Circulation roads

Figure 4.1 illustrates the essential components of a MSW sanitary

landfill which include:

 a liner system at the base and sides of the sanitary landfill which
prevents migration of leachate or gas to the surrounding soil;
 a leachate collection and control facility which collects and extracts
leachate from within and from the base of the sanitary landfill and
then treats the leachate;
 a gas collection and control facility (optional for small sanitary
landfills) which collects and extracts gas from within and from the
top of the sanitary landfill and then treats it or uses it for energy
recovery;

1 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

  a final cover system at the top of the sanitary landfill which
enhances surface drainage, prevents infiltrating water, and supports
surface vegetation;
 a surface water drainage system which collects and removes all
surface runoff from the sanitary landfill site;
 an environmental monitoring system which periodically collects
and analyses air, surface water, soil, gas, and groundwater samples
around the sanitary landfill site; and
 a closure and post-closure plan which lists the steps that must be
taken to close and secure a sanitary landfill site once the filling
operation has been completed and the activities for long-term
monitoring and operation and maintenance (O&M) of the
completed sanitary landfill are functional.

4.5 PLANNING AND DESIGN OF A LANDFILL

Steps for designing, implementation and operation of a Sanitary Landfill
are:
1. site selection,
2. sanitary landfill design,
3. construction of a sanitary landfill,
4. sanitary landfill operation, and
5. closure and post-closure plan.

4.5.1 SITE SELECTION

Selection of a sanitary landfill site shall be governed by the strategy

identified in the state policy and SWM strategy and the municipal solid
waste management (MSWM) plan of the urban local body (ULB).
Decisions on constructing local landfills in relation to utilising regional
landfills are based on these strategies or planning documents.

Site selection usually includes the following steps, which are described
in the section below:

 location criteria,
 search area,
 development of a list of potential sites,
 data collection for potential sites,
 field visit for local verification and identification of potential sites,
 selection of best-ranked sites,
 preliminary environmental impact investigation, and
 final site selection.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 361

 4.5.1.1 LOCATION CRITERIA

The SWM Rules, 2016 provide the criteria for the location of a sanitary
landfill (Section 4.1 of Part II). It should be verified if further criteria are
specified by a regional regulatory agency (e.g., SPCB and PCC).“Guidelines
for the Selection of Site for Landfilling” from the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) (Annexure 6) should also be referred. It also includes
guidance for developing a site sensitivity index potential sites.

Pursuant to guidance in the SWM Rules, 2016 and based on good

practices, the following criteria in Table 4.2 are suggested. Construction
of sanitary landfills for municipal waste within restricted zones should
be avoided at all costs.

Table 4.1: Criteria for Identifying Suitable Land for Sanitary Landfill Sites

S.NO PLACE MINIMUM SITING DISTANCE

1 Coastal regulation, wetland, Sanitary landfill site not permitted within
critical habitat areas, sensitive these identified areas
eco-fragile areas, and flood
plains as recorded for the last
100 years
2 Rivers 100 metres (m) away from the flood
plain
3 Pond, lakes, water bodies 200 m
3 Non-meandering water channel 30 m
(canal, drainage, etc.)
4 Highway or railway line, water 500 m from center line
supply wells
5 Habitation All landfill facilities: 500 m
6 Earthquake zone 500 m from fault line fracture*
7 Flood prone area Sanitary landfill site not permitted
8 Water table (highest level) The bottom liner of the landfill should
be above 2 m from the highest water
table
9 Airport 20 km**
* The urban local bodies (ULBs) located in seismic zone 4 and zone 5 should consult the
seismic fault map before finalising the site for the sanitary landfill. They should also ensure
that when the sanitary landfill is designed, the seismic factors are taken into consideration
in determining the stability of the landfill structure.
** In a special case, a landfill site may be set up within 10–20 km away from the airport
or airbase if there is no objection certificate from the civil aviation authority or air force as
the case may be.

4.5.1.2 SEARCH AREA

ng In an event where potential sites for MSW landfill facilities are not
ndfill by delineating waste generating unit as a
demarcated bycentre
the Town Planning Department, the ULB should
delineate an appropriate search area, which should ideally be located
within the municipal boundary. The extent of the search area is usually
governed by the economics of waste transportation (Section 2.3.12 of
Part II). The Town Planning Department and other concerned
authorities should be consulted while demarcating the search area.
4.5.1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF A LIST OF POTENTIAL SITES

After demarcating the search area and considering the various

locational criteria, areas having potential for site development should
be identified while mapping. A road map may be used to show the
potential sites that satisfy the locational criteria.

In areas where land is scarce, degraded sites such as abandoned quarry

sites or old waste dumpsites can be considered. Special design
Potential sites for sanitary landfill development should also co
measures are required for such sites.

The values in Table 4.3 can be used as rough guidance or estimation for
the required sanitary landfill area including the related infrastructure.

Table 4.2: Rough Guidance for Sanitary Landfill Sizes2

WASTE qUANTITY (TONNES PER DESIGN LIFE OF REqUIRED SITE AREA

LANDFILL) (HA)
in million in lakhs
< 1.0 < 10 15-20
1.0 - 2.0 10 - 20 20-30
2.0 – 3.0 20 - 30 30-40
> 3.0 > 30 > 40

4.5.1.4 DATA COLLECTION FOR POTENTIAL SITES

In order to identify the suitability of potential landfill sites in the search

area, a map screening will be conducted by applying more detailed
selection criteria and analysing site specific data. The objective is to
exclude unsuitable areas which do not meet specified criteria. Maps
and other available sources of information as tabulated in Table 4.4
may be used to support this secondary selection
Map process:
screening results in generating plans that indicate are
do not meet site selection criteria.
Table 4.3: Data Collection and Sources3 Considered areas will require further investigations before

S. NO. DATA INFORMATION SOURCES

1 Topographic The topography indicates low and Survey of India
maps high areas, natural surface water
drainage patterns, streams, and
rivers as well as roads, railways, and
location of airports.
2 Soil maps These maps, primarily meant for Indian Agricultural
agricultural use, show the types of Research Institute
soil near the surface. (IARI)
3 Land use These plans are useful in Town planning
plans delineating areas with definite authority or
zoning restrictions. There may be municipality.
restrictions on the use of
agricultural land or forest land
for sanitary landfill purposes.

2 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 363

 3 Ibid.

364 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 4.4: Data Collection and Sources [contd.]

S. NO. DATA INFORMATION SOURCES

4 Water use The plans indicating the following
plans items:
• private and public drinking
water wells,
• drinking water supply line(s),
• wells located on surface
water bodies and open
wells, and
• protection areas for drinking
water.
5 Flood plain These maps are used to delineate Irrigation Department
maps areas that are within a 100 year
flood plain.
6 Geologic These maps indicate geologic Geological Survey of
maps features and bedrock levels. They India (GSI)
may be used to identify
predominantly sandy or clayey
areas.
7 Aerial These can identify surface
photographs, features such as small lakes,
satellite intermittent stream beds, and
imagery, current land use, which may not
Google maps have been identified in earlier map
searches.
8 Groundwater These maps indicate the depth Ground water boards
maps to groundwater as well as or minor irrigation
regional groundwater flow tube well corporations.
patterns.
9 Rainfall data Precipitation data are used Indian Meteorological
for designing the amount of Department (IMD)
possible leachate in cities.
10 Wind rose Wind rose maps indicate the Indian Meteorological
maps predominant wind direction in Department (IMD)
the area, based on which the
location and orientation of the
landfill footprint has to be decided.
11 Seismic The seismic activity of a region has GSI or National
data to be considered in the design of Geophysical Research
sanitary landfills; landfills should Institute (NGRI)
ideally not be located in zone 5
seismic zone.
However, in case of siting in zone
5, complete structural analysis
should be carried out for
designing the landfill and the
design should include appropriate
structural controls.
12 Road maps Road maps indicate accessibility of the
potential site.

Authorities and other relevant stakeholders may be asked to provide

further information. The map screening excludes large unfavourable
zones from further consideration and focuses on promising zones (e.g.,
areas away from settlements, hydro-geologically favourable etc.). All
areas that do not meet specified criteria will be indicated in a constraint
map.
 The result of the map screening will be a plan (or plans) showing
exclusionary (negative) areas as well as areas where further
investigation (positive zones) is meaningful.

4.5.1.5 FIELD VISIT FOR LOCAL

VERIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION
OF POTENTIAL SITES

A site reconnaissance will be conducted by a site visit as part of the

preliminary data collection and map screening. All features observed in
various maps will be confirmed.
The possible sites should be evaluated on the basis of the topographical
conditions and the suitability of the landfill site, namely:
a) sufficient land size;
b) flat area with low inclination;
c) connection to highways and conditions of the access roads;
d) flooding during monsoons;
e) land use and soil type;
f) depth to groundwater table (as observed in open wells or bore wells)
g) information on the sub-ground from clay, stone, or sand pits;
h) crossing of electrical lines; and
i) actual settlement patterns (eventual new or informal settlements).

4.5.1.6 SELECTION OF BEST RANKED SITES

CPCB, in 2003, developed the guidelines for selection of site for

landfilling. These guidelines helped in the selection of most appropriate
sites based on a Site Sensitivity Index. Once these sites are identified,
they can be ranked on the basis of a defined criteria for the preliminary
environmental impact investigation and final site selection as detailed
in the following sections (Annexure 6).

4.5.1.7 PRELIMINARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT INVESTIGATION

On the basis of the ranking scores of various sites, two or three sites
may be chosen for a preliminary environmental impact investigation.

The impact of the sanitary landfill will be assessed and potentially

quantified according to the national rules and the local conditions.

The preliminary environmental investigation should conclude in a

rough comparison of assessed alternative sites among themselves as
well as with the null alternative (i.e., if the project was not carried out)
and suitability of the sites.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 365

 4.5.1.8 FINAL SITE SELECTION

The final selection of the site from amongst the best-ranked

alternatives should be done by comparing:
a) environmental impact,
b) social acceptance,
c) land availability,
d) transportation costs, and
e) sanitary landfilling costs (site specific costs are to be considered).

Transportation costs may be compared on the basis of average hauling

distance from the centre of the waste generating area.

In general, the material costs for liner system, leachate collection

system, daily covers, final cover system, and all facilities are similar for
all sites, considering normal site conditions (this shall change in areas
of high water table, in hilly areas, and other peculiar issues). The main
andfill plays a critical role in the selection of landfill site
differences include:
 distance of the access road to regional road system;
 sub-ground conditions for earthworks to prepare the base of filling
area; and
 distance to waste generators and waste processing facilities.

In-depth information on site parameters beyond those of the site

selection process is necessary for the adequate design of the sanitary
landfill.

4.5.1.9 SITE INVESTIGATION AND SITE CHARACTERISATION

In-depth information on site parameters beyond those of the site

selection process is necessary for the adequate design of the sanitary
landfill at the selected site. A proper site investigation programme
comprises:
 subsoil investigation,
 groundwater or hydrogeological investigation,
 surface water investigation,
 topographical investigation,
 environmental investigation, and
 traffic investigation.

Landfill design is dependent on all the above features. Hydrogeological

and surface water investigations are critical for determining the
detailed design of the landfill, and groundwater and surface water
quality are
 to be monitored regularly during the active life and post-closure of the
landfill to ensure fail-safe performance of the landfill.

Hydrogeological assessment:

An assessment of the hydrogeological settings of a landfilling site is

necessary to ensure that the site is conducive to the proposed design
of the landfill, which should be in line with the specifications of the
SWM Rules, 2016. Such an assessment should also be used to develop
effective groundwater and leachate monitoring plans.

The hydrogeological assessment should include the following:

 obtaining samples to characterise soil or bedrock conditions,

 mapping groundwater depth and pressure within the site, and
 assessing baseline groundwater quality.

The identification of unsuitable soils that would not support the

overburden of the proposed fill height is possible through such an
analysis. An analysis of the groundwater flow and pressure should
result in the determination of groundwater flow paths and inform
leachate control mechanisms and contingency plans for failure of the
leachate liner. Future monitoring of groundwater quality should be
against a reference of baseline conditions.

Within the site, the location of the boreholes should be along the
groundwater flow path, both hydraulically upgrade and downgrade to
the footprint of the landfill, at least 5 meters away from the footprint of
the landfill. In addition, groundwater monitoring as per specifications
in the SWM Rules, 2016 is mandated. The design of the landfill
should consider this hydrogeological information to prevent failure of
containment.

ves of a hydrogeological assessment are to:

the physical, hydraulic, and chemical properties of the surface material and bedrock where appropriate;
undwater flow characteristics and potential contaminant migration pathways;
the structural integrity of the subgrade to support the landfill including its construction and any overlying facilities;
the availability and suitability of the soil for cover and liner uses;
a groundwater monitoring network; and
the feasibility of the contingency plans for contaminant control.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 367

 The hydrogeological investigation report for a site should include:
i. ground surface contour plan showing surface watercourses and
surface water bodies;
ii. a contour plan of the water table, showing expected directions of
groundwater movement;
iii. piezometric contour plans for each aquifer, showing expected
directions of groundwater movement;
iv. a description of any aquifers and their interconnection, with
generalised estimates of groundwater flow, and the potential flow
paths and contaminant attenuation capabilities in the event
leachate leaves the waste fill area in planned or unplanned
quantities;
v. a description of the background quality of the groundwater, and the
existing and potential uses of the groundwater;
vi. site plans and cross sections of the hydrogeological conditions;
vii. the identification of any unstable soils or unstable bedrock; and
viii. a water balance analysis considering precipitation, surface
water drainage, infiltration, groundwater flow, exfiltration, and
evapotranspiration.

Surface Water Assessment:

An assessment of the surface water conditions on the proposed landfill

site and in the vicinity of the site (500 m) is required to ensure a stable
landfill that is not impacted by or impacts surface water.

nt erosion and sedimentation downstream due to on-site activities. A surface water monitoring plan should be establis
in a quantity greater than expected or with a quality worse than expected.

The surface water assessment report should include:

 a general description of the surface water features of the area

(watershed) in which the site is located and the surface water
features in the vicinity of the site (flood plains, natural watercourses
and water bodies, municipal drains, drainage paths, and
boundaries); and
 a detailed surface water investigation to assess water quality,
quantity, and habitat conditions (e.g., benthic community inventory)
of the surface water features identified on the site, any surface water
features flowing through the site, and any surface water features
receiving discharge from the site, including:
 a. an interpretation of the results of the detailed surface water
investigation including:
(i) plans showing all existing surface water features; and
(ii) a description of current surface water quality, and the existing
and proposed surface water uses.

b. a site drainage plan showing the drainage of surface water at the

site before the site is established, during operation of the site,
and following site closure;
Life of a sanitary landfill comprises the follow
Active
c. plans, specifications and descriptions of the period:
design 20–25 years
features,
Closure
control facilities and operational procedures and contain,
to isolate, post-closure period: 15 years mo
convey, control or treat the surface water, on and off site, prior
to its discharge to the receiving watercourse(s). The plans,
specifications and descriptions should consider both clean
surface water, sources (off-site and on-site flows separated from
landfill operations through control mechanisms like berms and
ditches) and potentially contaminated storm water (on-site flows
originating from landfill areas);
d. the design and location of any surface water control facilities,
such as berms, swales, ditches, control ponds or other facilities
for the control of the quality and quantity of surface water from
the site. The design should be sufficient to convey peak flow
volumes from a 25 year design storm. However external storm
water conveyance mechanisms should be able to transport peak
flows from a 100 year design storm.

4.5.2 SANITARY LANDFILL DESIGN

4.5.2.1 DESIGN LIFE

The life of a sanitary landfill comprises of an active period and a closure

and post-closure period. The active period may typically range from
20 to 25 years depending on the availability of land area. The closure
and post-closure period, for which a sanitary landfill will be monitored
and maintained, will be 15 years and more after the active period is
completed. Landfill volume estimates are necessary for planning and determ

4.5.2.2 SPECIFIC WASTE VOLUME: SANITARY

LANDFILL CAPACITY AND AREA

A rough capacity needs assessment was already conducted as the first

step of the site selection process. An in-depth capacity calculation will
be the first step in the design process, taking into account the
municipal solid waste management (MSWM) plan and computed waste
amounts for the active period of the sanitary landfill.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 369

 Based on the MSWM plan, the volume of waste in a sanitary landfill
should be roughly calculated under the following assumptions:
andfill
tion, moisture content, and the 1 tonne
degree of waste is equivalent to 1 cubic metre (m³) of sanitary
of compaction
landfill volume. (In reality, the specific weight of waste in a sanitary
landfill is 0.8 t/m³ during the first years and will increase after
settlement over the time to 1.2 t/m³.)
 Covering of waste will use about 10% more volume.

The total sanitary landfill area (for details, see next section) would be
larger than the area required for the filling area to accommodate all
infrastructure and support facilities as well as to allow the formation of
a green belt around the sanitary landfill.

From an economical viewpoint, a small base area with a high sanitary

landfill is preferable, because it reduces considerably the cost for the
sealing systems, leachate collection system, and operational roads. The
be added to the refuse volume generation
amount to of obtain finaland
leachate landfill space projection
the related costs will also decrease.

From a technical viewpoint, it is important to guarantee the runoff

of rainwater. Therefore, minimum inclinations have to be maintained
at the slopes. Every footprint of the disposal area of a landfill will
have to maintain a certain minimum height to meet these inclination
requirements. The height of the sanitary landfill is also constrained
by the overburden pressure on the soil; it should be within acceptable
limits.

From an environmental viewpoint, sanitary landfills with considerable

heights can interfere with the landscape and cause visual disturbance.
However, restricting the height would result in larger landfill
footprints, requiring larger tracts of land. The larger the base of the
landfill, the higher is the risk of leachate contamination of groundwater.
optimise the design criteria that adhere to technical and environmental considerations
4.5.2.3 SANITARY LANDFILL LAYOUT

As mentioned above, a sanitary landfill site comprises an area in which

the waste will be filled and an additional area for support facilities.
Within the area to be filled, usually only a part is under active disposal
in a specific phase of operation. Figure 4.2 depicts a typical layout of a
sanitary landfill.
Figure 4.2: Typical Sanitary Landfill Layout with Facilities4

Pre-treatment area (optional)

10

Landfill Volume = 1.100,000m3 Phase 4 above

Area = 70,000m2 Phase 2+3
4
Phase 3
Phase 2
Operation building workshop and garbage building
Phase 1 9Tire cleaning unit
2 3

8
6
1 Control building weighbridge
Compactor garage 5
Leachate collection and treatment
Gas collection and treatment 7 Gate

Recycling area and civic amenity site

Storm water pond

The following facilities must be located in the layout:

 access roads,
 equipment shelters,
 weighing scales,
 office space,
 location of waste inspection and transfer station (if used),
 temporary waste storage or disposal sites for special waste
including domestic hazardous waste,
 areas to be used for waste processing (e.g., shredding),
 demarcation of the sanitary landfill areas and areas for stockpiling
cover material and liner material,
 drainage facilities,
 location of sanitary landfill gas management facilities,

4 Internal GIZ document for preparation of MSWM manual, GIZ-IGEP (2014).

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 371

  location of leachate treatment facilities,
 location of monitoring wells, and
 tyre cleaning unit.

For each sanitary landfill site, a layout has to be designed incorporating

all these facilities. The layout will be governed by the shape of the
sanitary landfill area.
of sanitary landfill focus on efficient leachate management
4.5.2.4 TECHNICAL DESIGN REqUIREMENTS

The design of the sanitary landfill focuses on optimised leachate

management, as leachate is a main source of potential environmental
pollution. It is important to minimise leachate generation and to avoid
leachate being retained for a long time in the landfill body.

A landfill can be both above ground or partially below ground, based on

the local hydro-geological situation and the availability of land. Where
abandoned quarries are to be used as potential sanitary landfill sites,
the landfill could be below ground, depending on the site situation.
environmental impacts as leachate could be easily drained and collected

Above ground landfills have the advantage that leachate flows by

gravity according to the natural surface slope; leachate is collected in
the main leachate pipe (header pipe), which is laid to extend beyond
the footprint of the landfill. Leachate is pumped only from outside the
footprint of the landfill.

If water table is not close to the ground surface, landfill base can be at
a level below the ground, by excavation, to accommodate more waste
per unit area of land.

However, below ground landfills are to be engineered and constructed

appropriately to address the following issues:

 additional costs for excavation;

 the need to pump leachate during and beyond the active life of the
landfill;
 environmental risks caused by nonfunctional pumps;
 potential for retention of leachate in the waste body;
 no possibility of pipe cleansing and controlling; and
 pumping cost for the leachate during the lifetime and the aftercare
phase of the landfill.
 Sanitary Landfills in Hilly Regions

In hilly regions, it is usually not possible to find flat ground for sanitary landfills. Slope sanitary landfills
to the topographical conditions. In a slope sanitary landfill, waste is placed along the sides of existing hi

The design of these landfills needs additional site investigations and calculations. Furthermore, the sealin

arshy Regions

ould not be constructed in marshy areas; the local authority should access a regional landfill facility outside the marshy

4.5.2.5 BASE SEALING SYSTEM

The shape of the site should be adapted to the existing conditions with
a minimum of fills and cuts. However, the mass which will be replaced
Excavated soil could be used as a potential base sealing s
by the sealing system has to be excavated.
to be used as overlying clay liner

For construction of the landfill geometry and the planned landfill

embankments, soil material is required, which can be taken from the
excavation part for the base sealing system. The remaining excavated
soil should be stored for covering of waste during landfill operation.

The natural soil should be levelled and compacted to achieve 90%

maximum dry density as obtained from Proctor compaction tests. This
is sufficient to compact the overlying clay liner.

The base area has to have a sufficient slope to guarantee draining of

leachate and storm water. Minimum inclinations are indicated in Table
4.5.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 373

Table 4.4: Minimum Slopes Inside the Sanitary Landfill5

AREA MINIMUM INCLINATION

Base sealing 3 % for leachate pipes, roof profile
Main leachate pipe 1.0 %
Secondary leachate 3.0 %
pipe
Final slopes Not steeper than 1V: 4H and not flatter than 1V: 20H

The composition of the base sealing system has to be in compliance with

SWM Rules, 2016 and should consist of the following:
 Mineral sealing liner: It comprises three layers of clay or equivalent
amended soil, at least 30 centimetres (cm) thickness each. In case
adequate clay is not found in the vicinity, amended soil mixed with
bentonite can be used. The permeability of the mineral sealing must
be less than kf ≤1 x 10-7 cm per second (cm/s).
 Geosynthetic clay liner: In hilly regions, the mineral part of the
sealing system can be reinforced by a geosynthetic clay liner (see box
below), if clay or natural soil for bentonite mixture is not available in
sufficient quantity at an acceptable transportation distance.
 High-density polyethylene geomembrane: The high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane should have a standardised
thickness of 1.5 millimeter (mm). Only HDPE geomembranes that
comply with the requirements of American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) or corresponding standards should be used.
 Protection layer: A protection layer (of silty soil) should be 20–30 cm
thick or, alternatively, a protection layer (geotextile) should be 400
grams per square meter (g/m²) for bottom liner and 200 g/m² for top
cover, depending on the landfill height. If the planned height (height +
depth) of the landfill is more than 20 m, geotextile should be 800
g/m².
 Leachate drainage layer: A leachate drainage layer should be 30 cm
thick made of filter gravel, ensuring a permeability greater than 10-2
cm/sec.
Figure 4.3: Base Liner6

Waste

Filter or separator Leachate collection Protector (optional)

30 cm
Geomembrane (1.5 mm HDPE) Clay or amended soil

Original soil
90 cm

5 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

6 Guidelines and Check-list for evaluation of MSW Landfills proposals with Information on existing landfills, CPCB
(2008). Available at: http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_133_MSW-REPORT.pdf
 Use of Geosynthetic Clay Liner for Mu

Geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) is engineered to provide an impermeable barrier and can supplement the u
clay bonded to a layer or layers of geosynthetics.
Bentonite (sodium montmorillonite) is volcanic clay
used in a number of applications including GCL. In India, calcium bentonite, which has attributes similar
GCL is typically bentonite sandwiched between geotextiles. It may be further reinforced by an additional

4.5.2.6 LANDFILL PHASING

The excavation of the landfill base should be phased in accordance

with a predetermined phasing plan. To minimise damage to the
landfill base layers, ensure continued integrity of base layers over
the lifetime of the landfill, and minimise potential rainfall
infiltration. The extent of each phase is designed so that the
proposed waste fill volume (based on extent of base and waste fill
contours) should be large enough for at least 1 year. Figure 4.4
shows indicative phasing schemes; depending on site conditions,
either of the approaches may be followed. Phasing the landfill
should be a site-specific decision, the below schemes are only
indicative in nature.

Figure 4.4: a and b: Longitudinal Section Profile of Landfill Phasing (Not to

Scale)7

a
Phase 4 20 -25 m
Phase 1
Phase 2 Phase 3

450 m

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

150 m 100 m 100 m 150 m
500 m

It should be noted that phase base for phase 2 shall be excavated and
prepared 6 months before the final contours of phase 1 are reached.
Typically, at least 6 months is required for base preparation for each
phase. In year 1, phase 1 is considered the active phase and phase 2

7 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 375

 as the phase under preparation. Phase 3 is to be excavated and base
prepared only when 6 months of landfill capacity is left for phase 2.

The phases of the landfill, which include the edge of the landfill, have
certain specific construction needs:

(i) The base clay liner should be integrated with the clay barrier layer
on the top cover.
(ii) A granular blanket layer, which is an extension to the drainage
layer of the leachate collection system (LCS) along the side slopes
of the base, should be prepared. This granular blanket layer is
required to prevent the entry of any rainfall runoff into the waste
layers from the periphery of the landfill.
(iii) The geotextile and HDPE liner should be tucked into the trench
along the periphery of the landfill until the top cover is built to
maintain stability and integrity of the liner as illustrated in Figure
4.5. Once the top cover is placed, the HDPE liner will remain in
the trench, but the geotextile will be turned in and taken below the
gravel layer of the gas venting layer.
Figure 4.5: Liner Placement at the Edges of the Landfill 8

Top Soil 0.45 m

Drainage layer 0.3
m Clay layer
0.6 m Top elevation 390.2
Geotextile Phase 1
Gas venting layer 0.3 Select waste 0.3 m
m Gravel drainage layer 0.3
Clay berm m Geotextile
Geotextile
HDPE liner
Geotextile
Clay layer 0.9
HDPE liner m
Base elevation 384.1
Native soil

Geotextile

HDPE liner

At the end of each phase, until the edge of the fill is reached, the HDPE
and the geotextile of the liner are tucked into a trench, a temporary
road ramp into the landfill is prepared beyond the trench, and a clay
berm is constructed beyond this road to prevent runoff entering into
the active phase or cell area.
8 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)
 The first layers of waste above the liner layers are always made up of
select waste (30 cm). Select waste is defined as waste which has no
sharp objects and hard debris in it and has a size range not exceeding 2
cm. The side slopes of the base have an extra layer of granular soil to
prevent infiltration of any water into the waste. This layer acts as a
granular drainage blanket and drains any water into the leachate
collection layer.

Once the top fill contours are reached during any phase, corresponding
portion of the top cover layers is also laid.

4.5.2.7 LEACHATE MANAGEMENT

One of the most important objectives of a successful landfill

management system is to avoid leachate generation as far as possible
and to efficiently drain the leachate contained in the waste body and
from other contaminated areas. As per the SWM Rules, organic and
hazardous wastes should be diverted away from the landfill.

4.5.2.7.1 Leachate Generation

The principal sources of leachate include:

Leachate generation amount should be estimated based on runoff coefficient and ot
(i) moisture content of waste entering the landfill,
(ii) infiltration from direct precipitation on the waste surface,
(iii) sealed areas of landfill which are only partially covered with waste,
and
(iv) surface water flow onto the active face of the landfill.

areas and currently operated areas are connected to the leachate collection system. The other sections should be conn

4.5.2.7.2 Leachate Collection

While designing the leachate collection system (LCS), it should be

remembered that (i) a huge load would sit on top of this system and (ii)
the system has to be operational for at least 15 years after final closure
of the sanitary landfill. The base sealing system of the landfill should
have a roof profile with a slope to the side or embankment. The
leachate from the waste body will be collected in the drainage layer
system and in the secondary drain pipes made of HDPE and will be
directed to the main leachate pipes outside the waste body. The LCS
consists of three main components: (i) a drainage layer, (ii) a series of
collection pipes,

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 377

 and (iii) a nonwoven geotextile (punched) separator layer as illustrated
in Figure 4.6. The LCS layer is also to be laid along with the base,
according to the phasing plan.

Figure 4.6: Support of Leachate Pipes9

Support of Leachate Pipes

>2 diametre Waste body

HDPE pipe

Pipe support
sand

>2da
Drainage layer Protection layer sand or HDPE geotextile
HDPE geomembrane Mineral sealing layer

In situ soil
1.80
-5.00

The leachate collection system and its components are to be laid over
the HDPE geomembrane.

Gravel Drainage Layer

The LCS layer consists of a 30 cm thick gravel drainage layer of 25–50

mm rounded gravel. The slope of the gravel drainage layer follows the
minimum slopes required for the leachate collection system and
inclines toward the collection point.

LCS Pipes

Drain pipes are made of HDPE and slotted or holed on 2/3 of the pipe
circumference. The diameter should be minimum 200 mm for
secondary and 250 mm for main leachate pipes. The mentioned
diameters should not undercut to allow controlling by remote camera
systems. The wall thickness of pipes has to be calculated under the
consideration of the overburden stress due to filling height of waste.

Perforated HDPE pipes are embedded in this gravel layer. The networks
of HDPE pipes collect the leachate and are connected to a LCS sump(s).
Leachate from the sump(s) is to be pumped to the proposed leachate
treatment plan for disposal.

The specified distance between the secondary drain pipes should be

around 40 m.

9 Internal GIZ document for preparation of MSWM manual, GIZ-IGEP (2014).

 At the end of the secondary leachate collection pipes, access windows
for inspection and cleansing of pipes should be installed. The HDPE
pipes are connected by welding.

Example Calculation: Estimation of Leachate Generation

= 750 mm/year
Average Total Precipitation in Delhi Plan area of operating phase
Assuming 80% precipitation in 4 months (monsoon period) = 10000 sq.m.
Peak leachate Quantity (thumb rule basis) = (0.6*10000)/120 = 600 mm/4 months
= 50 cu.m. per day

Geotextile Layer

Further protection from clogging in the LCS will be provided by a

nonwoven geotextile installed above the entire stone drainage blanket.
The geotextiles on top of the stone act as a separator layer between
the drainage blanket and the solid waste and also provides additional
filtering capacity to help maintain the high permeability of the
underlying drainage layer.

At no time should vehicles be allowed to pass over the geotextile

without a buffer layer in between.

The entire process of construction and arrangement of leachate

collection system is illustrated in Figures 4.7–4.9. The leachate
collection pipes could either rise along the side slopes of the landfill
base as shown in Figure 4.9a, or through the liner as shown in Figure
4.9b. The leachate collection sumps, in some cases, are located within
the foot print of the landfill as shown in Figure 4.9c. The actual design
configuration should be according to the local site conditions and
height and depth of the landfill.

Figure 4.7: Placement of the High density Polyethylene Liner over the Clay Liner 10

HDPE liner Clay layer 0.9m Native soil

10 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 379

Figure 4.8: Placement of the Gravel Drainage Layer and Geotextile over the Clay Liner11
Geotextile
Gravel drainage layer 0.3m
HDPE liner Clay layer 0.9m
Leachate collection pipe
Native soil

Figure 4.9a: Leachate Collection Pipes Connected to a Sump (through the liner) 12

Stormwater conveyance pipes

Geotextile
Gravel drainage layer 0.3m Geotextile
Leachate collection HDPE liner
sump Clay layer 0.9m

Figure 4.9b: Leachate Collection Pipes Connected to a Sump (through a riser on the
side slopes)

Stormwater conveyance pipes

Geotextile Gravel
Leachate collection drainage layer 0.3 m
sump
Geotextile HDPE liner Clay layer
0.9 m

11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
Figure 4.9c: Leachate Collection Pipes Connected to a Sump (sump within the footprint of the
landfill)13

Stormwater conveyance pipes

Geotextile

Gravel drainage layer 0.3m Geotextile

HDPE liner
Clay layer 0.9m

Leachate collection sump

The primary criterion for design of the leachate collection system is

that all leachate should be collected and removed from the landfill at a
rate sufficient to prevent a hydraulic head greater than 12 inches from
occurring at any point over the lining system. The system is designed to
remove the accumulation of storm water resulting from a 25-year, 24-
hour storm, within 72 hours. Other design criteria include the
following:

 Bottom of the leak detection layer and the leachate collection layer
is sloped at a minimum 2%;
 Granular drainage layer is 1 foot thick with hydraulic conductivity
of >1 x 10-2 cm/s;
 The system must be designed to minimise clogging;
 The system is located above the seasonally high water table;
 System must be designed to handle the runoff from a 25-year, 24-
hour storm.

4.5.2.7.3 Leachate Pond

The leachate pond is a basin to retain and pre-treat leachate within

several days. The pond allows sedimentation and biological
stabilisation. Organic pollutants in the leachate are removed by
Leachate
microorganisms and by sedimentation processes. ponds
At the helpofinthe
bottom sedimentation and biologic
pond, a mixture of mud and water will be settled and pumped to the
landfill when the pond is cleaned.

The leachate pond should have two basins to achieve an optimal

leachate management (Figure 4.10). Division of the leachate pond
into two individual ponds will make it possible to clean the ponds and
their associated pipes. One basin might be cleaned or repaired while

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 381

 13 Ibid.

382 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 the other stays operational. The pond will be a necessary base for all
further treatment methods.

e water treatment systemFigure

for co- treatment
4.10: Sealed Leachate Pond with Two Basins14
h the landfill
gical or physicochemical treatment

4.5.2.7.4 Leachate Treatment

The type of treatment facilities to be used depends on the leachate

characteristics and volume. Typically, treatment may be required
(prior to discharge) to reduce the concentration of biodegradable and
non-biodegradable organic material, specific hazardous constituents,
ammonia and nitrate ions, sulfides, odorous compounds, and
suspended solids.

The appropriate leachate treatment scheme would significantly depend

on the organic content of the disposed waste. As per the SWM Rules,
2016, biodegradables should not be disposed in landfills. However, due
to absence of processing facilities or the presence of organic content in
rejects from processing facilities, landfills are not devoid of
biodegradable material. The concentrations of these biodegradables
would vary
xperienced landfill engineer in cooperation with from landfill
a waste waterto treatment
landfill. Laboratory
specialist tests should be
conducted to ascertain the quality and constituents of leachate in
every landfill.

Based on the chemical characteristics of the leachate, treatment may

include biological processes (e.g., aeration, activated sludge,
nitrification or denitrification); chemical processes (e.g., oxidation,
neutralisation); and physical processes (e.g., air stripping, activated
adsorption, ultra filtration, etc.).

14 Taken from GIZ-ASEM project (2008).

 Leachate treatment of large landfills require substantial area of land
as well as investment. In case of smaller landfills, a more practical way
could be to take the leachate to the nearest sewage treatment plant
(STP). In many countries, co-treatment of leachate with sewage is
practiced successfully. However, depending on the age of the waste, the
chemical composition of the leachate varies and results in significant
loads of different constituents at different times on the STP. The
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and nitrogen load are critical and
should be considered before assessing whether an existing STP can
handle incoming leachate.

Evaporation of Leachate:

One of the simple techniques used to manage leachate is to spray it in

lined leachate ponds and allow the leachate to evaporate. Additionally,
the leachate can be irrigated on the slopes of the pond to intensify the
evaporation rate as shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Irrigation of Leachate on the Slopes of the Pond. 15

Such ponds have to be covered with geomembranes during high

rainfall periods. The leachate is exposed during the dry and hot months
to allow evaporation. Odour control has to be exercised at such ponds.
However, spraying should not be done during high wind velocities to
check air pollution.

The treated leachate may be discharged to surface water bodies, after

ascertaining the quality as per the norms for discharge to inland water
systems specified in the SWM Rules, 2016.

15 Internal GIZ document – Integrated Solid Waste Facility Manual for the operation of the sanitary landfill, GIZ-IGEP (2015).

384 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

4.5.2.8 WASTE PLACEMENT

A 30 cm thick layer of select waste will be placed on the geotextile

as and when the laying is completed. It is preferable that this select
layer of waste be left without compaction. In order to dump
subsequent layers of waste, soil should be pushed gently by a light
dozer to make a path. Dumping of soil directly on the membrane should
be avoided as much as possible. One or two main routes of soil should
be created for use by heavier equipment for soil moving with 60–90
cm. Damage to the membrane due to traffic can be severe and
undetectable and hence should be avoided at all times. The first lift of
waste should be spread and compacted with light vehicles. It is
preferable not to compact the first foot of waste. No bulky items
should be dumped in the first lift.

4.5.2.9 SURFACE SEALING SYSTEM

The following layers are part of the surface sealing as illustrated in

Figure 4.12:

 Gas drainage layer: The layer should be a 30 cm thick granular gas

drainage layer formed by crushed gravel or crushed demolition
waste to facilitate gas collection.
 Mineral clay layer: The mineral material (60 cm) should be clay or
amended soil and should satisfy permeability requirements of k = 10
cm/s. If the available soil has higher permeability, additional layers
of 1.5 mm HDPE can be installed over 60 cm thick soil layer. The
overall equivalence of such design of soil plus additional layers has
to be checked and certified by geotechnical experts. 1.5 mm HDPE
liner should be covered with a 20 cm protection layer or geotextile.
 Water drainage layer: The water drainage layer should be 30 cm
thick formed by crushed gravel. The gravel layer should be covered
by a geotextile or alternate separator to prevent clogging of the
drainage layer by the overlying soil. An alternative is a drainage mat
(Secudrain), but it is more costly.
 Vegetative soil layer: The top layer should be 45 cm thick
vegetative soil.
Figure 4.12: Surface Liner System16

Vegetation Soil
Separator (optional)
Sand drain Protector (optional)
Clay or amended soil Separator
Gas collection

Waste

A sanitary
4.5.2.10 INFRASTRUCTURE FOR landfill should
SANITARY provide basic infrastructure and resourc
LANDFILL

4.5.2.10.1 Road Construction

Access Road

The access road to a sanitary landfill should be constructed in

accordance with the following design parameters:
 6.5 m width of roadways with two lines, and
 20 cm stabilised sub-foundation layer, anti-freeze layer if located in
frost-prone areas.

Roads within the site should have:

 3.0 m width of roadways, and
 40–50 cm foundation layer made of broken material or demolition
waste.

4.5.2.10.2 Equipment and Resources

The Sanitary landfill should be supplied with:

 water supply,
 energy,
 communication,
 sewage system,
 external lighting, and
 fire fighting (external).

16 Guidelines and Check-list for evaluation of MSW Landfills proposals with Information on existing landfills, CPCB,
2008. Available at: http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_133_MSW-REPORT.pdf

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 385

 4.5.2.10.3 Waste Inspection Area or Emergency Area

The incoming waste has to be controlled within the entrance area. This
area will also be used for parking during bad weather conditions while
waste disposal on the landfill site is not possible.

4.5.2.10.4 Security and Fencing

Site security is among the most important considerations in landfills.

ensure children, scavengers, and cattle
The site outside
should be thesecured
boundary
to implement a good standard of service. In
order to achieve this, the site has to be peripherally fenced and access
to the landfill should be limited to one entrance gate, which should be
blocked when the site is unattended. The fence will also keep children,
unwanted or unorganised scavengers, cattle, and other animals out of
the site. It will also protect litter to be blown out of the landfill site.

4.5.2.10.5 Tyre Cleaning Unit

The tyre cleaning unit consists of concrete and a removable horizontal

steel grit. The water of the tire cleaning unit will be discharged by
a mobile pump to the leachate collection system. The mud will be
excavated by a loader and disposed of at the landfill.

4.5.2.10.6 Sanitary Landfill Buildings

Weighbridge and Control Building

The control building should be next to the main entrance gate of the
landfill and should have electronic installations inside for control of the
weighbridge. The area of the control building should be about 25 m 2.
The weighbridge should be adjacent to the control building.

Administration Building

es for men and women, with adequate provision ofbuilding

The administration toilets and shower
should rooms
include manager’s office, offices for
manager’s secretary and assistants, meeting room, cafeteria, kitchen,
toilets and showers, dressing room, resting room and storage.

Garage and Workshop

The garage is needed to shelter and to repair all mechanical equipment

in the landfill (except landfill compactor and bulldozer). The workshop
or repair-centre in the garage should be a completely independent
unit. Except for the costly or composite parts, the depots of the garage
should carry spare parts of vehicles, compactors, and other equipment,
according to the service contract signed by the suppliers of the
equipment and the municipality.
 Compactor Shed

The compactor shed should be located next to the disposal area. This
building serves as a protection for the landfill compactor and bulldozer
from bad weather conditions while they are not in operation.

An example of design and calculations for a sanitary landfill are given

in Annexure 7.

4.5.3 CONSTRUCTION OF A SANITARY LANDFILL

The construction of a sanitary landfill (Figure 4.13) is a specialised

activity that requires continuous coordination between the design
engineer and the construction agency. Supervision of construction
activity and third party evaluation of construction quality and
adherence to design is required.

Figure 4.13: Sanitary Landfill under Construction17

4.5.3.1 SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS

The construction of a sanitary landfill should be supervised by an

independent engineer on behalf of the municipality or the employer.
The main tasks are:

 approval of the drawings and the final design;

 quality assurance of all operations related to the landfill and their
compliance with the SWM Rules, 2016;
 time scheduling, steering, and coordination of the construction sites;
and
 acceptance of the construction work and supply.

17 Taken from GIZ-ASEM project

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 387

4.5.3.2 qUALITY ASSURANCE

Test Field

In order to ensure the sanctity of the liner system after sealing

operations, a test field may be established (Figure 4.14), which is to be
included as a part of the standard operating procedure for designing
the landfill. The costs for establishing the test field should be included
in the overall project costs.

Figure 4.14: Construction of Test Field18

The test field has to be constructed outside of the sealing areas and
have to be retained and protected for the entire duration of
construction to prove the sanctity of the liner. Within a test field, the
suitability of all materials for sealing must be proved under actual
conditions of the site. The results of these tests should be considered
as the basis for the detailed design.

Construction of the test field should start on the surface with 3 layers of
clay. A trial pit shall be installed in the test field for visual check of the
quality of the compressed layers.

Three samples of each test field (investigation area) must be examined

for the following laboratory tests:
 truck drive tests,
 determination of density,
 determination of deformation module,
 proctor density,
 water permeability, and
 water content.

18 Taken from GIZ-ASEM project (2008).

 All examinations required for each layer should be carried out by an
independent engineer.

These results must be evaluated and documented including the

following conclusions with regard to the design of the mineral sealing
system:
 compacting methods,
 compacting equipment,
 number of compacting passes of roller,
 operation speed of compacting equipment, and
 thickness of compacted layers and those which are not compacted.

The test fields must be at least 20 m in length and the minimum width
must be 2 machine widths. The ramps should be in the ratio of 1:10 and
the embankments should be in the ratio of 1:5. Adequate care should
be taken so that the distance of acceleration and deceleration with
driving tracks is wide enough for the equipment to function properly if
they were to be arranged alongside.

The test fields should be built in the bottom and embankment area of
the landfill. They show the same slopes as the fields built later. After the
mineral sealing material has been tested, the application of the other
sealing compounds, protection layer, and drainage layer should be
tested in the test field accordingly (Figure 4.15). This has to be done for
the base sealing as well as for the surface sealing.

Figure 4.15: Test Field with all Sealing Components19

19 Taken from GIZ-ASEM project

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 389

Mineral Sealing Layer

For the sealing material as well as for the construction, the requirements
are as follows:
 Selection of the grain size distribution of the mineral material should
prevent micro substances from getting discharged (suffusion stability
or dispersion stability) as well as from increasing the crack resistance.
 Soil containing coarse gravel and stones, wood, roots, and other
impurities should not be applied. The digging locations provided for
supply of the mineral material should be examined thoroughly.
 When the sealing material is introduced, it should be homogenous and
show homogeneous water content.
 The water content must be higher than the optimum moisture content
(OMC) determined by standard proctor test. Mineral sealing layers
should not be constructed under bad weather conditions (rainfall).
 The top of the landfill surface bearing and of each completed layer of
the mineral sealing system should be dewatered sufficiently. The
required layer thickness, which should not exceed by more than 10 %,
will be determined on the test field. Special attention should be paid to
tight intermeshing (compound) of the layers built one on the other.
 If required, the mineral sealing material should be homogenized and
crushed by a milling cutter.
 Compression with the sheepsfoot roller is of special importance
because of its kneading and packing effect.
 The top layer surface of the sealing system should be flat and without
driving tracks.
 After completion of each compacted layer, an acceptance test should be
carried out before introducing the next layer or the placement work of
the geotextiles.

High-density Polyethylene Geomembrane

For constructing the layer, the following items have to be considered:

 supervision of the constructing and placing of the liner;

 a suitable firm placing the plastic liner;
 material requirements or tests;
 not less than 1.5 mm thick HDPE geomembrane (Figure 4.15);
 proof of stamp-pushing-force or ensuring plunger puncture;
 a manufacturer certificate, including product name and specifications;
 ensuring static proof; and
 proof of stability and resistance to sliding during building and final state.
 A storage area should be prepared on site according to manufacturer.

For placing the plastic layer, among other things, the following issues
should be regarded:

 Welding of the HDPE liner is only carried out if the temperature is

> 5 °C.
 On the surface of the HDPE liner, no water is allowed.
 The regulations of the manufacturer should be regarded (width of
the overlapping, welding, etc.).
 The placed plastic liner has to be fixed (e.g., sandbags).
 It is forbidden to drive on the welded plastic liner with any
equipment (only with the necessary equipment for welding).
 Every welding seam (Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17) should be proofed
(stability, density, thickness).
Figure 4.16: Welding of HDPE Geomembrane20

Figure 4.17: Proof of welding seams21

20 Taken from GIZ-ASEM project (2008).

21 Ibid.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 391

 Geotextile

For protection of the HDPE liner, a geotextile should be applied when

building the base sealing system. For the surface sealing system, the
geotextiles are applied on the equalising and drainage layer.

The prescribed overlapping widths should adhere to each other. The

geotextile should be laid in longitudinal roll direction with the
inclination of the embankment. It is not allowed to drive on the webs
laid, and equipment or machines should not be placed on the layers,
under any circumstances. The web position must be secured by
appropriate measures (i.e., sand bags) to prevent them from getting
lifted.

Material requirements or tests

Where geotextiles are used to provide significant puncture protection

to geomembranes, the determination of an appropriate mass per unit
area of the geotextile is critical. A factor of safety (Fs) of 3 or above
against the puncture of geomembrane is considered a good practise.

Method for Calculating Geotextile22

FS = Pallow / Pact Where:
FS = factor of safety against geomembrane puncture
Pallow = allowable pressure using different types of geotextile and site-specific conditions
Pact = actual pressure due to landfill contents
Note: Indicative methods for calculation may be found at gt_select.pl and

Based on real-world applications in India, the following geotextile

specifications are found to be optimal, subject to further validation
for site specific conditions:
• Weight of geotextile should be 800 g/m 2 (for height of waste: >
10m) and 400 g/m2 (for height of waste: < 10m). Protection liner
should be above the HDPE liner in the base sealing system.
• Protection layer should be 400 g/m 2 above the HDPE liner in case
the HDPE liner is applied as surface sealing system.
• Separation liner should be 200 g/m2 between the mineral
drainage layer and the recultivation layer on the surface sealing
system.
22 Indicative methods for calculation may be found at: http://www.landfilldesign.com/cgi-bin/gt_select.pl and http://www.
geosynthetic-institute.org/papers/paper14.pdf
 As per the SWM Rules, 2016, the geomembrane needs to be 1.5
mm thick, 1,440 g/m2 HDPE. In case a landfill is planned to have
more than 20 m height, the weight of the geotextile may have to be
increased as per the ground situation.

4.5.3.3 DRAINAGE LAYER

For the base sealing system, the drainage layer is built on the
protection layer. The drainage layer must comply with the following
requirements:

 The chemical, physical, and mechanical stability of the material

selected for the drainage layer must ensure that there is no negative
effect on the drainage efficiency from the chemical and physical
leachate characteristics and the mechanical load of the landfill body.
 For the drainage layer, washed material should be used and rounded
grains preferred.
 Grain-size distribution of the material should be used for the
drainage layer, with permeability greater than 10-2 cm/sec.

4.5.3.4 LEACHATE COLLECTION SYSTEM

The leachate collection system at the landfill base, embedded within

the drainage layer, consists of the following, from top to bottom:
 Nonwoven geotextile: The system should have nonwoven
geotextile (punched).
 Granular leachate collection layer: The granular leachate collection
layer should be 300 mm thick, with granular diameter of 25–50 mm,
overlying a 1.5 mm thick geomembrane or geosynthetic liner, and a
900 mm layer of compacted clay layer (Figure 4.8). The granular
leachate collection layer must be designed such that the calculated
hydraulic head of leachate above the composite liner is less than 0.3
m.
 Construction and demolition products: As per SWM Rules, 2016
(Schedule III, Part B), construction and demolition (C&D) products
can be used for construction and operation of sanitary landfill.
 High-density polyethylene leachate collection pipes: The HDPE
leachate collection pipes should convey the leachate collected by the
granular leachate collection layer to the leachate sump, where the
leachate can drain freely and be removed.

Leachate collection pipes must have adequate flow capacity to convey

the leachate and adequate structural resistance to withstand the
applied loads. In addition, since collection pipes are usually perforated
to permit flow of leachate into the pipes, the size of the perforations
must be large enough to accept the flow of leachate into the pipe
without the buildup of head, and small enough to prevent gravel from

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 393

 entering the pipe. Figure 4.18 depicts proper welding practices to be
followed while

394 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 welding HDPE pipes. Figure 4.19 depicts the proper placement of holes
in the leachate pipes.
The leachate collection pipe and the granular material must be able
to withstand the applied loads due to the overlying materials and
equipment used at the facility throughout the entire design period.
Three pipe failure mechanisms must be considered when designing a
buried plastic pipe to be structurally stable under loads. These
mechanisms are:
 wall crushing;
 wall buckling; and
 excessive ring deflection.

The following issues have to be considered while laying and attaching

the HDPE pipes:
 permission for HDPE welding submitted by the construction firm;
 welding records for each welding seam made;
 pipes to be covered with filter gravel after each working day;
 visual check of position and slopes;
 check of the inside walls of the pipes and the welding seams with a
movable video camera;
 pressure tests of the solid wall pipes of the leachate collector; and
 daily visual acceptance before covering and complete acceptance
after submission of all build-in test results.

Figure 4.18: Welding of Leachate Pipes23

23 Taken from GIZ-ASEM project (2008).

Figure 4.19: Proper Holed Leachate Pipes24

4.5.3.5 SLOPE STABILITY ASPECTS AND SEISMIC ASPECTS

The stability of a landfill should be checked for the following cases:

 stability of excavated or filled slopes,
 stability of liner system along excavated or filled slopes,
 stability of temporary waste slopes constructed to their full height
(usually at the end of a phase),
 stability of slopes of above-ground portion of completed landfills,
and
 stability of cover systems in above-ground landfills.

The stability analysis should be conducted using the following soil

mechanics methods depending on the shape of the failure surface:

 failure surface parallel to slope,

 wedge method of analysis,
 method of slices for circular failure surface, and
 special methods for stability of anchored geomembranes along
slopes.

24 Taken from GIZ-ASEM project (2008).

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 395

 4.5.4 SANITARY LANDFILL OPERATION

4.5.4.1 GENERAL REqUIREMENTS

4.5.4.1.1 Operation Manual

Before the operation of a sanitary landfill can be undertaken, it is

important
ULBs should be developed by the to develop the operating rules and methodologies, which has
landfill operator
to be documented in an operation manual.

The operational manual should serve as a guidance document for the

urban local body (ULB), private landfill operator, and personnel in the
sanitary landfill sites to aid them in controlled landfill operations. It
should also be part of any operation contract for private operators of
the landfill site.

The operational manual should comprise the following main aspects:

 controlling and recording of landfilled waste;

 guide to use the remaining capacity in an optimised way with the
support of filling plans and strategies;
 guide to undertake all operational duties required at the landfill site,
 basic health and safety measures; and
 maintenance of landfill facilities and landfill equipment if available.

4.5.4.1.2 Employee Assignments and Responsibilities

The composition and number of the landfill staff have to be designed

according to the size and requirements of the sanitary landfill. Table 4.6
suggests the following staff for the operation of a landfill site.

Table 4.5: Provisional Staffing Table25

DEPARTMENT FUNCTIONS
Management Landfill manager
Administration Controller
Weighbridge operator
Night watchmen
Operation Foreman
Machine drivers (wheel loader, dozer)
Spotter
Unskilled worker

Total Landfill staff

25 Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (First Edition), Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO), 2000.
4.5.4.1.3 Staff Responsibilities and qualifications

The list in Table 4.7 indicates the major assignments and

responsibilities of the various employees who work at the landfill.
However, the table does not necessarily include all duties that may be
required to safely and successfully operate the sanitary landfill. The list
should be mandatory for private as well as municipal operators.

Table 4.6: Staff qualification26

FUNCTIONS RESPONSIBILITIES EDUCATION

OR
ExPERIENCES
Landfill • Waste filling • Civil engineering
manager • Compliance with operation manual technician
and • Training in safety
filling plans matters
• Daily (short-term) personnel planning • Training in
• Supervision of the weighbridge environmental
operator issues
or controller • Knowledge of
• Keeping of customers’ contacts environmental legislation

• Adherence of safety rules

Weighbridge • Control and record of incoming • Administration
operator or waste competencies
controller • Operating the weighbridge • Training in
• Directing vehicles to the disposal environmental
area issues

• Visual monitoring of delivered • Knowledge of

waste environmental legislation
other than municipal waste
Night • Site security especially during night • Training in safety
watchman time matters
Foreman • Waste filling procedure • Trained foreman with
• Daily personal and equipment long-time experience
planning in construction
works
• Control of landfill compaction
• Training in safety
• Cell construction matters
• Road construction and control of
the
condition of the roads
Spotter • Traffic regulation in the filling area • Special training in
and filling
organisation of waste disposal procedure
• Checking of unloaded waste • Training in
distinction of
different waste
and of acceptable
or unacceptable
waste
• Basic training in safety

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 397

 26 Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (First Edition), Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO), 2000.

398 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 4.7: Staff qualification [contd.]

FUNCTIONS RESPONSIBILITIES EDUCATION

OR
ExPERIENCES
Bulldozer • Filling and the compaction of waste • Vehicle driver’s license
drivers in • Special training on
the landfill compactor and bulldozer
• Waste unloading organisation together • Basic training in safety
with the spotters
• Daily inspection and maintenance
checks of machinery
• Cleaning machines

4.5.4.1.4 Hours of Opening and Operation

The days and hours of opening of the landfill site for public deliverers
should be determined by the municipality and the operator of the
sanitary landfill. The opening hours should be published on a sign
board and in the related newspapers and websites.

4.5.4.1.5 Site Notice Board

A notice board has to be installed at the entrance to the site, which

should specify the following:

(i) the name and contact information for the sanitary landfill site,
including the telephone number;
(ii) opening days and times; and
(iii) site rules and regulations, e.g.,“No Smoking,”“Wear Safety
Clothes,” etc.

4.5.4.1.6 Site Security

The security has to ensure that the site is safe and secure at all times.
The security staff will provide after-hours security patrol around the
landfill site. The security staff will also be responsible for operating and
maintaining the following:

 landfill entrance security;

 safeguarding the on-site vehicles and equipments;
 reporting any security-related incidents immediately to the landfill
manager; and
 completing the daily site security check list for the entire facility.
4.5.4.2 WASTE RECEPTION AND CONTROL OF INCOMING WASTE

All deliveries from collection vehicles of the municipality and from

private service providers should be documented by checking the
(registered) license plate number, the respective labelling on the
vehicles, or the respective license. Corresponding lists with the license
plate numbers have to be compiled beforehand by the landfill
supervisor to help the weighbridge operator identify the vehicles.

Waste deliveries from licensed commercial and industrial deliverers

and private deliverers within the municipality are to be identified by
checking the identity card of the driver as well as the license plate
number. In case the presented documents do not fulfil the
requirements of the waste permission, the deliverer has to be rejected.
A rejection has to be documented in the operation diary.

A visual inspection has to be carried out in case of questionable origin

or unclear waste type by examining the:
 appearance;
 consistency and composition;
 colour;
 smell.

If the visual inspection indicates noncompliance with the SWM Rules,

2016, the consignment has to be rejected. This process has to be
documented in the operation diary.

4.5.4.2.1 Execution of the Weighing Process

The following data has to be recorded:

 license plate number;

 name of the corporation (in case of regional facilities);
 ward from which waste is collected;
 name of the weighbridge operator;
 gross and net weight of the vehicle; and
 date and time of entrance.

The deliverer has to follow the orders and instructions of the staff.

4.5.4.3 WASTE ASSIGNMENT

The spotters have to inform the deliverer about the location for waste
unloading at the landfill. The following unloading areas should be
available:

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 399

  waste disposal area;
 temporary storage areas for building materials, demolition waste,
and earth excavation (cover material); and

Domestic hazardous waste requires a higher degree of containment.

Ideally this waste fraction should be sent to the nearest TSDF. In case
this is not possible the SLF should have a special storage area for
domestic hazardous waste, to be transported to the nearest TSDF
periodically. In the absence of a TSDF in the vicintiy, to which this
waste may be economically transported, it is preferable to construct a
double liner cell for the domestic hazardous waste within the landfill
site. The weighbridge operator will provide information regarding the
temporary roads to be used. This has to be supported by corresponding
traffic signs and by additional staff (spotters), who duly direct the
vehicles. Driving on the loose landfilling area is not allowed.

4.5.4.3.1 Preparing of Filling Plans

A final structural plan of the waste body of the landfill site should be
designed. Based on this plan, different filling sections can be developed
to ensure that
 staff could efficiently undertake all operational duties required in
the landfill site, and
 the filling follows the designed waste body to avoid secondary
transfer of waste.

4.5.4.4 FILLING AND COMPACTION PROCEDURE OF WASTE

A high degree of waste compaction extends the lifetime of the landfill,

reduces the need for cover material, reduces litter problems, and
minimises long-term land requirements. Figure 4.20 illustrates the
filling and compaction method to be employed, both along active flat
fill areas and along slopes.

 The daily filling area should be determined every morning. It should

be wide enough to prevent a backlog of vehicles. For safety reasons,
the width of the landfilling face should not be reduced to less than
15 m.
 Incoming waste is unloaded in a pre-designated area (operation
layer 1). This waste is then pre-compacted and moved to the active
fill area (operation layer 2).
 Along slopes, to maximise compaction and to provide an optimal
weight distribution of the bulldozer, the waste should be spread up a
1:3 slope in 50 cm layers.
  Good compaction is achieved by operating the landfill compactor
up and down the filling area three to five times on the waste layers.
 The top view indicates the placement of freshly unloaded waste in
operation layer 1 and its final placement and compaction along the
slopes and in the operation layer 2.
Figure 4.20: Filling and Compaction Method27

Soil and other inert material should be used as a 10 cm

Figure 4.21: Landfill Compactor28

27 Internal GIZ document for preparation of MSWM manual, GIZ-IGEP (2014).

28 Ibid.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 401

 4.5.4.5 COVERING OF WASTE

Cover material includes imported cover such as (i) soil and other inert
waste;
diate soil cover, plastic or tarpaulin and (ii)
sheets canother material such as fine portion of C&D waste, street
be used
sweepings, and dry drain cleaning silt. The cover soil should be pushed
by a bulldozer or wheel loader up the slope and spread out as evenly as
possible. When constructing a body in an open area, the side slopes
also require soil cover.

4.5.4.5.1 Daily Cover

Waste placed at the landfill should be covered at the end of

operations each day. The daily cover should be at least 10 cm thick
and may comprise of soil, crushed C&D waste, and other inert
waste.

4.5.4.5.2 Intermediate Cover

In addition, the top and side surfaces of a completed structure of

waste that is not intended to be covered within 180 days by another
waste layer may be exposed to weather and truck traffic. These
surfaces should be covered with a layer of at least 30 cm of
compacted soil, street sweepings, dry drain silt, or compacted fine
C&D waste. Surface water drainage should be built to minimise the
volume of water entering the site.

The intermediate cover material should be removed as much as

possible prior to applying waste over it. Soil removal or scarifying
intermediate cover soil is essential to ensure controlled liquid
conductivity between sections.

4.5.4.5.3 Temporary Surface Cover

When the waste body has reached the final planned grade, a
temporary cover of compacted soil or compacted fine C&D waste
should be placed. This cover is necessary to allow light traffic
movement without exposing any waste. The temporary cover will
also help keep the rain from seeping into the waste.

4.5.4.5.4 Covering during the Monsoon

Depending on the climatic conditions, the unused filling areas should

be covered during the monsoon period. The recommended
intermediate cover is 45 cm of soil or alternatively a waterproof cover
material. The soil shall be tilled, compacted in at least two lifts, graded
to promote runoff and limit infiltration, and either mulched or seeded
to prevent erosion.
 Prior to the area being used for disposal again, the intermediate cover
shall be removed before any further landfilling can occur.

4.5.4.6 FINAL COVER (SURFACE SEALING SYSTEM)

To minimise infiltration of storm water in the landfill body and to allow

storm water runoff, a surface sealing system has to be installed after
the final completion of each landfill part. The main purposes of the final
cover system are to:
 control the amount of storm water filtration into the waste to reduce
leachate quantities;
 prevent erosion;
 To minimise the migration of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the
atmosphere;
 protect the base sealing (impermeable) layer; and
 to minimise other emissions causing negative impacts on the
environment.

4.5.4.7 LANDFILL GAS MANAGEMENT

A large part of mixed waste (50%–60%) consists of biodegradable

parts which produce methane gas. With a view to reduce GHG
emissions and thereby reduce environmental impacts, it is mandatory
to install a degassing system for the sanitary landfill.

The gas management strategies should follow one of the following

options:
 controlled passive venting; or
 controlled active collection and treatment or reuse.

4.5.4.7.1 Controlled Passive Venting

For all sanitary landfills, controlled passive degassing systems in the

form of gas windows covered by suitable passive gas vents is
recommended. Figure 4.22 illustrates placement of passive vents in a
landfill.

The gas windows are to be installed in the frame of the final covering.
The gas windows are openings in the cover system which may be filled
with compost to avoid the generation of bad odours. The size should
be not less than 1 m x 1 m, and the distance between two gas windows
should be about 20 m.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 403

Figure 4.22: Placement of Passive Vent29

Passive vent

>1.5m
Vegetative cover
Surface
layer

Barrier layer

Gas collection
layer Perforated pipe
Waste

4.5.4.7.2 Controlled active collection and treatment or reuse

In order to reduce GHG emissions, especially methane with its very

high global warming potential, future landfills should always install
active gas collection systems. The active degassing system should
contain the following elements as illustrated in Figure 4.23:
 Gas collection wells: Each well should cover a collection area of
around 2,000 m².
 Gas transporting pipes: From each gas well, HDPE gas
transporting pipes will be installed on the waste during the filling
procedure and connected via the main collection pipe to the
compressor station and the flare.
 Compressor station and gas use or flare system: The gas can be
fed into a blower station and a flare, which burns the methane to
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. This slightly reduces the warming
potential, as CO2 has lower warming potential than methane. Much
better in terms of climate change mitigation and resource efficiency
is the use of the gas to produce electric power through a generator.
 Gas generator: The installation of a gas generator can be profitable
if after a landfill lifetime of 3–5 years, sufficient gas will be available.

29 Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (First Edition), Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO), 2000.
Figure 4.23: Gas Recovery through Wells-Active30

Controlled collection and treatment or use should be adopted only

based on a feasibility study by experts in this area.

Compacted landfill of call unit

Impermeable landfill
cover

Gas collection header

Blower
Electricity to power grid or other usage
Perforated pipe
Clay packing

Gas cleanup equipmentTransformer

generator sets
substation
Gravel packed gas wells
Compacted MSW
Impermeable landfill liner

4.5.4.8 SANITARY LANDFILL ROADS

4.5.4.8.1 Road Construction

An important part of the landfill operation activities is enabling

vehicles to reach the landfilling area, which is progressing every day,
and to cover the waste once it is landfilled. Therefore, continuous road
construction is required.

4.5.4.8.2 Main and Temporary Roads

Access to the different filling sections and the top layers of the landfill
site is possible by constructing main access roads. These roads, with a
maximum slope of 10%, should have a hard surface and be protected
with a lateral ditch to drain the surface water flowing from the
temporary capping surface. These main access roads should be wide
enough (7–8 m) for two-way vehicle traffic. Chained equipment should
not be allowed to travel on the main access road, as this is likely to
cause damage.

The temporary side roads lead from the main access roads to the
disposal face and therefore have a short life. Placement of these roads
has to be conducted based on the instructions of the operation
manager. These roads are typically made of waste demolition material
which has been delivered for disposal at the site. On the top, 20–30 cm
of gravel or other similar waste type can be used.

30 Ibid.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 405

4.5.4.8.3 Road Maintenance

The following road maintenance should be undertaken:

(i) Filling of potholes: Potholes should be filled with materials

compatible with the roadbed.
(ii) Filling of areas where settlement occurs: When roads are built
on filling areas, settlement of the waste body may cause cracks on
a road or cause the slope of a road to change. Cracks should be
filled with material that is compatible with the roadbed.
(iii) Maintenance of roadside ditches: All ditches should be kept free
of obstructions and debris. Inspections of all drainage ditches and
structures should be made at least once a week, after the rain, or
more frequently as required. Any debris should be removed from
ditches.

4.5.4.9 STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

All surface water ditches, culverts, drainage channels, and settling

ponds (storm water ponds) should be designed by a hydrologist using
hydrometeorological data.

4.5.4.9.1 Surface Water Collection

Surface water management is required to ensure that rainwater runoff

does not drain into the waste from surrounding areas and that there is
no water logging or ponding on covers of landfills.

These objectives should be achieved by the following:

 Rainwater running off slopes above and outside the landfill area
should be intercepted and channeled to water courses without
entering the operational area of the site. This diversion channel may
require a low permeability lining to prevent leakage into the landfill.
 Rainfall on areas within the landfill site but on final covers of
completed landfill segments should be diverted in drainage
channels from active tipping areas, and directed through a settling
pond to remove suspended silt, prior to discharge.
 Any drainage channels or drains constructed on any restored landfill
surface should be able to accommodate settlement of the waste
body, resist erosion, and cope with localised storm conditions.
 The final cover should be provided a slope of 2.5%–5.0% for proper
surface water drainage. The final top cover slopes depend on the
area of the top portion of the landfill; the larger the extent, the
flatter the slopes. Figure 4.24 illustrates surface water drainage
system in a landfill.
Figure 4.24: Surface Water Drainage System in Completed Landfill 31

Diversion channel
Final cover Interceptor ditches

Storm water basin

Waste

Liner

Side slopes 1:1 to 3:1

Concrete liner or rip rap with flexible liner

4.5.4.9.2 Storm Water Retention Pond

The storm water retention pond should be designed according to the

local conditions. It should protect the downstream situated villages
against flooding. The construction should be designed as a ground
basin with a regular discharge to the receiving water course. However,
the retained water can be used for irrigation purposes during dry
climate conditions.

4.5.4.9.3 Maintenance of the Storm Water System

The landfill staff have to inspect the drains on a weekly basis. After
heavy rainfall, the storm water system has to be inspected also and
relieved from mud and sand. Regular cleansing is mandatory after
heavy storm occurrences, as the pipes and ditches are most likely filled
with papers and plastic bags. The storm water pond also has to be
cleared of papers and plastics.

31 Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (First Edition), Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO), 2000.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 407

4.5.4.10 LANDFILL EqUIPMENT

4.5.4.10.1 Required Equipment

For controlled landfill operations, the equipment listed in Table 4.8 are
required.

Table 4.7: Equipment Required on a Sanitary Landfill32

EqUIPMENT FUNCTIONS
Landfill Compactor Spreading and compaction of waste
Dozer Spreading of waste and daily cover
Backhoes and front end loaders Excavation and maintenance of ditches
Loading of waste and cover material
Tractor trailers; water tank Internal movement of waste or daily
cover Soil transportation
Water transportation
Truck with tipper Soil transportation
Light commercial vehicle or Staff transportation
passenger vehicle
Poclains Heavy-duty excavation and embankment
construction
Soil compactors (sheepsfoot rollers Finishing passes
and smooth steel drum rollers)

The number of equipment required depend on the amount of landfilled

waste and size of the landfill, and should be designed specifically for
each sanitary landfill. An indicative list of equipment required based on
the size of the landfill is given in Table 4.9.

Table 4.8: Equipment required based on size of Sanitary Landfill33

EqUIPMENT DAILY WASTE RECEIVED

200 Tons 201–500 Tons 501–1,000 Tons
Bulldozers a
2 2 2
Loaders 2 3 4
Excavators 2 3 3
Landfill compactors b
NA 3 5
Water tankers 1 1 2
Tractor trailers or 2 4 6
tippers

Note: a More than 10 tonnes operating

mass. b More than 20 tonnes
operating mass.

32 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

33 Ibid.
4.5.4.10.2 Maintenance of Mobile Equipment

Regular mobile equipment inspections and operating records are

critical for an effective preventive maintenance. To ensure maximum
operating efficiency, inspections need to be thorough and accurately
recorded by all operating personnel.

4.5.4.11 HOUSEKEEPING ON THE SANITARY LANDFILL

Housekeeping should be conducted in such a manner that it protects

the public and surrounding environment from risks and nuisance
emanating from landfill operations. A well-controlled landfill operation
will enhance public perception and acceptance of the landfill site.

The following general measures should be considered:

 Vector and vermin control: The landfill site might attract vectors
and vermin because of the presence of organic waste. To avoid or
reduce vectors and vermin, the filling area should be minimised and
the waste covered at regular intervals.
 Litter control: Offsite litter should be picked up on a regular basis.
 Noise control: Noise in the landfill site arises from landfill
operations and waste vehicles entering and leaving the site. During
landfill operations, equipment with faulty or worn-out exhaust
systems can cause high noise levels. Hence, they need to be
repaired.
 Dust control: The combination of vehicle movements and winds
on temporary and un-surfaced roads can create dust. Dust within
and around a landfill site can be a source of annoyance, harm, and
physical discomfort to landfill staff and neighbourhood. Therefore,
all precautions have to be taken to avoid dust generation.
 Odour control: The landfill should be operated in a manner that
will minimise the odour from waste or associated items. Operational
procedures include placing suitable cover material over the waste in
a timely manner.

4.5.4.11.1 Health and Safety

The landfill management (municipality or private operator) should

be responsible for all aspects of site safety, including public safety in
areas adjoining the site. The safety officer of the municipality or of the
private operator should also be responsible for the health and safety of
landfill staff. He or she should support the landfill management in the
following tasks:

 planning, operation, maintenance, and inspection of installations

with regard to health and safety;

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 409

  organisation and realisation of training and instructions of landfill
staff with regard to occupational health and safety;
 assessment and evaluation of accidents; and
 internal reporting on safety aspects.

4.5.4.11.2 General Safety Measures

General safety measures have to be applied during landfill operations,

regardless of the nature of ongoing activity or location. Below is a list
of priority measures, which should be elaborated, based on site-specific
conditions:
 Maximum traffic speed should be 20 kilometers per hour (km/h).
 Every person working at the landfill should have a yearly medical
examination.
 No one should be allowed to operate at the landfill without a mobile
communication system (either radio or mobile telephone).
 Smoking should be prohibited except in designated smoking areas.
 Ingestion of food is restricted outside designated areas.
 General hygienic requirements have to be applied while working at
the landfill.

4.5.4.11.3 Person Related Safety Measures

The workers have to be equipped with the following personal

protection equipment:
 safety boots (always to be used while working outside the buildings);
 reflective vests (always to be used while working outside the
buildings);
 safety helmets (to be used in case of risk of head injuries, e.g.,
during construction, loading or unloading activities, while operating
machinery, etc.);
 gloves (to be used in case of risk of hand injuries, e.g., during loading
or unloading, or maintenance activities);
 ear protectors (to be used while working in noisy areas); and
 disposable dust mask (to be used in case of exposure to dust).

The landfill management has to strictly enforce the use of personal

protection equipment.

4.5.4.11.4 First Aid

The landfill workers should be trained in first aid, so that they

themselves can properly provide first aid. Considering the specific
conditions at a
 sanitary landfill, it is strongly recommended that landfill staff working on
a regular basis be trained on first aid. All vehicles working at or entering
the landfill have to be equipped with a first-aid kit.

All vehicles working or entering the landfill have to be equipped with

a first aid kit.

4.5.4.11.5 Personnel Accidents

In case of accidents involving injuries, the following procedures have to

be applied:
 stop work immediately;
 inform first aider;
 inform management; and
 call medical services (ambulance emergency number should be duly
filled in and maintained by the responsible landfill operator).

4.5.4.11.6 Fire Prevention and Protection

General Requirements
The following descriptions provide an overview of fire prevention and
protection procedures. In any case, the actual firefighting operation is
under the responsibility of the fire brigade of the urban local body (ULB).

To prevent fire incidents, the following rules have to be applied:

 Banning smoking in all areas of the sanitary landfill.
 Handling material on fire as well as setting fire to materials on the
landfill are strictly forbidden.
 Waste that has been unloaded in the filling area has to be examined
visually for potential fire sources (glowing ash or glowing burning
remains). If fire sources are located, these have to be neutralised
with cover material immediately.
 All mobile equipment or vehicles should be furnished with a fire
extinguisher.
 Fire Control.

In case of fire, the following basic rules of conduct have to be complied

with:
 Every fire has to be reported immediately.
 The preservation and protection of lives and health have priority
over firefighting.
 Alarm signals should be heeded.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 411

4.5.4.12 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

The environmental monitoring of landfills should be performed as

per SWM Rules, 2016 requirements (Section 4.1 of this chapter). In
addition, hydrogeology and surface water quality at the landfill site
should be monitored as discussed in Section 4.5.1.9 of this chapter.

4.5.5 CLOSURE AND POST CLOSURE PLAN

Determination of the end use of a landfill site is an essential part of the

plan for landfill closure and post-closure maintenance. A closure and
post-closure plan for landfills involves the following components:
 plan for vegetative stabilisation of the final landfill cover,
 plan for management of surface water runoff with an effective
drainage system,
 plan for periodical inspection and maintenance of landfill cover
(settlements) and facilities,
 plan for quantity and quality of leachate monitoring in the landfill,
 plan for quantity and quality of landfill gas monitoring,
 plan for groundwater quality (up gradient and down gradient), and
 plan for surface water quality at the periphery of landfill and at
receiving water bodies.

The regulatory limits for various parameters of quality and the

monitoring frequency will have to be agreed or stipulated by the
regulatory authorities.

The post-closure care of landfill site shall be conducted for at least

15 years in line with the SWM Rules, 2016 as mentioned above. The
authority or concessionaire that operated the sanitary landfill shall be
responsible for post-closure activities and monitoring.

4.5.5.1 PLANTATION AT LANDFILL SITE

As per the SWM Rules, 2016 Schedule I (g), there is a defined criteria
for plantation at the landfill site which needs to be adhered to. Please
refer to Section 4.1 of this chapter.

4.5.6 CONSIDERATIONS FOR LANDFILL COSTING

Landfill construction includes several cost elements. An indicative list

of elements or components of a sanitary landfill is provided in Table
4.10.
Table 4.9: Components of a Sanitary Landfill34

1. Earthworks
1.1 Site clearing or cleaning
1.2 Excavation and fill (as per plan)
2. Landfill liner
2.1 Clay liner and bentonite mix (if applicable)
2.2 Leachate collection system (LCS)
2.3 Granular or sand drainage placement
2.4 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) liner material
2.5 Geotextile filter fabric
3. Leachate collection system
3.1 LCS gravel placement
3.2 HDPE raiser pipe
3.3 HDPE header pipe
3.3 HDPE lateral pipe
3.4 Leachate transfer pump
3.5 Leachate holding tank (sump)
3.6 Piping from holding tank to lagoons or treatment plant
3.7 Leachate treatment plant
4. Top cover
4.1 Impermeable clay layer (mixed with bentonite if needed)
4.2 Gas venting system (passive venting, flaring, or treatment
system)
4.3 Top cover drainage gravel placement
4.4 Top soil placement
5. Storm water control
5.1 Peripheral storm water drains or collection system
5.2 Storm water detention pond
5.3 Pumps
5.4 Berm construction
6. Buildings or structures
6.1 Administration building
6.2 Temporary hazardous waste storage
6.3 Repair and maintenance, parking
6.4 Stockpile room
6.5 Truck tyre washing facility
6.6 Culverts
6.7 Administration building parking
6.8 Boundary fencing
6.9 Landscaping
6.10 Roads
7. Fire control
7.1 Fire control equipment
8. Contracted or purchased equipment
8.1 Excavator
8.2 Site waste haulage truck
8.3 Water tanker
8.4 Landfill compactor
8.5 Weighbridge
8.6 Bull dozers
8.7 Personal protective equipment

34 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 413

4.5.7 ExISTING DUMPSITE CLOSURE OR RECLAMATION

Many open solid waste dumpsites in India do not have an engineered

liner system, leachate collection system (LCS), or an appropriately
designed cover system, thus posing a threat to the environment and
human health. Such dumpsites should be immediately closed to
minimise their impact on land, groundwater, and surface water quality
and on air quality in the vicinity of the dumpsite. Repeated burning of
wastes on dumpsites cause deleterious environmental impacts.

4.5.7.1 DUMPSITE CLOSURE

Closure of municipal solid waste (MSW) dumpsite assumes great

importance because each city has more than one dumpsite, which
create significant health and environmental degradation. This activity
requires huge logistics depending on the size of the heap, climatic
condition of the place, and the plan for its future use. The requirement
of logistics and time frame increases multifold in case site reclamation
is planned. Some options are mentioned below, although more options
can be worked out depending on the site conditions and prospects of
utilisation of the retrieved material in case of reclamation.

As per Schedule I of SWM Rules, 2016:

J. Closure and Rehabilitation of Old Dumps- Solid waste dumps

which have reached their full capacity or those which will not receive
additional waste after setting up of new and properly designed landfills
should be closed and rehabilitated by examining the following options:

(i) Reduction of waste by bio mining and waste processing followed

by placement of residues in new landfills or capping as in (ii)
below.
(i). Capping with solid waste cover or solid waste cover enhanced
with geomembrane to enable collection and flaring / utilisation of
greenhouse gases.
(iii) Capping as in (ii) above with additional measures (in alluvial and
other coarse grained soils) such as cut-off walls and extraction
wells for pumping and treating contaminated ground water.
(iv) Any other method suitable for reducing environmental impact to
acceptable level.

Dumpsite closure may be carried out through any of the following

means, as may be feasible at the site:
 The waste has to be placed in a new landfill with liner and cover in
accordance with SWM Rules, 2016 (Figure 4.25). Attempts are being
made towards adopting appropriate process for dumpsite closure,
however, this area need definite guidelines.
 Figure 4.25: Old Waste in New Landfill35

New landfill

Waste dump

(a) Relocation of waste

Future waste

Old waste in new landfill

(b) Waste placement in future

 Closure should be by re-grading to a stable slope of minimum 1:3,

and top cover system should be provided to reduce percolation
of rainwater (Figure 4.26). In areas close to water bodies, creek,
and coastal zones, a vertical cutoff wall should be planned at an
appropriate depth.
Figure 4.26: Closure of Old Waste Dump with Cover36
Cover
Waste dump

 Closure by other means should be with approval from the concerned

State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) and committee.
 Leachate generation from old and existing dumpsites is the biggest
environmental hazard. However, it is not possible to lay a bottom
liner below an existing dumpsite. One effective way is to stop
ingress of rainwater from the top.
 Provide top cover to prevent rainwater infiltration. Over time,
leachate generation from such covered dumps will be reduced.
Ensure the presence of a HDPE liner in the top cover of the landfill,
above the drainage layer.
 Gas wells have to be sunk into the waste dump, equivalent to the
average height of the landfill from ground level.
 There should be grading of the existing dumpsite to ensure slope
stability.

35 Guidelines and Check-list for evaluation of MSW Landfills proposals with Information on existing landfills, CPCB,
2008. Available at: http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_133_MSW-REPORT.pdf
36 Ibid.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 415

  Dumpsite closure should ideally be planned after incoming waste is
no longer accepted. In case fresh waste is allowed at the dumpsite,
the waste should be placed only in select zones.
 Like for other sanitary landfill, post-closure care should be 15
years with monitoring of leachate (to be treated or sent to a sewage
treatment plant [STP]), gas generation, and groundwater quality (in
monitoring wells).
 There should be inspection for subsidence, cracks, and fissures in
the top cover to ensure their prompt repair.
 If vegetation is planned in the top cover, adequate provision for
irrigating the plants should be made.

4.5.7.2 DUMPSITE RECLAMATION

Dumpsite reclamation or mining creates additional space for future

landfilling needs and avoids or reduces the cost of acquiring land
for dumping of municipal waste. Further potential for groundwater
contamination is reduced through remediation of unlined open
dumpsites. In addition, it also reduces the cover requirements for
existing dumps by reducing the footprint of the landfill.

Dumpsite reclamation involves excavation, screening, and separation

of material from dumpsites into various components such as soil,
recyclable materials, and residues.

4.5.7.3 METHOD FOR DUMPSITE RECLAMATION

Dumpsite reclamation involves sorting out mixed municipal waste

according to material size (oversized material, intermediate sized
waste and soil or humus) by using a trommel. The size and type of
screens used depend on the end use of the recovered material.
Dumpsite reclamation typically consists of two basic operations:
excavating waste and screening waste.

4.5.7.3.1 Excavation

The old waste dump contains leachate at different layers and various
gases and odor-causing substances. Before starting excavation, it is
necessary to vent out the gases and drain out the leachate. Ventilation
systems for application to such situations have been developed.
Basically, it comprises blowing or sucking air from designated areas
for 2 days before breaking open the dump for excavation. The exhaust
air is passed through filters (preferably bio-filter) to tap the harmful
gases. Excavation of waste material from the dump is then initiated. A
frontend loader then organises the excavated materials into
manageable stockpiles and separates oversized or bulky material.
4.5.7.3.2 Screening

Waste screening begins with the segregation of excavated material into

discrete streams. An electromagnet is used to segregate ferrous
material from the main stream of waste. The nonferrous fraction is
processed through an air classifier that separates light materials from
heavy organics. A trommel or vibrating screen separates soil from solid
waste. Trommel screens are more effective than vibrating screens.

The sizes and types of screens used depend on the end use of the
recovered material. For example, if the reclaimed soil is used as landfill
cover, a 50 mm screen is used for separation. If, however, the
reclaimed soil is sold as construction fill or for another end use
requiring fill material with a high fraction of soil content, a smaller
mesh screen is used to remove small pieces of metal, plastic, glass, and
paper. Operation costs can be retrieved by the sale or reuse of the
recovered materials such as recyclables, soil, and waste. The recovered
land may also be monetized to recover costs of remediation.

Further use of recovered land is to be carefully considered after

assessing the nature and impact of any site contamination (soil or
hydrological) due to the reclaimed dumpsite. In many cases, such sites
may be found suitable only for the construction of engineered sanitary
landfills for MSW or hazardous solid waste.

Material recovery depends on the composition of waste, effectiveness

of mining technology, and efficiency of mining technology. The material
Success of dumpsite reclamation depends on the age of the
recovery ranges from 50% to 90%, while average soil fraction in
Therefore, waste characterisation before reclamation is esse
recovered municipal waste from landfill tends to be around 50%–60%.
However, it can vary between 20% and 80% depending on moisture
content and decomposition rate. The success of dumpsite reclamation
projects depends on the age of the dumpsite and composition of the
decomposed waste.37

It is to be noted that dumpsites which are subject to repeated burning,

spontaneous or not, will have minimal potential for reclamation and
recovery of material. Unless the recovered organic material is proved
to be free from contamination (items indicated in Fertilizer Control
Order [FCO], 2009 and 2013), it should not be used as manure for food
crops.

Advantages of Dumpsite Reclamation

 Dumpsite reclamation results in recovery of land for further use, e.g.,

constructing engineered landfills.
 Revenue is generated from the sale of recyclable material such as
ferrous metals, plastics, and soil.

37 Anna University. Dumpsite Rehabilitation and Landfill Mining. Centre for Environment Studies. Chennai.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 417

  Reclaimed soil can also be used as daily cover material in landfill
cells, thus avoiding the cost of importing cover soil.
 Combustible waste from the landfill can be used for the production
of refuse derived fuel (RDF) and sold to cement or power plants for
co-processing or co-incineration.
 Dumpsite reclamation avoids or reduces costs of dumpsite closure
and post-closure care and monitoring.

Disadvantages of dumpsite reclamation

However, dumpsite or landfill reclamation can result in excessive
sale of soil or recyclables, unless the recovered land is of a significant economic value
costs, which are not justified by the sale of soil or recyclables, unless
the recovered land is of a significant economic value. Inherent hazards
of pockets of landfill gas and exposure to hazardous and explosive
material are also to be considered, depending on the level of control on
waste disposal at the facility and location of the dumpsite or landfill.

An Example of Scientific Landfill Closure and Methane Capture: Gorai

CASE
STUDY
Dumping Ground, Mumbai

Background: Closure and scientific capping of garbage dumpsite is

essential for containing its pollution potential. Usually, old dumpsites are left
without any remedial steps and allowed to degenerate over the years in terms
of leachate percolating down to groundwater, vector breeding, and air pollution.
Some dumpsites have been covered with thin layer of soil and vegetation to
beautify the area. However, generation of leachate continues. With ingress of
rainwater, more leachate is formed. This goes on for years until the material in
the landfill is stabilized, which may be 20–50 years in warm climates.

The first known example of scientific capping of a garbage dumpsite in India

happened in Mumbai at Gorai dumpsite. This is a specific example where an
ongoing dumpsite was systematically closed and then capped. Normally, this
procedure would be well suited for already closed dumpsite where dumping of
fresh garbage has been stopped.

Operational since 1972, Gorai dumpsite is in the western suburbs of Mumbai.

The 19.6-hectare site is adjacent to Gorai creek and is very close to habitation.
Approximately
2.34 million tons of waste up to an average height of 26 m was lying at the
site, causing significant environmental damage to the creek and the neighborhood.
The capacity of the dump was already exhausted. The creek waters had been
polluted due to inflow of leachate, and the air quality had deteriorated from the
frequent burning of garbage.

The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) took up this challenge

and, with technical assistance of Infrastructure Leasing & Financial Services Ltd
(IL&FS) (Environment Division), worked out a scientific plan for controlled closure
and scientific capping based on detailed survey and consultation.
 Gorai dumpsite: before closure

Design Strategy and Action Plan

Since it was not possible to go under the huge dump to lay a containment
layer, gradual reduction of leachate was planned by restraining rainwater from
entering the dump by providing a multilayered cover over the dump. At the
same time, a leachate collection system (LCS) was planned in the best possible
manner. Ingress and inundation of tidal water was controlled by putting
vertical concrete sheet piling on the creek side.

The scientific closure plan included the following components:

(i) fresh dumping stopped and relocation and slope reformation (1:3) of existing waste;
(ii) laying of construction and demolition (C&D) waste and compaction;
(iii)laying of liner system consisting of:
(a) top vegetation layer;
(b) 300 mm thick top soil layer;
(c) geocomposite layer;
(d) 1.5 mm geomembrane layer;
(e) 200 g/m2 and 400 g/m2 geotextile; and
(f) 300 mm thick drainage layer;
(iv)installation of landfill gas collection, venting, and flaring system;
(v) installation of LCS using perforated pipes along the periphery of the fill,
fol- lowed by storage in a leachate tank and transportation to the nearest
sewage treat- ment plant (STP);
(vi)sheet piling on the seaward side to prevent leachate from entering the creek;
(vii) surface water drainage for channeling storm water;

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 419

 (viii) construction of bunds, access roads, and compound wall on the
landward side of site;
(ix)landscaping and greenery, irrigation, and lighting of the area; and
(x) post-closure care for 15 years with close monitoring of the indicative
parameters like leachate, watering and maintaining the greenery, checking
leakage of landfill gas, checking subsidence of the cover layer, etc.

The construction and operation and maintenance (O&M) contract for this work
was awarded through open competitive bidding to a consortium of an Indian
and a German company. The construction was completed in 24 months with a cost
of about Rs.50 crore, with the O&M estimated at Rs.12 crore for 15 years of
post-closure care.

Gorai Dumpsite: After Scientific Closure

Outcome
The following are the outcomes of the project:
1. There has been a marked improvement in quality of life of people living in
the vicin- ity.
2. The project has created 19 hectares of green space and restored mangroves
which had degenerated due to toxic leachate from the dumpsite.
3. The project has improved public health and hygiene; eliminated foul odor,
fire, and vermin nuisance; improved the quality of creek water; and
increased avian fauna population.
4. Property value in the area increased with higher property tax collection
for the MCGM.

An important aspect of this project is the demonstration impact, which can be

modified for local requirements and replicated across old open dumpsites in
the country.
4.5.7.4 ExPANSION OF LANDFILL OPERATIONS IN
ExISTING WASTE DUMP OR LANDFILL
Expansion of landfilling operations at an existing site should only be
undertaken after closure of the existing waste dump or existing landfill
without liner. The expansion can take place in the form of (i) a new
landfill adjacent to the existing dump which has been closed (Figure
4.27), or (ii) a new landfill constructed adjacent to the existing dump
by making space for it by relocating existing waste from the sides of the
waste dump to its top and then closing the waste dump (Figures 4.28,
4.29 a and b). In both such cases, the new landfill should conform to
the check list as prescribed by CPCB in the guidelines and check-list for
evaluation of MSW landfill proposals. For option (ii), the operator shall
list the steps for odour control during relocation of the waste.

Vertical expansion of an existing waste dump or existing landfill should

not be undertaken by placing a cover on the waste dump and filling
on top of the cover. This is so because the cover between the old waste
and the new waste would be subjected to large settlements and may
not perform satisfactorily. Wherever it is stated that large settlements
will not occur or that these can be withstood effectively, the proposed
design should be checked by an expert.

Figure 4.27: Expansion of Waste Dump38

Closure of old waste dump by cover

Waste in new landfill

Figure 4.28: Relocation of Waste39

Relocation of waste and re-grading of landfill

Figure 4.29a : Horizontal Expansion (Option A – preferred) 40

Closure of relocated waste with cover

Waste in new landfill (horizontal expansion)

38 Guidelines and Check-list for evaluation of MSW Landfills proposals with Information on existing landfills, CPCB,
2008. Available at: http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_133_MSW-REPORT.pdf
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 421

 Figure 4.29b: Horizontal Expansion (Option B)41

Closure of relocated waste with cover

Relocated waste

Waste in new landfill (horizontal expansion)

Old waste

4.5.7.5 ASSESSING UTILITY OF THE CLOSED OR

COVERED DUMPSITE – POST 15 YEARS

• Leachate generation from the closed dumpsite and the year in

which leachate generation has stopped should be recorded.
• The closed or covered landfill should be assessed for its stability,
and a record of the subsidence over the past 15 years should be
evaluated.
• Groundwater quality in wells on-site and in the neighbourhood
should also be monitored throughout the 15 years.
• Structural experts should evaluate the stability, strength, and
load-bearing capacity of the area. Based on this evaluation, the
ULB should decide on appropriate use of the closed dumpsite.
• The town planning department should take cognizance of all
existing and potential reclaimed dumpsites and include the same
in the master plan or land use plan of the ULB. Strict
development controls of such areas should be adhered to.
• No borewell should be allowed within the footprint of the
reclaimed dumpsite and within 500 metres of its boundary.
Where groundwater extraction is inevitable within the 500 m
zone, groundwater flow direction should be considered.
Borewells should not be established downstream to the
dumpsite, along the flow path.
• The closed landfill may be used for the following development,
which should be taken up 3 years after complete cessation of
leachate generation:
– development of local markets;
– development of urban parks; and
– development of office, commercial, or institutional space
(after ascertaining safety and assessing requirement of
relevant controls).

41 Ibid.
4.6 ACTION POINTS FOR AWARENESS
GENERATION THROUGH INFORMATION,
EDUCATION, AND COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITIES FOR MUNICIPAL SANITARY
LANDFILLS
 Explain the role of landfill in the waste management scheme of the
city to ensure citizens’ support.
 Consult public for resettlement and compensation issues related to
earmarking spaces for landfill.
 Ensure an understanding that only inert wastes shall be disposed in
the landfill.
 Educate the public on the environmental and safety provisions of
the landfill.
 Educate the community to ensure maintenance of no-development
buffer zones around the landfill area.

Technical aspecTs: Municipal saniTary landfills 423

424 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent
 5

Municipal
Chapter 1:
Solid Waste
Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan
Management Plan:
Implementation
Step-Wise Guidance

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 425

 IN THIS SECTION

5.1 Obtaining Statutory Clearances for Municipal Solid Waste Management428

5.2 Preparation of Action Plans and Detailed Project Reports 435
5.3 Considerations for Contracting A Municipal Solid Waste
Management Service 443
5.4 Tendering, Contract Management and Supervision 448
5.5 Operationalising the Financial Plan 462
5.6 Action Points for Awareness Generation Through Information,
Education, and Communication Activities for Municipal Solid
Waste
Management Plan Implementation 463

426 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 5. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
PLAN IMPLEMENTATION
The chief executive of the urban local body (ULB), i.e., municipal
The chief executive of the ULB is responsibl
commissioner or secretary or executive officer, implementation
is responsible for
of the MSWM plan
implementing the municipal solid waste management (MSWM) plan,
which is to be developed in line with guidance given in Section 1.3 of
Part II. The chief executive should operationalize the plan through the
solid waste management (SWM) department or cell of the ULB.

The MSWM plan is meant as a long term plan for 20–25 years. The
implementation of the MSWM plan is guided by short term MSWM
plans for 5 years, which are made in line with the goals of the long term
plan. These short term MSWM plans can be reviewed midterm once
every 2–3 years. An indicative list of actions that can be undertaken to
develop a short term MSWM plan is given in Table 5.1 below.

Table 5.1: Actions for Preparation of Short term Municipal Solid Waste
Management Plan1

ACTION IMPLEMENTING
AGENCY
Identification of specific actions for 5 years (short ULB
term plan) to ensure planned SWM service provision as
per the long term plan
Preparation of detailed project reports for specific ULB or private
projects (e.g., transfer station, processing, treatment, implementing agency, as
and disposal facilities) and action plans for service the case may be
provision (e.g., transportation)
Identification of institutional mechanisms to ULB
support provision, monitoring, and reporting on
specific SWM services
Implementation of programmes for SWM staff ULB
capacity building (service provision, monitoring,
reporting)

Figure 5.1: Components of Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan2

MSWM Plan (20-25 Years)

ULB implementation of short term plan (5 Year)

MSWM service provision Institutional mechanisms supporting service provision

Building institutions & improved capacities for MSWM service provision

Action plans for each MSWM service
DPRs for specific projects

MSWM plan implementationPerformance reporting monitoringmechanisms

1 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

2 Ibid.

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 427

 5.1 OBTAINING STATUTORY CLEARANCES FOR
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
d environmental clearances is aFACILITIES
prerequisite
SWM facility
MSWM processing, treatment, and disposal facilities require legal or
statutory clearances and approvals for their establishment, depending
on the type of facility to be created. SWM Rules, 2016 and the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2006 of the
Ministry of Environment & Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
provide guidance on the statutory requirements for establishing
storage, processing, treatment, and disposal facilities.

As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:

(y) make an application in Form-I for grant of authorisation for setting
up waste processing, treatment or disposal facility, if the volume
of waste is exceeding five metric tones per day including sanitary
landfills from the State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution
Control Committee, as the case may be;
(z) submit application for renewal of authorisation at least sixty
days before the expiry of the validity of authorisation;

Clause 21: Criteria for waste to energy process:

(3) The local body or an operator of facility or an agency designated

by them proposing to set up waste to energy plant of more than five
tones per day processing capacity shall submit an application in
Form-I to the State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control
Committee, as the case may be, for authorisation.
(4) The State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee,
on receiving such application for setting up waste to energy facility,
shall examine the same and grant permission within sixty days.

As per Schedule I of the EIA Notification, 2006, the municipal solid

waste (MSW) handling, storage, treatment, and disposal activities fall
under the items of 7(d) and 7(i) and require clearance from the State
Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA).
 An indicative list of clearances and approvals to be obtained are given
in the box below:

An Indicative List of Statutory Clearances or Applicable Acts and Non-

statutory Approvals Required by all Municipal Solid Waste Management
Processing, Treatment, and Disposal Facilities

Statutory Clearances

• Environmental Clearances: The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)

Act, 1974; The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; The Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986, and Rules; Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) Rules, 2006
• Clearance from the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)- “consent to
establish“ and “consent to operate“
• Clearance from Airport Authority
• Fertilizer Control Order (FCO) Clearance for compost based plants
• Land use from the Revenue Authority
• State Electricity Authority Clearance for providing grid connectivity
• The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and Rules, 1991
• The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951
• The Factories Act, 1948
• The Motor Vehicles Act, 1938, amended in 1988 and Rules, 1989
• The Petroleum Act, 1934
• The Energy Conservation Act, 2001

Non-statutory Approvals
• Proof of Possession of Site
• Bank Loan Sanction Letter and Agreement
• Bank Appraisal Note
• Water Supply Agreement
• Power Purchase Agreement
• Municipal Solid Waste Supply Agreement with Municipal Authority

5.1.1 IDENTIFICATION OF LAND FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT PROCESSING, TREATMENT
AND DISPOSAL – PRELIMINARY ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT

Suitable, encumbrance-free land within the ULB’s jurisdiction should

be identified for locating waste processing and treatment facilities. The
requirement of land is to be calculated based on a tentative assessment
of possible disposal options available to the ULB. The identified land
should be checked for environmental compliance.

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 429

 As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 19: Criteria for duties regarding setting-up solid waste

processing and treatment facility.-

(1) The department in- charge of the allocation of land assignment shall
be responsible for providing suitable land for setting up of the solid
waste processing and treatment facilities and notify such sites by
the State Government or Union territory Administration.

Schedule 1A criteria for site selection:

(i) The department in the business allocation of land assignment shall
provide suitable site for setting up of the solid waste processing and
treatment facilities and notify such sites.
ojects are divided into two categories: A sites for landfill and processing and disposal of solid waste
(viii) The
ir spatial extent and potential impacts
shall be incorporated in the Town Planning Department’s land-use
and environment
plans.

The following aspects should be evaluated at a minimum:

 location with respect to buffer area requirements as indicated in
Section 1.4.5.11 and 4.1 of Part II;
 land terrain characteristics;
 site hydrogeological status; and
 groundwater and ambient air quality.

Land clearance from concerned authorities for establishment of MSWM

facilities is to be obtained by the ULB at the earliest possible instance.

5.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

REqUIREMENTS FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
considered Category
or fully within 10 km from the stipulated eco- sensitive
EIA Notification, 2006areas
has divided all infrastructure projects or
activities into two categories—Category A and Category B based on
the spatial extent and potential impacts on human health, natural, and
manmade resources. Category B projects are further divided into B1
and B2 based on requirement of conducting and submitting an EIA
report and conducting a public consultation as decided by the State
Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) at the project screening stage.
Category B1 projects are required to submit an EIA report to the SEAC
prior to establishing the facility and consent has to be obtained from
the SEAC.3 B2 category projects do not require an EIA clearance. For
categorisation of projects into B1 or B2, the MoEFCC shall issue
guidelines from time to time.

3 For more details, please refer to EIA Notification, 2006.

 All common MSWM facilities are considered Category B projects.
However, facilities are considered Category A projects if they are
located wholly or partially within 10 Projects
km frominvolving capping of
the boundary of existing dumpsites or ca
following: generation are designated
as Category B projects

 wildlife reserves or protected areas (under The Wildlife Protection

Act, 1972);
 critical polluted areas identified by the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB);
 eco-sensitive areas as notified under Section 3 of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986;
 interstate boundary (this will not be applicable if states or union
territories allow project setup in their land); and
 international boundary.

All MSW projects that deal with capping of existing dumpsites and
capture of landfill gases for power generation fall under Category B,
as defined by the EIA Notification.
Power plants up to 15 MW based on non- hazardous MSW

The draft EIA notification issued in January 2009 (as an amendment

to EIA Notification, 2006) suggests categorisation of the following
thermal power plants based on non-hazardous MSW as fuel:

 Category A: greater than or equal to 20 megawatts (MW)

 Category B: less than 20 MW and greater than 15 MW

Power plants upto 15 MW based on non-hazardous municipal waste

and using auxiliary fuel such as coal, lignite and petroleum products
upto 15% are exempted from EIA requirements.

Figure 5.2: Environmental Impact Assessment Clearance Requirements for Municipal Solid
Waste Management Projects4

MSW processing or treatment facility within 10 km. of sensitive zones (EIA Notification, 2006)

Category A
Greater than or equal to 20 MW thermal power plants based on non-hazardous municipal solid waste as fuel (Draft EIA Notific

EIA Clearance
Common municipal solid waste management facilities (beyond 10 km from sensitive zones) (EIA Notification, 2006

Less than 20 MW or greater than 15 MW thermal,

Category B
power plants based on non-hazardous municipal
solid waste as fuel (Draft EIA Notification, 2009)

Projects including capping of existing dumpsites (EIA Notification, 2006)

4 Adapted from Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006, MoEFCC

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 431

 5.1.2.1 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF STAKEHOLDERS
INVOLVED IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT (EIA)

The environmental clearance process involves many stakeholders such

as the Central government, State government, State Level Environment
Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA), Expert Appraisal Committee
(EAC), State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC), State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB), etc.

The roles and responsibilities of SEIAA and SEAC involved in EIA are
briefly discussed below:

 SEIAA is constituted by the MoEFCC based on the state’s

recommendation, which makes a final decision regarding
acceptance or rejection of environmental clearance for all Category
B projects. SEIAA shall receive application from the project
proponent, communicate SEAC’s views for finalising the ToR, upload
the EIA report to their website in cases of Category B projects and
shall take a final decision regarding the project clearance.

 EAC or SEAC is a multi-disciplinary independent committee

(at the centre and state or union territory leve)l which reviews
each developmental activity and offers its recommendations for
consideration of the central government and SEIAA respectively.
EAC or SEAC reviews Form 1 of the EIA Notification, 2006 and its
attachments, undertakes site visits if necessary to finalize scoping
and the ToR, and reviews updated EIA and environmental
management plan (EMP) reports.

5.1.2.2 PROCEDURE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

at which SEAC is consulted:
ning ASSESSMENT (EIA) CLEARANCE
g
sal and clearance All MSW project proponents (ULBs and private contractors) should
follow the steps laid out in the EIA Notification, 2006 and its
amendments as shown in Figure 5.3.

The entire environment clearance process consists of five stages:

1. Screening
2. Scoping
3. EIA
4. Public consultation
5. Appraisal
However, all these stages might not be required in some cases.
Screening Stages at which SEIAA is cons
Screening
Screening is a process of categorising the project into A or B, andScoping
into
B1 or B2 under Category B. EIA report & public hearing
Appraisal and clearance
Scoping
Potential environmental and health-related impacts of the proposed
facility are assessed during this phase. Results of the scoping exercise
shall also be used to:
• identify alternative project designs or sites,
• obtain local knowledge of site and surroundings, and
• prepare a plan for public or community involvement.
The scoping will further support preparation of the ToR for the EIA.
The SEAC determines the ToR to ensure that all environmental concerns
will be addressed in the EIA report.

The EAC or SEAC is the final appraising authority with powers to

stipulate further improvements, where required, for final consent or
rejection by SEIAA. The EAC or SEAC scrutinizes all the application
and documents submitted during the environment clearance process
and decides on whether the project is to be granted a clearance and,
if so, specifies the conditions for the clearance. Where the proposed
project is deemed to impact the environment without scope for due
remedies, environment clearance may be denied by the EAC or SEAC.

Environmental Impact Assessment

EIA is a detailed multistage process to identify and quantify specific

impacts of the proposed project on the environment or ecosystem.
Public consultation is an important step in the EIA approval process.
Concerns of locally affected people and others who have a plausible
stake in the environmental impacts of the project or activity are
solicited. These concerns are to be addressed in the project’s EMP.

Figure 5.3 illustrates the sequence of steps for conducting an EIA to

obtain environment clearance.

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 433

Figure 5.3: Steps for Conducting an Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 5

Submission of application by project proponent to SEAC (Form I, Pre-Feasibility

Report and ToR)

Scoping and communication of ToR for EIA by SEAC

EIA
team

Identification of impacts

Environment Considered
Pre-feasibility
baseline environment
report
monitoring component

Application of impact
Social impact
assessment tools Risk assessment
assessment

Mitigation measures

Environment management
plan

Draft EIA report

Submission of draft EIA or application for public

consultation

Conducting the public hearing by SPCB or

PCC

Submission of proccedings of the public hearing by the SPCB or PCC to

SEAC

Submission of final EIA by the proponent after

revision

Appraisal by
SEAC

No
Decision of Rejection
SEIAA
Yes
Issues clearance to project proponent

5 Adapted from Technical EIA Guidance Manual for Common Municipal Solid Waste Management Facility. Infrastructure
Leasing & Financial Services (IL&FS) (2010).
 The scope of the environment baseline monitoring is defined by the
ToR approved by the SEAC. The impacts of the proposed facility are
superimposed over the baseline scenario to assess the actual impacts
on the receptors. Identification of appropriate mitigation measures is a
key output of the EIA process. Mitigation of environmental impacts is
central in achieving an environmentally sound design (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4: Hierarchy of Environmental Impact Mitigation Options

Most

PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Alternative site or technology for eliminating environmental impacts

MINIMISATION
Action during design, construction and operation to minimize impacts

COMPENSATORY MEASURES
Offset adverse impacts in one area with improvements elsewhere

Least

Identified environmental impacts and proposed mitigation measures

constitute the EMP. The final EIA report addresses environment
baseline conditions, potential impacts, and sets of mitigation
measures for the
proposed project.

5.2 PREPARATION OF ACTION PLANS AND

DETAILED PROJECT REPORTS
The five year short term plan should be further detailed into task
specific actions plans (e.g., road sweeping and transportation for
service provision) or detailed project reports (DPRs) for major
infrastructure related services such as transfer stations, processing or
treatment facilities, and scientific waste disposal facilities.

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 435

 5.2.1 ACTION PLANS FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT SERVICE PROVISION

Action plans for specific services should address the following:

 nature of service provided;
 level of service provision like duration of service provision, staffing
requirement, equipment requirement, and timings;
 mode of service delivery—whether the service is to be provided
by the ULB staff or staff contracted by the ULB, and whether the
service is through public private partnership (PPP) mode or private
sector participation (PSP) mode;
 contractual obligations, if any;
 cost estimates to the ULB, private entity, or contractor; and
 details of land allocation and the statutory and non-statutory
clearances required.

Based on the provisions of the action plans, the ULB should determine
the future course of action for enabling service provision.

5.2.2 ASSESSMENT OF SUITABILITY OF PROJECTS

FOR IMPLEMENTATION THROUGH PUBLIC
PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP MODE

The ULB will have to decide whether specific projects requiring

considerable capital costs, long design life, and complex operational
d be ascertained through pre- feasibility and feasibility
and management systemsstudies
are suited for implementation through the
PPP mode or through the ULB’s own resources.

A pre-feasibility study is recommended to help analyse the suitability of

projects for PPP mode. It would provide recommendations on all public
or private options that would be available for project implementation.
A pre-feasibility study would address the aspects given in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Indicative Contents for Pre-Feasibility Study6

S.NO CONTENT
1. Preliminary Analysis of Technical and Operational Practicality of the Project
1.1. Engineering and technical aspects of the project
Manageability of operational aspects of the project
Preliminary assessment of all likely technical and operational risks
2. Environmental and Social Safeguard Activities
2.1 Socio-economic assessment and analysis
2.2 Environmental assessment scoping

6 Draft National Public Private Partnership Policy (2011). Department of Economic Affairs. Government of India. Available
at: http://toolkit.pppinindia.com/solid-waste-management/module2-pfcaa-ppfa.php?links=pfcaa1b.
Table 5.2: Indicative Contents for Pre-Feasibility Study [contd.]

3. Preliminary Assessment of Financial and Economic Viability of the Project

3.1 Cost recovery or income generation assumptions of the project
3.2 Likely private sector interest in the project
3.3 Overall project cost (capital + operations + maintenance)
3.4 Possible financial risks
3.5 Identification of likely economic benefits generated by the project
4. Possible Arrangements for Private Sector Participation (PSP)
4.1 Role of the private sector
4.2 Contractual framework for the PSP arrangement
4.3 Outlined procedure for ensuring competition in the selection of the
private sector partners
4.4 Legal documentation required to allow participation of the private
sector
5. Next Steps
5.1 Resources required to complete project preparation
5.2 Parties responsible for completing next steps
5.3 Roles and responsibilities of involved parties
5.4 Time frame for completing project preparation

Figure 5.5: Public Private Partnerships – Stages of Implementation. 7

STAGE DECISION POINT KEY ISSUES

Stage 1 - Project initiations and assessment Is the project No other modes executing the project?
Consider
amenable to PPP?
Yes

Stage 2 - Pre-feasibility analysisIs the project financially

Canviable?
financial support be provided to the project?
No

Yes

Stage 3 - Preliminary project structuring

Are the project risks efficiently How
allocated
can the residual risks be mitigated?
No

Yes
Stage 4 - Detailed project preparation
Is the project size & scope same
What
as before
will be the revised project structure?
No

HasYes
the most
No
suitable private
Stage 5 - Bid process management Should the project be tendered out again?
party been
selected
Yes

Does
Is the contract
the project con- have provisions for addressing causes of delay or deviations?
Stage 6 - Project construction and monitoringstruction proceeding No
as per schedule?
Yes

Do the performance
Is the project standards need to change or is there poor regulation and monitoring?
No
Stage 7 - Commencement of operation delivering outputs as
per standards?
Yes

Project objective achieved

7 Toolkit for Solid Waste Management, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India. http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/SWM-toolkit.pdf

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 437

The outcomes of a pre-feasibility study would determine whether the
project is suitable for implementation through PPP mode or through
the ULB’s own resources. If at the pre-feasibility stage it is decided that
the project has to be undertaken in a PPP mode, the next step is to
conduct a feasibility study to ascertain the broad structure of the PPP
project. The information from a feasibility study can then be used to
prepare bidding documents.

Generic aspects to be addressed by a feasibility study include the

following:8

 Market analysis and project scope: This is to assess the

appropriate scope of the project, building on the work already done
at the strategic planning and pre-feasibility stage. This would
include the following:
– Needs analysis - Does the project meet an end-user need? Does it
contribute to meeting the objectives of the sponsoring
authority? Who will the users be?
– Options analysis - What is the best option for meeting the
service need: a no-asset solution, existing assets, or new assets?
– Output definition - What services will the project provide?
– Demand estimate and forecast - What level of demand is there
for the outputs or services from the project, and how much are
users willing to pay?
 Social and environmental feasibility: This includes the requirements
for impact assessments and for associated mitigation.
 Technical feasibility and technical parameters: These are based
on the market analysis and include specification of required
facilities and scenarios of project size for use in preliminary project
design.
 Risk studies and refined public private partnership mode:
These include assessment of the risks associated with the project,
study of which party is best able to bear each risk, and refinement
of the PPP mode selected at the pre-feasibility stage.
 Preliminary cost assessment: This is within a ±5% range based on
the technical specification and assessed project risks.
 Financial analysis and due diligence: These include
incorporating a projected revenue structure (e.g., proposed tariff,
required annuity) and assessing any need for financial support
from the public sector.
 Economic feasibility: This includes an assessment of overall net
economic benefits of the project, incorporating estimated project
benefits and costs including non-market factors such as those from
the social and environmental assessment.
8 Draft National Public Private Partnership Policy (2011), Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance,
Government of India. http://toolkit.pppinindia.com/solid-waste-management/module2-pfcaa-ppfa.php?
links=pfcaa1b
  Other public private partnership due diligence activities: This
includes value for money or value addition analysis if data is
available.
 Project implementation schedule: This includes an outline of the
proposed PPP procurement and award process through technical
and financial closure, an outline of the construction schedule and
target operation date, and any phasing that is planned for project
extensions or ongoing development.
provisions as prescribed under SWM Rules, 2016:

the ratio of 3 to 4 bags: 6 to 7 bags by the fertilizer companies to the extent compost is made available for marketing
ng and sale of compost propogate utilisation of compost on farm land.
e to energy plants based on solid waste.
y distribution company.

not be disposed of on landfills and shall only be utilised for generating energy either or through refuse derived fuel or b
power plants.

Based on inputs from the pre-feasibility or feasibility reports, the ULB

should decide whether to pursue the PPP route or the PSP route for
pro- ject implementation. Information from these reports is used to
define a well-structured bid. Selected private operators are then
responsible for preparing a detailed project report (DPR) for further
approval by the designated authorities. Where the project is found
unsuitable for a PPP, PSP may be called for. Private entities are also
required to prepare a DPR on the proposed implementation. Figure 5.6
depicts the process for determining suitability of projects for PPP
mode.

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 439

Figure 5.6: Process for Determining Suitability of Projects for Public Private
Partnership Implementation

Yes

Yes

5.2.3 DETAILED PROJECT REPORTS FOR

INFRASTRUCTURE BASED PROJECTS

All infrastructure based facilities require the preparation of a DPR

with sufficient details to ensure appraisal, approval, and subsequent
implementation of the project in a timely and efficient manner. The
major sections that should be covered in a DPR are:
 sector background, context, and broad project rationale;
 project definition, concept, and scope;
 institutional framework for implementation;
 resource requirements – land, capital, machinery, and staffing;
 project cost – lifecycle cost assessment;
 financial structuring;
 project phasing;
 operation and maintenance (O&M) framework and financial
implication;
 project financial viability;
 project sustainability – social and environmental; and
 project benefits assessment – environmental and socio-
economic benefits, resource intensity, etc.

Additional details can be incorporated as per the requirements of the

ULBs. An indicative checklist for DPRs is listed in Table 5.3. Subsequent
sections of this chapter address specific issues that would facilitate the
implementation of the short term MSWM plan.
Table 5.3: Indicative Checklist for a Detailed Project Report 9

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT (ExECUTIVE SUMMARY)

1.1 Definition of MSWM
1.2 Status and issues of MSWM
1.3 Provisions of MSWM plan – long term and short term
1.4 Project background and link to the MSWM plan
1.5 Project formulation justification (need for the project)
2. CITY PROFILE(DETAILEDDATAOFWARDS OR zONES)
2.1 History and importance of the project town
2.2 Geographical and climatic conditions
2.3 Location and extent
2.4 Population
2.4.1 Population projections
2.4.2 Population density
2.4.3 Floating Population
2.5 Settlements in city
2.5.1 Number of households, shops, commercial establishments and
institutions
2.5.2 Number of hotels, restaurants, banquet halls
2.5.3 Number of large markets (vegetables, meat and fish)
2.5.4 Slums and other informal settlements
2.5.5 Industries and their profile
2.5.6 Health care establishments
2.5.7 Slaughterhouses
2.6 Land use plan
2.7 Physical infrastructure
2.7.1 Roads
2.7.2 Storm water management
2.7.3 Sewage management
2.7.4 Water Supply System
2.7.5 Electricity
2.8 Urban economy
2.9 Information about ULB
2.9.1 Political Setup
2.9.2 Administrative setup of ULB
2.9.3 Administrative setup of Sanitation Department of the ULB
2.9.4 Financial status of ULB
2.9.5 Administrative and financial aspects of MSWM

9 Developed by the Expert Committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 441

 Table 5.3: Indicative Check-list for a Detailed Project Report [contd.]

3 STATUS OF ExISTING SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE CITY

3.1 Waste generation(based on actual sample survey)
3.1.1 Approach adopted for estimation of waste generation
3.1.2 Residential areas –colonies, apartment complexes
3.1.3 Commercial establishments, malls
3.1.4 Hotels, restaurants, banquethall
3.1.5 Institutional areas- offices, schools, universities
3.1.6 Fruit and vegetable markets, fish and meat markets
3.1.7 Hospitals and nursing homes (excluding biomedical waste)
3.1.8 Slaughterhouses
3.2 Quantification and characterization of waste
3.2.1 Sampling criteria
3.2.2. Physicochemical characteristic of MSW
3.3 Existing MSW collection system
3.3.1 Primary waste collection system
3.3.2 Primary Waste Storage at Generation
3.3.3 Secondary waste collection system
3.4 Street sweeping and drain cleaning
3.5 MSW secondary storage system
3.5.1 Transfer Station Details
3.5.2 Waste Storage Depots
3.6 MSW transportation system
3.7 Existing MSW processing system
3.7.1 Recyclable Waste
3.7.2 Biodegradable Waste
3.7.3 Non-biodegradable waste
3.7.4 Construction and Demolition Waste
3.7.5 Any Other Waste (Domestic Hazardous, sanitary waste)
3.8 Infrastructure existing for SWM
here the ULB has not been providing
3.8.1services through its own labour force
Manpower
3.8.2 Equipment/Vehicles
3.8.3 Equipment repair facility
3.9 Status of present disposal and proposed landfill site
3.10 Overall compliance of SWM Rules
4. PROJECT DEFINITION
4.1 Project objectives
4.2 Scope of project
4.3 Approach and methodology
Table 5.3: Indicative Check-list for a Detailed Project Report [contd.]

5 GAP ANALYSIS
5.1 Manpower and Vehicle requirement for door to door collection,
street sweeping and drain cleaning
5.2 Sufficiency of Secondary Collection Bins
5.3 Sufficiency of Secondary Collection Vehicles
5.4 Sufficiency in treatment, processing & disposal facilities
5.5 Gaps in Awareness among city residents and civic authorities
5.6 Gaps in Institutional Structure
5.7 Gaps in Capacity Building for ULB
6. PROPOSED MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
6.1 Segregated Storage of Waste at Source
6.2 Street Sweeping and Drain Cleaning
6.3 Segregated Waste Collection
6.4 Segregated MSW Transport system and Secondary Collection
6.5 Transfer Station if required, as per SWM Rules 2016
6.6 Processing of MSW
6.6.1 Criteria for selection of processing technology
6.6.2 Availability of land
6.6.3 Process design for proposed processing plant
6.6.4 Design of processing plant and leachate management
6.6.5 Required infrastructure and equipment
6.6.6 Environmental Monitoring and control
6.6.7 Socio-economic Benefits
6.6.8 Product Utilisation
6.7 Municipal sanitary landfill
6.7.1 Conceptual design of landfill
6.7.2 Availability of land
6.7.3 Technical specification
6.7.4 Environmental monitoring and control
6.7.5 Socio-economic benefits
6.7.6 Biomining and Bioremediation plan for existing dumpsites
6.7.7 Capping old dumpsites
6.8 Staffing Requirements
6.9 Community Awareness and Public Participation
6.9.1 Overview
6.9.2 Objective
6.9.3 Public Participation and awareness through IEC programs
6.9.4 Project Implementation Plan

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 443

Table 5.3: Indicative Check-list for a Detailed Project Report [contd.]

7 INSTITUTIONALASPECTS AND CAPACITY BUILDING

7.1 Proposed organizational setup
7.2 Training and capacity building of ULB
8 OTHER O&M ASPECTS
8.1 Management Information System
8.2 Complaint Handling System
8.3 Environmental Health and Safety Aspects
9 COMMUNITY AWARENESS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
9.1 Overview
9.2 Objective
9.3 Public Participation and awareness through IEC programs
9.4 Project Implementation Plan
10 COST ESTIMATES
10.1 Cost Estimates for Collection and Transportation
10.1.1 Capital Expenditure
10.1.2 O&M Expenditure
10.2 Cost Estimates for Processing and Disposal
10.2.1 Capital Expenditure
10.2.2 O&M Expenditure
10.3 Total Revenues Generated
10.3.1 Operation and Maintenance cost and revenue generation
from residents, apartments
10.3.2 Proposed Tariff Charges
10.3.3 Revenue from Sale of Products
10.3.4 Revenue from User Charges
11 FINANCIAL ASPECTS
11.1 Current MSW Expenditure
11.2 Project financial structuring including PPP Decisions
11.3 Funds for capital expenditure
11.4 Possibilities for cost sharing
11.5 Financefor operation & management
ANNExURE
 Adequate Service Provisions for Waste Processing, Treatment and Disposal Facilities
Provision of good quality or metalled access road leading to the processing
or treatment and disposal facility
Adequate power supply for carrying out the day to day activities in the plant
Adequate supply of drinking water for the staff
Adequate provision of storm water management at the plant site
Adequate provision of toilets for male and female staff. Adequate sewerage disposal system for smooth

5.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONTRACTING A

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
SERVICE
Following essential aspects may be considered by the ULB while deciding
to contract out municipal solid waste management services:

 The ULB should identify services that can be effectively provided by

the existing staff and available financial resources.
 Subsequently, services which would need to be outsourced due
to limited in-house technical know-how, capability, and financial
resources should be identified.
 Benefits and potential issues with outsourcing services which the
ULB cannot provide (as identified above) should be fully evaluated
and understood. Justification note for the need to contract out
identified services should be prepared.
 Commercial or economical feasibility of the services to be
contracted out has to be ascertained. The appropriate contract
models and their benefits need to be assessed for each of the
services that has to be contracted out.
 Where contract labour is hired, the ULB should ensure compliance
with the provisions of the Contract Labour (Regulation & Abolition)
Act, 1970.
 Sharing of all possible risks (technical, operational, and financial)
between ULB and the operator should be detailed out.
 Where land acquisition or community rehabilitation is involved, the
ULB has to stand in for the contractor in addressing such aspects.
 Contracts should specify the range of technology or technologies
that can be adopted after the ULB undertakes a thorough
assessment of available technologies for specific services.

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 445

 In ULBs with population of over 1 lakh, at least two contractors
may be considered for every outsourced service. However, this is
not relevant for processing and treatment facilities in small and
medium towns.
 For cities with more than 10 lakh population, ULBs should prepare
a feasibility report for the services or projects to be contracted.
Depending on the feasibility report, the ULB should prepare a
DPR including the detailed engineering report for minimising risks
associated with the project. Cities with less than 10 lakh population
may directly prepare a DPR to minimize costs associated with the
feasibility study, provided the project can be appropriately defined.
The ToR for the services to be contracted should be based on the
DPR developed.
 On ascertaining the benefit of outsourcing services, the ULB shall
prepare a ToR which shall include at least the following:
– detailed description of scope of work;
– specific outcomes or outputs of the services and performance
standards for the services to be contracted;
– specified duration of the service to be contracted and time
lines for project execution or provision of services;
– minimum qualification and experience of the bidder required
for plan of work and methodology;
– minimum staffing and equipment required for delivering the
services;
– envisaged monitoring and evaluation requirements;
– management structure and reporting;
– tender evaluation procedure;
– payment mechanism;
– adequate social and environmental safeguards to ensure
equitable service provision;
– confidentiality clause; and
– service level guarantee mechanisms.
 Pre-requisites for Contracting
Cost benefit analysis of the existing solid waste management system is
necessary.
Services to be outsourced shall be identified.
Characterisation and physicochemical analysis of municipal waste should precede
tendering of any waste processing, treatment, and disposal facilities.
Detailed project development is the key to successful implementation. Detailed
project definition and key performance indicators have to be established.
Land requirement for 20–25 years for proposed facilities shall be assessed and
identified. Contract Models for MSWM Serv
Service contract
Complete ownership of all projects by the ULB (not just ownership of property, but
active commitment and monitoring) is crucial. Management contract
Design- Built- Operate (DBO)
Build-Own- Operate (BOO)
Build-Own- Operate and Transfe
Build- Operate- Transfer (BOT)
Lease
Concession

An overview of different kind of contracts specific to different

MSWM services and their characteristics are given in Section 1.4.5.7
of Part II.

5.3.1 CONTRACTING ARRANGEMENTS FOR MUNICIPAL

SOLID WASTE SERVICE PROVISION

Not all contracting models are suitable for each of the MSWM
operations. Municipal authorities may adopt one or more of the
following contracting models:

 Service contract (door-to-door collection and transportation of waste)

 Management contract (door-to-door collection, construction
and demolition [C&D] waste collection, secondary storage, and
transportation of waste)
 Build and transfer (transfer station, sanitary landfill)
 Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) (biomethanation, composting,
sanitary landfill)
 Build-Own-Operate (BOO) (composting, refuse derived fuel
[RDF], incineration)
 Design-Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (DBOOT) (large compost
plants, RDF plants, incineration, and sanitary landfill)
 Design-Build-Finance-Operate-Transfer (DBFOT) (large compost
plants, RDF plants, incineration, and sanitary landfill)

ULBs may decide to bundle certain services while contracting out

MSWM operations to build accountability and efficiency in the system.
Table 5.4 indicates a typical mix of services that are bundled and the
most relevant contracting models for outsourcing these services:

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 447

44
8
M Table 5.4: Typical Services Bundled for Contracting
an
ua
l S. NO TYPE DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES RISKS UNIT OF
on
M OF OF PROJECT MEASUREMENT
un PROJEC
ici T
pa
l 1 MSWM: This model consists 1. It increases accountability of 1. This creates a monopoly of the 1. Quantity of waste
So Model of the following: a single party. contractor and increases the collected and
lid
W 1 1. Collection 2. It minimizes hassles scope for defaults and further transported on a
aS (ISWM) among different negotiations, given that the entire daily basis
te 2. Transportation MSWM service chain is in the
M contractors. 2. Tonnes of waste
an 3. Processing hands of a single contractor. received at the
ag 3. With a single party responsible
e 4. Sanitary landfill for all activities, there is no 2. The entire city service may processing plant
M
en scope for issues regarding get disrupted if the contractor and product
t operational or process fails to perform, or in case of produced
deficiencies in any other unforeseen 3. Tonnes of
executing any of the services. circumstances. waste
Poor performance cannot be 3. If the principal contractor off-loads landfilled
blamed on upstream certain services to associates, risks
deficiencies or issues of (cost & monitoring) might increase Using only a single
quantity and quality of waste. substantially. monitoring measure
4. It is easier, more efficient, and 3. Delay in execution of one service as the basis to pay
less time-consuming for the ULB will result in overall system the
to deal with a single party for delays. contractor could be
managing all MSWM services. 4. There is scope for the risky and against the
contractor to recover full fees interest of the ULB.
though he or she may not
perform certain functions on a
daily basis.
2 MSWM: This model consists 1. ULBs can hire suitable Adequate care should be taken to 1. Package 1: Tonnes
Model 2 of two packages: agencies that have experience ensure that the collection and of waste collected
and expertise in distinct areas of transportation and transported
Package 1:
MSWM services. of segregated wastes should be 2. Package 2:
Collection and
2. ULB could also retain package regular and in sync with the
transportation i. Tonnes of
1 within its own scope and requirements of the processing
Package 2: facility. waste
outsource only P&D to processed per
Processing and specialized agencies.
disposal (P&D) processing plant
3. Alternately, package 1 can be and product
divided among multiple players produced
 Table 5.4: Typical Services Bundled for Contracting [contd.]

S. NO TYPE DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES RISKS UNIT OF

OF OF PROJECT MEASUREMENT
PROJEC
T
3 MSWM: This model consists 1. ULBs can select agencies Same as above Package 1: Tonnes of
Model 3 of three packages: having expertise in MSWM waste collected and
Package 1: service areas at a very transported
Collection and competitive rate.
Package 2: Tonnes of
transportation 2. It provides scope for waste processed per
Package 2: competition between multiple processing plant or
Processing service providers. product produced
3. It does not create a monopoly
of a single service provider.
Package3: Sanitary 4. It enables the ULB to replace a Package 3: Tonnes
landfill nonperforming contractor without of waste at disposal
disrupting all other MSWM facilities
services
4 MSWM: The model has 1. ULB can select agencies The risk of lack of synchronisation Package 1: Persons
Model 4 four packages having expertise in MSWM between waste collection and employed or tonnes of
m (decentralised (each process is service areas at a very transportation agencies can disrupt waste collected
un project) considered an competitive rate. overall service provision. This in Package 2: Tonnes of
ici
pa
individual project): 2. It provides scope for turn can adversely affect the waste transported
l Package 1: competition between multiple processing and disposal services.
sol Package 3: Tonnes of
id Collection service providers. waste processed per
wa
ste Package 2: 3. It does not create a monopoly processing plant and
m Transportation of a single service provider. tonnes of product
an
ag Package 3: 4. It enables the ULB to replace a produced, if any
em
en Processing nonperforming contractor Package 4: Tonnes
t
Package 4: without disrupting all other of waste at disposal
pl
MSWM services. facilities
an Sanitary landfill
im 4. Each service can be operated
ple
me by specific specialists.
nt
ati 5. There is scope to ensure
on provision of cost-effective
services due
to competition and to replace
nonperforming contractors.
44
9
 5.4 TENDERING, CONTRACT MANAGEMENT
AND SUPERVISION
As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local Authorities:

(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste
processing facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or
with private sector participation or through any agency for optimum
utilisation of various components of solid waste adopting suitable
technology including the following technologies and adhering to the
guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban Development from time to
time and standards prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board.

(w) undertake on their own or through any other agency construction,

operation and maintenance of sanitary landfill and associated
infrastructure as per Schedule 1 for disposal of residual wastes in a
manner prescribed under these rules;

(x) make adequate provision of funds for capital investments as well

as operation and maintenance of solid waste management services in
the annual budget ensuring that funds for discretionary functions of
the local body have been allocated only after meeting the requirement
of necessary funds for solid waste management and other obligatory
functions of the local body as per these rules;

ULBs may enter into contract with private service providers for
provision of specified MSWM services such as collection,
qualification criteria should support
transportation, treatment, processing, and disposal of waste (for more
having adequate resources and expertise
details, refer to Section 1.4.5.7 of Part II). Private service providers have
to be held accountable for maintaining required standards of services
as well as its effectiveness and efficiency.

Adequate care should be taken while preparing tender documents to

ensure that only those firms with requisite qualifications and
experience are considered. The following aspects should be kept in
mind:

 The tender should clearly specify the technical and financial

capability required to perform the task proposed to be outsourced.
The qualification criteria should be standardized. It should provide
equal opportunity to all those who have a capability to undertake
the task. It should not restrict competition between big players; at
the same time, it should not allow incompetent, inexperienced, or
unqualified parties to enter the fray. The eligibility criteria should
be limited to what is required to perform the obligation; this shall
enhance healthy competition and create a pool of entrepreneurs to
provide MSWM services.

450 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

  Selection of bidders should be based on technical and financial bids
and specified criteria. This could be done inSelection
several ways:
of bidders should be based on both tech
- The ULB may prescribe minimum qualifying standards for
technical bids; financial bids of only those bidders who meet the
minimum qualifying standard may be opened unless otherwise
justified.
- ULB may give higher weightage to qualifications and experience
in cases where higher skills are necessary.
 Awarding contracts to single party covering all aspects of MSWM
in the city may be avoided,Multiple
as it cancontracts
create unmanageable situation
for MSWM services should be encouraged
if the contractor ceases to operate. Multiple contracts are desirable
to ensure duplicate competencies, which can be relied on during
by any
so that if one contractor fails, of the can
another contractors
take over until other
arrangements are made. However, it may not be feasible in case of
processing and landfilling.
 A transparent and stringent monitoring and evaluation system
should be developed to ensure that contractors perform their
obligations.
 Long term contracts should provide for a periodic revision of tariffs
based on predetermined parameters and create implementation
mechanisms to ensure sustainability of the contract.
 ULBs should ensure timely payments for contracted services.
 ULBs should ensure adequate in-house capabilities for appropriate
contract monitoring.

y for providing crucial services in times of crisis (e.g., dispute in contract provisions, when the service provider does no

Depending on the project structure and time or cost considerations, ULBs can adopt

5.4.1 ENGAGING WITH A PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNER

After a DPR, a transparent procurement process should be adopted for

the selection of a PPP partner, preferably through a transaction advisor,
by following these standard procedures:
 Preparation of expression of interest (EoI), request for proposal
(RFP), and concessionaire agreement
 Obtaining approval from concerned authority
 Issue of notice for pre-qualification or EOI
 Short-listing of firms
 Issue of RFP to the shortlisted firms
 Conducting pre-bid meeting
  Receiving technical and financial bids in separate packets in
response to the RFP and opening of technical bids
 Evaluation of the technical bid document received
 Opening of financial bids of the bidders (minimum three bids would
be desirable)
 Evaluation of financial bids
 Selection of most preferred bidder
 Negotiation and signing of agreement
ypical request for qualification (RFQ):
 Award of contract
applicants
pt practises
ence 5.4.2 TENDERING PROCESS FOR PUBLIC PRIVATE
PARTNERSHIP PROJECTS

The ULB has an option of adopting a single stage selection process or

a two-stage selection process for awarding contracts to the PPP player.

5.4.2.1 SINGLE STAGE PROCESS

In a single stage bidding process, technical and financial bids are

submitted simultaneously in response to a RFP. The selection of the
preferred bidder is envisaged through an evaluation of a three-part
proposal received from interested bidders:
• Part I – Response to qualification: Pre-qualification will be based
on the documents received from bidders in response to the
qualifying criteria laid down by the ULB. The technical and financial
offers of bidders, who do not qualify at this step, will be returned
unopened.
• Part II – Technical offers: Technical offers in the proposals from
bidders who qualified at the end of first stage will be opened and
le for Bidding: Single Stage Process
quest for proposal (RFP) to short-listed applicants: zero date
query by the perspective applicants: +15 days
g: +20 days
nse to queries: +30 days
due date: +60 days
hnical bids: +60 days
echnical evaluation report by Tender Committee: +80 days
ening: +90 days
(LOI): within 30 days of bid opening date
of award to bidder: +30 days of issue of LOI
g: within 30 days of award of LOI

ocess takes 4 months minimum. However, depending upon the urgency and requirement of the project execution the bidding proces
ans time duration from the zero date, i.e., RFP’s date of publication.

452 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 evaluated against predetermined criteria. Financial offers of
bidders, who do not qualify at this step, will be returned unopened.
• Part III – Financial offers: Financial offers from proposals of those
bidders whose technical offers are qualified shall be opened and
RFQ contains
scrutinized. Only those financial useful
offers which information
are required by bidders for formu
in accordance
with criteria laid down in RFP shall be evaluated.

5.4.2.2 TWO STAGE PROCESS

The two stage selection process is characterised by an initial pre-

qualification stage, followed by RFP stage, which is applicable only to
pre-qualified bidders.
Stage 1: Qualification stage: The request for qualification (RFQ)
specifies the minimum qualifications required for participation in the
tender. Suitability of interested parties or consortia will be assessed by
the tenderer in accordance with the provisions of the RFQ. At the end
of this stage, the authority will shortlist suitable pre-qualified
applicants who are then eligible for participation in the second stage of
the bidding process (the “bid stage”).
Stage 2: Letter of invitation: After the bidders have been shortlisted
under the RFQ for the aforesaid project, ULB should invite the bidders
to procure the RFP with the objective of submitting a technical and
financial proposal.
Two Stage Process Stage 1: Pre-qualification Stage (Minimum: 3 months)
on (RFQ): zero date
perspective applicants: +15 days

s: +30 days
0 days
ation bids: +60 days
ication evaluation report by Tender Committee: +80 days
months)
(RFP) short-listed applicants: +90 days
perspective applicants: +105 days

s: +130 days
50 days

30 days of bid opening date

of award of LOI

months minimum. However, depending upon the urgency and requirement of the project execution the bidding process could be don
ation from the zero date, i.e., date of publication of RFP.
 5.4.3 REqUEST FOR PROPOSAL (RFP) FROM ULBs

The RFP is a document that ULBs prepare to elicit bids from potential
vendors. The quality of an RFP is very important for successful
bidders that is useful for preparing their financial offers
project management because it clearly delineates the deliverables that
will be required. This RFP includes statements that reflect various
assumptions and assessments by the authority in relation to the project.
Such assumptions, assessments, and statements do not contain all the
information that each bidder may require.

The RFP should be organized into three volumes:

 Volume I: Instruction to bidders

 Volume II: Minimum mandatory technical and performance
specifications or project information memorandum
 Volume III: Concession agreement

5.4.3.1 VOLUME I: INSTRUCTION TO BIDDERS (ITB)

The instruction to bidders specifies procedures to be followed by

bidders in preparation and submission of their proposals and provides
information on submission, opening, evaluation of proposals, and
award of concession.

Indicative contents of the instruction to bidders include the following:

 General conditions
– General responsibilities of bidding
– Fraud and corrupt practices
 Contents and submission of proposal
– Cost of proposal
– Language and currency
– Number of proposal
– Eligibility and pre-qualification
– Bid security
Ŋ Performance guarantee
– Guidelines for submission of proposal: The bidder shall submit
the proposal in accordance with the guidelines prescribed in
the RFP and ensure that the proposal is complete in all aspects.
The authority reserves the right to reject proposals that do not
conform to the guidelines prescribed.
Ŋ The proposal shall be submitted in three parts, viz.,
Part I: Response to pre-qualification requirements

454 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Part II: Technical offer and
Part III: Financial offer
– Proposal due date and validity period
– Late submission of proposal
– Modifications, substitiution or withdrawal of proposal
– Verification of information and site visit
– Right to accept or reject any or all bids

 Eligibility and pre-qualification

– Technical capacity as per eligibility criteria
– Financial capability
– Change in ownership
– Lock in periods

 Evaluation of bids
– Confidentiality and non-discriminatory process to be defined
– Clarifications
– Evaluation: Part I – Response to pre-qualification requirements
– Evaluation: Part II – Technical offer
– Evaluation: Part III – Financial offer
– Notification and issue of LoI
– Conditions precedent for issue of letter of award
– Authority’s right to accept or reject proposal

5.4.3.2 VOLUME II: MINIMUM MANDATORY

TECHNICAL AND PERFORMANCE
SPECIFICATIONS OR PROJECT INFORMATION
MEMORANDUM

 Brief description of the project

– Scope of work
 General technical design requirements and standards
 Specific design requirements and standards for each facility
 Operation and performance requirements
 Existing infrastructure

5.4.3.3 VOLUME III: DRAFT CONCESSION AGREEMENT

The draft concession agreement specifies various details pertaining to

the project in its various articles. Formats for information to be
provided by the bidder are specified in the various schedules of the
concession
 agreement. A list of articles to be included in the concession agreement
is given in Table 5.5:

Table 5.5: List of Articles in the Concession Agreement 10

ARTICLES DESCRIPTION
ARTICLE I: Definitions
General terms Interpretations
Grant of concession
Rights associated with the grant of concession
Concession period
ARTICLE II:
Extension of concession
Concession
Acceptance of concession
Conditions precedent for waste processing & landfill (WPLF)
Non-compliance with conditions precedent
Applicable permits
Lease of land
ARTICLE III:
Handover of project site
Project site
Rights, title and use of project site
Peaceful possession
Composition of committee
ARTICLE IV: Specific obligations of the committee
Monitoring of the Frequency and expenses related to meetings
project facility Role of the committee
Right to appoint an external consultant
Performance bank guarantee
General obligations
Arrangement for finances
ARTICLE V: Operation and maintenance
Concessionaire’s Insurance
obligations
Clearances, permits, etc
Specific obligations
Miscellaneous obligations
No breach of obligations
ARTICLE VI: Specific obligations
Municipal body’s General obligations
obligations
ARTICLE VII: Payments terms
Payments to the Payment mechanism
developer
Force majeure events
ARTICLE VIII: Duties of parties during force majeure events
Force majeure Costs during the force majeure events
Termination due to force majeure events

10 Adapted from Draft National Public Private Partnership Policy (2011). Department of Economic Affairs. Government of
India. Available at: http://toolkit.pppinindia.com/solid-waste-management/module2-pfcaa-ppfa.php?
links=pfcaa1b.

456 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Table 5.5: List of Articles in the concession agreement [contd.]

ARTICLES DESCRIPTION
Events of default
ARTICLE Ix: Termination due to events of default
Events of Default Rights of municipal body upon termination
Rights of parties
ARTICLE x: Ownership of project facility
Transfer of Project Contractor’s obligations
Facility Municipal body’s obligations
Amicable resolution
ARTICLE xII:
Arbitration proceedings
Dispute Resolution
Performance during dispute
ARTICLE xI: Contractor’s representations and warranties
Representation and Municipal body’s representations and warranties
Warranties Obligation to notify change
Sub-contract
Labour (interests and rights of labours be laid out
clearly)
Interest and right of set off
Governing law and jurisdiction
Waiver
ARTICLE xIII: Survival
Miscellaneous
Amendments
Notices
Severability
Language
No partnerships
Exclusion of implied warranties, etc
Counterparts

The various Schedules to be included in the concession agreement shall

include:
 Schedule I: Details of project sites
 Schedule II: Construction requirement for waste processing facilities
 Schedule III: Fees (format)
 Schedule IV: Land license agreement (format)
 Schedule V: Authorisation
 Schedule VI: Scope of work of monitoring authority
 Schedule VII: Format for performance bank guarantee
 Schedule VIII: Technical scheme for MSWM facility
 Schedule IX: Approach and methodology for construction of
MSWM faciltiy
 Schedule X: Service level condition and penalties
 Schedule XI: Operation & maintenance for MSWM facility
 5.4.4 SUGGESTED CONTENTS OF PROPOSALS FROM BIDDERS

The proposal shall include the following contents in the formats

prescribed by the municipal authority:

Response to pre-qualification requirement

 Bid security (as defined )

 Fees for RFP (as defined)
 Form I: Covering letter for proposal submission
 Form II: Details of bidder or bidding consortium
 Form III: Power of attorney of authorized signatory of bidder
 Form IV: Memorandum of association (in case of proposal
submitted by a consortium)
 Form V: Power of attorney of lead member (for consortium proposal)
 Form VI: Format for board resolution of bidder or bidding
consortium members
 Form VII: Format for non-criminality
 Form VIII: Format for anti-collusion certificate
 Form IX: Details and proof of technical capacity
 Form X: Details and proof of financial capacity
 Form XI: Litigation history
 Certificates from a practising Chartered Accountant in India
certifying net worth as per clause 3 (a) supra, along with the
documents (if any) as required under relevant clauses. For the
purpose of this tender, the term net worth means the shareholders
equity plus reserves and surplus
 Copy of memorandum and articles of association or registration
document

Technical Offer
 Form XI A: Formats for technical proposal
 Form XI B: Technical plan for project facilities
 Form XII: Details of expert team with curriculum vitae

Financial Offer
 Form XIII: Project cost break-up sheet indicating costs of all
services or components of the contract
 Form XIV: Detailed break-up of operating costs & revenues

458 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 National Guidance for Contracting Public Private Partnership Projects

Toolkit for public private partnership (PPP) frameworks in municipal solid waste management (MSWM) d
Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, and Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) with the support of th
Government of India, MoUD. 2012. Toolkit for Solid Waste Management: Jawaharlal Nehru National Urba
Government of India, Ministry of Finance. 2011. PPP Toolkit for Improving PPP Decision-Making Processe

5.4.5 COST ESCALATION

Cost of service provision may increase as a result of an increase in the

general costs or in specific cost components of a contract such as fuel or
wages, which form the major cost component of any MSWM contract.

5.4.5.1 ANNUAL ESCALATION IN GENERAL COSTS

In order to enable stable service provision even in the face of annually

escalating general costs, the concessionaire may be allowed an annual
increase in the contract value. The following guidance may be used to
calculate the allowed increase.

‘y’% increase in the base rate ‘X’ may be given annually to cover the
MSWM
increase in general costs. The increase may be calculated as per
these examples: contracts are sensitive to fluctuations in labour and fuel costs; co
to enhance the cost of the contract when there is an escalation of
After 1 year X plus y% of X
After 2 years X plus 2y% of X
After 3 years X plus 3y% of X
After10 years X plus 10y% of
X After 14 years X plus 14y%
of X

Where X is the “base rate” accepted at the time of award of contract as

against rate per tonnes quoted by the selected bidder.
 5.4.5.2 PRICE INCREASE ON ACCOUNT OF INCREASE IN
DIESEL OR STAFFING COSTS

Besides the general costs, the concessionaire shall be given an increase

or decrease in the diesel component as well as minimum wages
component as and when the rates are increased or decreased.

For the purpose of calculations (as per formula given below), the
cost component of diesel may be taken as 25% of base rate X and
the cost component of minimum wages of workers may be taken as
45% of base rate X. The increase in price of diesel or minimum
wages will be compensated by giving a proportionate increase in
the aforesaid percentage component of diesel and minimum wages.

If the price of diesel or alternate fuel (for the vehicle and equipment
used for providing MSWM services) reduces, the tendering authority
could on its own motion order review of the diesel or fuel price and

Calculating Price Increase on Acount of Increase in Diesel and Minimum

Wage

New Rate payable on account of price increase = A± E

Diesel Minimum Wage

A = base rate at the time of A = Base rate at the time of
signing the Concession signing of the Concession
Agreement Agreement
B = % of diesel component in B = Percentage of Minimum Wage
‘base rate’ fixed at the time of component in ‘base rate’ fixed at
signing the Concession the time of signing of the
Agreement i.e. 25% Concession Agreement i.e. 45
C = Actual rate of diesel at the %
time of price increase C = Minimum wages as increased
D = Rate of diesel at the time of now by Govt.
award of Concession or previous D = Minimum wages at the time of
revision whichever is later award of the Concession or
E = Increase/decrease in previous review
diesel component E = Increase/decrease in Minimum
Wage component
A= 800 A= 800
B= 25% B= 45%
C= 60.00 C= 180.00
D= 55.00 D= 160.00
= 800 x 0.25 x (1.09 -1) = 800 x 0.45x 0.125
= 800 x 0.25 x 0.09 = 800 *0.45*0.125
= 800 x 0.0227 =45
= 18.16
ther increase in the base rate at the time of review will be Rs. 18.16 as Diesel component + Rs. 45/- as minimum wage
e of 800 /- will now is 863.16 from the date of such increase.

460 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 minimum wages and reduce the increase in the base rate already given,
subject to the condition that the final base rate X shall not be reduced
below the original rate accepted or granted by the tenderer.

5.4.6 EVALUATION AND SELECTION

An evaluation team, appointed by the municipal authority, will

scrutinize the tender documents. The team will assess the applications
for completeness and eligibility of the tendering bidders as per
conditions mentioned in the terms of references (ToR). This process
from publication of the expression of interest (EoI) to the selection of
the final contractor usually takes about 6 months.

The evaluation committee shall shortlist all eligible bidders. Final

selection may be based on specific criteria specified in the (ToR). The
following criteria may be considered:
1. Relevant qualification and experience of the bidder
2. Expertise of the bidding team
3. Financial capability of the bidder
4. Approach and methodology suggested
5. Reliability of the bidder (based on previous conduct)
6. Proposed pricing structures and cost to the ULB
7. Environmental and social safeguards provided or ensured
8. Assumption of risk liability and proposed mitigation measures

The ULB may enter into further negotiations with the highest ranked
bidder. The contracting and service agreement should be finalized
based on the agreements subsequent to the negotiation process.

and legal)
s (delays have serious consequences)
riate risk allocation
ect to capital, subsidies, or sale of products (a robust indicator of the financial viability of proposed projects, even when
pre requisites)
ssessment
ncial closure
 5.4.7 CONTRACT MONITORING

Contract models detailed above and in Step 4 of the planning process

are only as effective as their implementation. In this context,
cell should be established within the MSWM
or performance or clauses as monitoring plays an important role in ensuring delivery of services
act which meet required specifications.

Based on specifications of the contract, the ULB should develop

checklists, milestones, and inspection schedules. A specific monitoring
cell should be established within the MSWM department, with a clear
definition of roles and responsibilities. Table 5.5 gives an indication of
specific activities that the contractor and the ULB should perform to
ensure successful project implementation.

Table 5.6: Contract Monitoring – Activities or Clauses

SL. ACTIVITIES/ SPECIFIC ACTIONS PRIMARY MONITORIN

NO CLAUSES RESPONSIBILIT G AGENCY
Y
1 Applicable • List applicable permits Contractor ULB
permits other under various laws and
than land rules, respective authorities,
clearances validity of permits, fees
payable, and persons
responsible to obtain the
permits.
• Obtain necessary permits.
2 Appointment • Select or identify a ULB ULB
of project suitable person from
in-charge, within the department
engineer, or or appoint
independent a qualified person to be
engineer responsible for monitoring
project implementation.
3 Performance • PBG to be furnished Contractor ULB
bank by contractor
guarantee
4 Project design • Project engineer or in- Contractor ULB
charge shall approve
project design drawings,
equipment specifications,
spares list, electrical
drawings, and operating
plan.
• Standard operating
procedure(SOP) are to
be prepared for all
activities.
• ULB officer-in-charge
shall approve and sign all
project design
documents.
5 Insurance • Obtain valid insurance Contractor Contractor
and covering risks, and
ensure timely renewal of

462 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

validity.

municipal solid waste management plan implementation 463

Table 5.6: Contract Monitoring – Activities or Clauses [contd.]

SL. ACTIVITIES/ SPECIFIC ACTIONS PRIMARY MONITORIN

NO CLAUSES RESPONSIBILIT G AGENCY
Y
6 Environmental • Carry out regular Contractor ULB
compliance environmental, social,
health, and safety audits
and safety and first aid
trainings, and ensure use
of personal protective
equipment (PPEs).
7 General • Valid Public Liability Contractor Contractor
obligations Insurance and
renewal;
• Employee State Insurance
(ESI) & Employees’
Provident Fund (PF)
payments
• List of persons responsible
for these actions to be
maintained by the
contractor and submitted
to the ULB.
8. Specific • ULB shall declare and ULB ULB
obligations enforce a “no
development zone;”
develop a buffer zone; and
ensure that biomedical,
industrial hazardous, and
construction and demolition
(C&D) waste are not
brought
to the MSW processing
facility.
• Ensure timely notice on
events of defaults or force
majeure.
• ULBs are to make
timely payments.
9. Maintenance • Maintain daily record of Contractor ULB
of records human resources, equipment
deployed, incoming vehicle
details (vehicle number and
driver), net weight of
incoming and outgoing
waste, and timing of entry
and exit of vehicles.
• A ULB representative, who
is to be stationed at
treatment or processing
facility, shall ensure
maintenance of separate
registers for waste
delivered at processing
facilities and disposal
site, and outgoing
processed products and
outgoing rejects from the
processing plants with
triplicate gate pass.
 Table 5.6: Contract Monitoring – Activities or Clauses [contd.]

SL. ACTIVITIES/ SPECIFIC ACTIONS PRIMARY MONITORIN

NO CLAUSES RESPONSIBILIT G AGENCY
Y
10 Operations & • There must be approved Contractor ULB
maintenance standard operating
procedures (SOP),
recommended spares list
and minimum inventory,
and regular audit of these
stocks.
• Ensure maintenance
of equipment.
11 Service levels • Verify and certify ULB ULB
achieved service levels.
• Identify defaults.
• Assess compliance.
• Issue notices and
follow up on previous
notices or assurances.

5.5 OPERATIONALISING THE FINANCIAL PLAN

ng financial sources is central to the MSWM plan
About 10%–50% of the municipal budget of all ULBs is spent on
MSWM, depending on the ULB’s functions and income sources. A
financial operating plan gives details of estimated costs and expected
revenue sources for all activities indicated in the MSWM plan. Full
cost accounting (FCA) principles outlined in Section 1.4.5.6.1 of Part
II shall be applied while costing individual actions. Section 1.4.5.6.3 of
Part II describes various sources of funding that ULBs could avail.

The ULB should mobilize financial resources identified in the financial

operating plan to ensure timely implementation of the plan and
service delivery. Public private partnerships (PPPs) and private sector
participation (PSP) should be carefully monitored to ensure timely
execution of contracted services and avoid cost overruns. ULBs should
take necessary precautions to ensure disbursal of funds in time for
implementation.

ordance with norms established in the National Municipal Accounting Manual. Municipal solid waste management is assig
s shall be indicated along with the function code or budgeting centre code.

464 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

5.6 ACTION POINTS FOR AWARENESS GENERATION
THROUGH INFORMATION, EDUCATION, AND
COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES FOR MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
IMPLEMENTATION
 Community should be involved through consultations for deciding
the final contours of the MSWM plan.
 Community should be made aware of the socio-economic and
environmental safeguards of proposed MSWM initiatives through
regular mass communication and information, education, and
communication (IEC) campaigns.
 Community should be made aware of their responsibilities for
ensuring success of proposed incentives. The impacts of their
actions on the success of MSWM plants should be made evident
through IEC campaigns.
466 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent
 6

Management
ChapterAspects:
1:
Monitoring Municipal
Municipal Solid
Solid Waste
Waste Management
Management Service
Plan: Step-Wise
Provision
Guidance
IN THIS SECTION

6.1 Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste Management Service Provision 467

6.2 Operation and Maintenance Plan for Municipal Solid Waste Management
Services 481
6.3 Preventive Maintenance 483
6.4 Complaint Redressal System 485
6.5 Environmental and Occupational Health Monitoring of Municipal Solid
Waste Treatment, Processing and Disposal Facilities 487
6.6 Training Requirements for Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste
Service Provision 490
6.7 Action Points for Awareness Generation Through Information, Education,
and Communication Activities for Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste
Service
Provision 491
6. MANAGEMENT ASPECTS:
MONITORING MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICE
PROVISION
6.1 MONITORING MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICE
PROVISION
Institutionalising appropriate quality assurance systems is essential to
ensure a continuous and efficient municipal solid waste management
(MSWM) system. The performance of all components of MSWM
system, from collection to processing and disposal, should be ensured
on a daily basis. This might appear to be very cumbersome, but with a
proper system in place, things move routinely and there is assurance of
quality. Provision of citizen-centric services should also be monitored
through a routine feedback mechanism. This should primarily focus
on concerns of the community regarding doorstep collection, primary
storage, and transportation of waste.
A comprehensive monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system should
be adopted for proper implementation of the MSWM plan and for
assessing progress toward meeting the targets of the plan.
The monitoring system adopted should facilitate or include the
following:
 regular collection of data by the identified staff, e.g., ward-wise
collection of waste;
 analysis of collected information to assess the efficacy of the overall
system, e.g., reasons for not reaching 100% collection in an area;
 reporting of data and its analysis to senior officials; and
 mechanisms for proposing corrective action as needed, e.g.,
contingency plan for extra efforts wherein lagging, rerouting or
changing the timings for collection in a particular ward so that
100% collection can be achieved.

The head of the MSWM department should be responsible for M&E. A

dedicated M&E team should be constituted from amongst the MSWM
department staff, with distinct roles and responsibilities. Field level
staff from wards should be inducted from time to time, and reporting
schedules should be fixed. Field staff can be reverted to operations
once efficiency is achieved.

Ward level committees, constituted as per the directives of the 74 th

Constitution Amendment Act, should also be actively involved
in ensuring and monitoring MSWM service provision including
segregation, collection, transportation, street sweeping, drain cleaning,
and prohibition of littering. Such a process should be institutionalised

MANAGEMENT ASPECTS: MONITORING MSWM SERVICE P

469
 through a council resolution, as is being practiced in Bengaluru.
Community involvement in monitoring service provision has also been
found effective in some states. Andhra Pradesh had implemented a
“Know Your Sanitary Worker” programme, under which all residents
of an area were introduced to the concerned sanitary workers in that
area. Contact details of these workers and their supervisors were also
made available to facilitate reporting of service delivery issues and to
reduce the response time in redressal of complaints.

6.1.1 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS FOR MONITORING

The first step towards implementing a monitoring and evaluation

(M&E) system is to acquire the requisite data for assessing the
performance of the MSWM system. Reports generated should contain
critical information and should be effectively used for decision making,
be appropriately analysed to assess service provision and make requisite improvements
identifying gaps and corrective measures. Standard formats should be
developed for producing reports on daily, monthly, quarterly, or annual
basis as per the requirement. This information can be collected and
analysed at the city level, zone level, or ward level depending on the
monitoring requirements.

The best way to achieve this is through a computerised management

information system (MIS). The information collected and reported
through MIS should also be used as a basis for midterm review of the
MSWM plan and for defining goals of future planning.

There is considerable overlap between data required for monitoring

MSWM service provision and data required to establish a baseline for
MSWM service provision. Table 6.1 highlights the key information
that must be periodically collected and analysed by urban local bodies
(ULBs) to operate and monitor MSWM systems as prescribed in SWM
Rules, 2016.

The table also includes a visual indication visual indication for Service
Level Benchmarks (SLB) for identifying data elements which are used
directly in the computation of service level benchmarks (SLBs) for
MSWM service provision. SLB indicators are stipulated by the Ministry
of Urban Development (MoUD) to assess the level of service provision
and resource efficiency.

470 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste Management Data Collection and Analysis1

DATA REqUIRED MINIMUM POINT OF DATA USE AND POTENTIAL ANALYSIS

FREqUENCY DATA
OF COLLECTION
MEASUREMEN
T
GENERAL ULB INFORMATION
• Area of the ULB At least once in ULB (from Baseline information to be used for
• Number of wards, their area and population 3 years weighbridge) further analysis and as a basis for
• Population of the ULB calculating SLB indicators
• Decadal growth of population
• Number of households
• Average size of households
• Number of slum households
• Number of commercial establishments
• Number of markets (vegetable, meat, wholesale, flower,
etc.) and slaughterhouses
• Number of institutions (offices, schools, colleges, etc.)
M • Number of health care establishments
A • Number of industries including cottage industries
N
A DOOR TO DOOR COLLECTION
G
E • Total amount of waste generated in the ULB Monthly Ward level (from Assess household collection efficiency
M
EN
weighbridge)
T
AS
• Quantity of waste collected from different sources at Semi-annually Ward level (from Assess household collection efficiency
PE doorstep: weighbridge) Assess requirement or capacity of
CT
S: – Household, shops, and establishments waste management facilities needed by
M the ULB
O – Vegetable and food market
NI
T
– Meat, fish and slaughter houses
O – Construction and demolition waste
RI
N – Hospitals
G
M – Industries
S
W • Quantity of waste collected in segregated fractions Monthly Ward level (from Extent of segregation of waste
M weighbridge)
SE
R • Average number of carcasses removed each day Daily Processing or Assess requirement for management of
VI
disposal facility carcasses along with slaughterhouse wastes
47
1 1 Developed by the expert committee for revision of MSWM manual (2013-15)
47 Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste Management Data Collection and Analysis [contd.]
2
M DATA REqUIRED MINIMUM POINT OF DATA USE AND POTENTIAL ANALYSIS
an FREqUENCY DATA
ua
l
OF COLLECTION
on MEASUREMEN
M T
un
ici • Total number of vehicles, tricycles and human Daily Ward Assess sufficiency of infrastructure for primary
pa
l
resources allotted for door to door collection of collection of waste
So waste
lid
W • Capacity of vehicles dedicated to primary, secondary Monthly Ward Assess sufficiency of infrastructure for primary
aS and tertiary collection collection of waste
te
M • Number of trips made per day per vehicle type Monthly Ward Assess sufficiency of infrastructure for primary
an
ag
collection of waste
e • Number of vehicles, tricycles and human resources Daily Ward Assess utilisation rates of existing infrastructure
M
en actually reporting for duty
t
• Short fall in human resources Daily Ward Assess sufficiency of existing staffing
• Areas left unattended Daily Ward Assess efficiency of door-to-door service
provision and identify problem
areas
• Arrangements made or proposed to be made for Daily Ward Ensuring daily management of service provision
clearing the backlog of pending work
• Number of sites designated for secondary waste storage Monthly Ward Data to be used to assess sufficiency of
• Type and size of containers / storage depots in each Monthly Ward secondary collection points or storage depots
ward
• Quantity of waste deposited at storage depots on a daily Monthly Ward
basis
• Number of unauthorised waste dumping points in each Monthly Ward
ward
STREET SWEEPING
• Number of sanitation workers on duty for street Daily Ward Ensuring efficiency and daily management
sweeping (contractual vs pay-roll) of street sweeping service provision
• Number of sanitary workers absent Daily Ward
• Arrangements made or proposed for clearing the backlog Daily Ward
of street sweeping
SILT REMOVAL OR DRAINAGE CLEANING
• Number of sanitation workers on roll for silt removal in Daily Ward Ensuring efficiency and daily management
the ward of street sweeping service provision
• Number of persons found absent or on leave Daily Ward
• Arrangements made or proposed for clearing the backlog Daily Ward
of silt removal
 Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste Management Data Collection and Analysis [contd.]

DATA REqUIRED MINIMUM POINT OF DATA USE AND POTENTIAL ANALYSIS

FREqUENCY DATA
OF COLLECTION
MEASUREMEN
T
CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE (C&D WASTE)
• Number of designated C&D sites identified in the city Monthly Ward Assess the demand for C&D waste
with capacity and location management in the ULB and identify illegal
• Number of unauthorised disposal sites for C&D waste in Monthly Ward or non-notified dump sites to prevent
the city (permanent or semi-permanent) such dumping
• Quantity of C&D waste lying unattended (based on Weekly Ward
truckloads) at designated sites and unauthorised sites
TRANSPORTATION OF WASTE
• Number and type of vehicles and equipment allotted Daily Ward /ULB Assess the sufficiency and efficacy of:
• Number and type of vehicles and equipment that Daily Ward /ULB 1. Secondary waste collection
actually reported for duty and transportation
• Number of trips made to the processing site or disposal Daily Ward /ULB 2. Amount of waste collected and
site by each vehicle in one shift transported versus waste generated
• Number of vehicles used in first, second, and third shift Daily Ward /ULB 3. Efficiency of the vehicle maintenance
M
A • Total quantity of waste transported from weighbridge Daily Ward /ULB system
N
A records
G
E
• Number of vehicles that did not make adequate trips Daily Ward /ULB
M
EN
• Number of vehicles that transport waste but were not Daily Ward /ULB
T totally full
AS
PE • Number of bins cleared during the day Daily Ward /ULB
CT
S:
• Number and location of bins left uncleared Daily Ward /ULB
M • Breakdown reported during the day and action taken Daily Ward /ULB
O
NI • Arrangements made or proposed for clearing the Daily Ward /ULB
T
O backlog
RI
N
WORKSHOP FOR VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT
G • Total number of vehicles or equipment on the road Weekly ULB 1. Assess the road worthiness of
M
S • Number of vehicles or type of equipment under repair Weekly ULB vehicles based on number of
W breakdowns
M • Nature and duration of breakdown Weekly ULB
SE
• Time taken to repair vehicle or equipment Weekly ULB 2. Assess operational issues with equipment
R
VI
• Alternate arrangements made for vehicle or equipment Weekly ULB 3. Sufficiency of workshop facilities
47 4. Efficiency and time taken to repair
3 vehicles or equipment as compared to
proposed tentative time
47
4
M
Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste Management Data Collection and Analysis [contd.]
an
ua
l DATA REqUIRED MINIMUM POINT OF DATA USE AND POTENTIAL ANALYSIS
on FREqUENCY DATA
M
un
OF COLLECTION
ici MEASUREMEN
pa T
l
So PROCESSING SITE
lid
W • Number of waste processing sites in the ULB Annually ULB Assess the sufficiency of existing facilities
aS
te • Distance of the processing plants from the ULB Annually ULB to process/dispose collected waste
M
an • Area/Capacity of the sites / facilities Annually ULB
ag
e • Total operating hours of the processing plant Weekly Plant 1. Assess capacity and efficiency of
M
Daily Plant processing plant
en • Quantity of waste received at the plant
t
• Quantity of end products (compost. RDF) produced at the Monthly and per Plant 2. Assess process efficiency
plant batch 3. Assess quality of the products
• Quality of end products (compost, RDF) produced at the Monthly and per Plant 4. Identify potentially hazardous situations
plant batch w.r.t. type of incoming waste or
• Quantity of end products sold Monthly Plant waste handling/ process
mechanisms
• Quantity of end product in stock Monthly Plant
• Quantity of reject material Monthly Plant
• Number of staff employed (Sex disaggregated data and Monthly Plant
the of work allotted)
• Any irregularities noticed Monthly Plant
WASTE DISPOSAL SITE
• Number of waste disposal sites in the ULB Annually ULB 1. Assess sufficiency of existing waste
- Number of dumpsites disposal sites

- Number of sanitary landfills 2. Assess quantity of waste disposed vis a

vis amount of rejects from processing
• Distance of the disposal or landfill site from the ULB Annually ULB facilities/ inerts to be disposed
• Area of the disposal or landfill site Annually ULB
3. Identify remaining life of the landfill
• Quantity of waste disposed each day Daily
4. Extent of scientific disposal of
• Expected life of each landfill site Annually ULB
municipal solid waste
 Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste Management Data Collection and Analysis [contd.]

DATA REqUIRED MINIMUM POINT OF DATA USE AND POTENTIAL ANALYSIS

FREqUENCY DATA
OF COLLECTION
MEASUREMEN
T
FINANCIAL ASPECTS
• Operating Cost Annually ULB 1. Assess cost of MSWM services in the
• Cost of collection per tonnes per day Quarterly (once ULB ULB
in three months) 2. Assess collection efficiency of
• Cost of transport per tonnes per day Quarterly (once ULB waste management charges
in three months) 3. Assess which of the MSWM services
• Cost of disposal per tonnes per day Quarterly (once ULB are financially viable
in three months) 4. Extent of cost recovery for the ULB in
• Human resource costs Quarterly (once ULB the MSWM services
in three months)
• Cost of operations and maintenance for services managed Quarterly (once ULB
by the ULB (recurrent fuel, electricity and maintenance in three months)
costs)
M
A • Cost recovery for MSWM service through tax, user fees, Quarterly (once ULB
N etc. in three months)
A
G • Allocation of revenue and capital budget Quarterly (once ULB 1. Assess that the budget addresses all
E
M
in three months) priority services
EN 2. Extent of cost recovery for the ULB in
T
AS the MSWM services
PE
CT COMPLAINTS REDRESSAL
S:
M • Number of MSWM related complaints received Daily ULB 1. Assess and identify repeated problem
O areas
NI • Types of complaints received Daily ULB
T
• Time taken for issues to be resolved and appropriate Daily ULB 2. Assess efficiency of complaint redressal
O
RI actions taken
N
G • Number of defaults for which penalties are collected Quarterly (once ULB Assess efficiency of penalising defaulters, as a
M
S
in three months) deterrent to future non-compliance
W LEGAL MATTERS
M
SE • Number of cases filed in the courts each month for Monthly ULB Assess and ensure legal compliance
R
VI violation of provision of rules and applicable laws
• Corrective measures taken Monthly ULB
47
5
 6.1.2 MONITORING ACHIEVEMENT OF SERVICE LEVEL BENCHMARKS

Assessment of service level benchmarks (SLBs) is based on the analysis

of information collected to monitor the municipal solid waste
by the MoUD to assess MSWM service provision in a ULB
management (MSWM) system on a regular basis, as discussed in the
previous section. State governments use SLBs to monitor long-term
progress of MSWM service provision in ULBs. Release of funds from the
Finance Commission is partially contingent on achievement of
predefined goals of SLBs. Indicators stipulated by the Ministry of Urban
Development (MoUD) for benchmarking MSWM service provision are
the following:

1. Household level coverage of solid waste management services

2. Efficiency of collection of municipal solid waste efficiency
3. Extent of segregation of municipal solid waste
4. Extent of municipal solid waste recovered
5. Extent of scientific disposal of municipal solid waste
6. Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints
7. Extent of cost recovery in SWM services
8. Efficiency in collection of SWM charges

A framework for monitoring and reporting on these indicators is

given in Table 6.2. Detailed guidance on data requirements and
calculation methods may be found in MoUD’s “Handbook of Service
Level Benchmarking”.

Table 6.2: Monitoring Achievement of Service Level Benchmarks for Municipal Solid
Waste Management Service Provision2

PERFORMANC UNIT DEFINITION MINIMUM SMALLEST

E FREqUENCY OF GEOGRAPHICAL
INDICATORS PERFORMANCE AREA FOR
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT
AND
REPORTING
Household 100% Doorstep collection The monitoring Ward level
level coverage in percentage from of performance –
of SWM households and other monthly
services establishments Reporting and
Evaluation –
quarterly
Efficiency of 100% Collection efficiency is The monitoring Ward level
collection of defined as percentage of performance –
municipal solid of waste collected by the daily
waste municipal authority or Reporting and
authorised private waste Evaluation –
collector excluding monthly
waste recycled by the
households or informal
waste pickers

476 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

2 “Handbook of Service Level Benchmarking”, MoUD, 2008.

MANAGEMENT ASPECTS: MONITORING MSWM SERVICE 477

PROVISION
Table 6.2: Monitoring achievement of Service Level Benchmarks for
Solid Waste Management Service Provision [contd.]

PERFORMANC UNIT DEFINITION MINIMUM SMALLEST

E FREqUENCY OF GEOGRAPHICAL
INDICATORS PERFORMANCE AREA FOR
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT
AND
REPORTING
Extent of 100% Percentage of Monitoring of Ward level
segregation of households and other performance –
municipal solid establishments that daily
waste segregate their garbage Reporting and
into wet and dry waste Evaluation–
at the source. monthly
Extent of 80% Percentage of municipal Monitoring of Ward level
municipal solid waste recovered or performance –
waste recovery processed by the ULBs, daily
households and informal Reporting and
sector Evaluation:
monthly
Extent of 100% Percentage of waste Monitoring of ULB level
scientific disposed at the landfill, performance –
disposal of which is designed, daily
municipal solid operated and maintained Reporting and
waste as per set standards Evaluation –
monthly
Efficiency 80% Percentage of Monitoring of Zone or ULB
in complaints related performance – level
redressal to municipal waste daily
of management redressed Reporting and
customer within a given time Evaluation –
complaints period monthly
Extent of 100% This indicator denotes Monitoring of ULB level
cost the extent to which the performance –
recovery in ULB is able to recover quarterly
SWM services all operating expenses Reporting and
relating to SWM services Evaluation –
from operating revenues annually
of sources related
exclusively to SWM.
Efficiency in 90% It is defined as current Monitoring of ULB level
collection of year revenues collected, performance –
SWM charges expressed as a percentage quarterly
of the total operating Reporting and
revenues, for the Evaluation –
corresponding time period. annually

6.1.3 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

Collection and analysis of data related to MSWM is required to assess

the existing situation and propose adequate measures for improving
ser- vice delivery. Management information system (MIS) is a
computerised system which can help capture, store, and retrieve data
or information for decision makers. MIS can manage large amounts of
data such as waste collection points, location of bins, designated
secondary storage
 points, ward level vehicle movement, information on transportation of
wasteaand
tores and retrieves information from its weighment,
database; this dataand
canother related information as specified in
eas and improving Table 6.1. MIS helps in establishing a strong and reliable information
database necessary to facilitate planning, midcourse corrections, and
decision making. It enhances transparency and accountability of offi-
cials in the MSWM system. Information is the foundation of an MIS
system. Therefore, for any ULB to have a sound MIS on solid waste
management, it should have a good compilation of basic information
ranging from a ward to a city level. Details on the minimum data re-
quirement to establish a MIS is elaborated in Figure 6.1. Essentially
all the information that was earlier kept and updated manually in the
ULB has to be now available electronically. Creation and maintenance
of such information and database is not very resource intensive and
requires basic technical expertise at the ULB level.

All cities need to maintain a basic MIS system either through manual
re- cords or electronically. Once this system has been established, level
two is to connect this basic database on solid waste to be analysed
through map based tools and applications. The use of integrated
technologies over the basic MIS system such as geographic information
systems (GIS), global positioning system (GPS), radio frequency
r electronically. Integrated systems will include
identification GIS, GPS,
(RFID), and RFID,
generaland GPRSradio services (GPRS) have
packet
resulted in the development of integrated and comprehensive solutions
for MSWM. GIS and remote sensing imageries (visual capture of
information using cameras) are now being integrated with MIS to
provide spatial and visual validation for provision of services. A GIS
system is actually a visual representation of information (attributes) on
maps which are geo-referenced (show location coordinates). Data
collected for moni- toring and evaluation (M&E) of MSWM systems can
thus be linked to the geographical locations on a map created in the GIS
system. Data on maps can be used to analyse the spatial information
and identify pat- terns, trends, and relationships in the existing
information. GIS systems are useful in planning for door-to-door
collection, waste transportation routes, location for waste collection
bins, etc.

Once the GIS has been linked to the MIS, the system can be further
advanced to show real-time spatial information captured through a
global positioning system (GPS), e.g., real-time data regarding vehicle
movement, secondary collection bin pickup, and transportation to pro-
cessing and disposal sites can also be linked to the GIS system. Waste
transport vehicles may be fitted with a GPS linked to the GIS system to
enable real-time monitoring of vehicle movement.

In several advanced MIS systems, radio frequency identification (RFID)

tags are used to identify equipment. These are electronic tags which
can carry preloaded information specific to the equipment they are
tagged to, e.g., secondary collection bins. Electronic scanners equipped
with

478 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 the general packet radio services (GPRS) technology can scan these
tags and relay information to the GIS system, whereby all necessary
infor- mation fed into the GPRS unit with regard to the equipment is
updated automatically. GIS is then used to check the location.
Advanced communication tools enable reliable and
Thus linked with GPRS or RFID systems, GIS provides real-time data
GIS
on vehicles, collection of waste, bin pickup, and transportation of waste
GPS
to treatment or disposal facilities. GPRS
RFID
These systems are now being suitably adopted by cities to improve ser-
vice efficiency of MSWM. Minimum data requirements for an effective
MIS–GIS–GPS system are shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Minimum Data Requirement for MIS, GIS and GPS Systems

Municipal Waste Management System

MIS GIS GPS

Data level Spatial data Collection vehicle route

City level City
Zone level Zone
Ward level Wards
Location of bin or transfer station

Waste details Attribute data

Waste quantum sector wise Quantum of waste
Waste quality Type of waste Processing or treatment facilities
Source of waste

Infrastructure Details Functional elements

Bins Generation Disposal yard
Vehicle Storage (quantity, type)
Frequency of clearance Collection (optimal routing)
Transport
Recycling
Processing
Location Analysis
Disposal
Sorting area
Decentralised composting
Transfer

Routing analysis
Existing
Improved optimal

Reporting analysis
Daily
Weekly
Monthly

Benefits of these systems include the following:

 Data aggregation and process monitoring are managed electroni-
cally, avoiding daily human intervention, thereby increasing
reliabil-
 ity and transparency of information and helping in resolution of
disputes among citizens, contractors, and officials.
 Effective and timely complaint redressal of grievances is generated
through online monitoring system.
 Movement of vehicles and tracking of average stoppage time may
be monitored in real time by using a surveillance system based on
GIS and GPS technologies, thereby reducing noncompliance and en-
hancing efficiency.
 Status of evacuation of bins on a daily basis can be monitored
through RFID and GPRS, facilitating increase in service efficiency
and decrease in customer complaints.
Integrated Technologies (MIS, GIS, GPS, RFID or GPRS) for
Monitoring Municipal Solid Waste Management

Real-time monitoring of status of bin clearance, estimation of

amount of waste in and around bins, surveillance of movement of
vehicles, optimisation
of routes, and reallocation of bins according to the estimated waste are possible
through integration of several technologies, leading to transparency in civic
administration.
As shown in the figure, each container is equipped with a radio frequency
identification (RFID) or general packet radio services (GPRS) label having a
unique identification code. Low frequency passive tags are proposed because they
offer long-term low-cost solutions and are operational in extreme conditions and
resistant to environmental hazards. Geo-coding of containers is done manually
through field visits and by noting the locations using a global positioning system
(GPS) receiver, which in turn is connected to the corporation database or
management information system (MIS). When the container gets loaded onto the
truck, the reader reads the serial number of the tag on the container. At the
same time, the GPS receiver on the truck calculates its location using satellite
data. The serial number of the tag, location, date, and time are transmitted in
real time via the Global System for Mobile (GSM) network to the communication
gateway of the control server. The same is repeated when the truck reaches its
destination. After data processing, information is transferred to the geographic
information system (GIS) terminal. Real-time information can be shared with
clients via a web-based solution.

Municipal Solid Waste Monitoring and Management System3

Black box
RFID/GPRS RFID/GPRS GPS GSM and
tag reader + camera GPRS

Bin with tag Truck with black box

GSM / GPRS
GSM and
network
GPRS receiver

Client
GIS Database

480 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

3 ‘Solid Waste Truck Monitoring and Management using RFID, GIS AND GSM,’ Hannan, M. A. et al. (2011).
Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 7(12).

MANAGEMENT ASPECTS: MONITORING MSWM SERVICE 481

PROVISION
 Even though advanced application systems like GPS, GIS, RFID can
add tremendous value to the MIS and the overall MSWM but the
value and the need for s strong baseline data cannot be underesti-
mated. In addition, the cost implications of procuring, managing,
and maintaining such systems should be understood by the ULB
before deciding to adopt them. In order to maintain an efficient
MSWM system, these technologies may be considered suitable aids
but not a necessity due to their costs and specialised manpower
requirements. Regular well-maintained records and coordination
among field staff and supervisors will also produce the same level
of efficiency in smaller ULBs, where the procurement of such
systems may not be cost-effective.

Pimpri-Chinchwad Municipal Corporation Monitoring Municipal Solid

Waste Management Services through Information and Communication
Technologies

Pimpri–Chinchwad Municipal Corporation (PCMC) has initiated the task of monitoring

its municipal solid waste management (MSWM) services through the use of
information and communication technologies (ICT). By deploying Global Positioning
System (GPS) based real time vehicle tracking system, PCMC is able to:
• monitor the actual movement and realtime position of the vehicle;
• monitor the movement of collection vehicles;
• improve the service delivery mechanism and achieve better information
management;
• ensure citizens’ participation in governance mechanism for overall
improvements in collection efficiency;
• reduce unwanted trips, detours, or stoppages, thereby enhancing the
productivity or utilisation of the fleet;
• generate management information system (MIS) report daily to take
informed decision; and
• publish the “Bin Pickup Status” on their website to inform citizens and
encourage them to monitor bin pickup status in their localities.

This endeavor resulted in improving PCMC’s accountability and also offered a

reliable tool to facilitate data provision under the Right to Information Act, 2005
where such information is sought.

Source: Pimpri-Chinchwad Municipal Corporation

 Effective Monitoring of Collection and Transportation of Municipal Waste
CASE
STUDY through Global Positioning System

Year of Start: 2011

Main Players: Nashik Municipal Corporation

(NMC) – Health Department and Computer
Department

Approach: Door to door collection of waste in

the city was established through ghantagadis
(designated waste collection vehicles) in
1998. With the start of the Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JnNURM) project, NMC received central
funds for strengthening the existing system
resulting in the procurement of 124
ghantagadis and GPS systems under the
project. GPS machines were fitted on each
vehicle to improve the collection and
transportation efficiency of the vehicles. An
agency was appointed by NMC for
installation of the GPS system (machines
and software) and its operation and
maintenance (O&M). A cell (centralised
monitoring unit) was formed at the NMC
office to manage and supervise the overall
system: monitoring and tracking of vehicle
movement on a regular basis, tracking of
complaints and inefficiencies, and generating
daily and weekly reports. The redressal of
complaints was done with the support of
the sanitary inspectors at ward level.

Outcome:
• Installations of GPS systems on all 124
ghantagadis owned by NMC, and
centralised monitoring unit was created
at NMC headquarter.
• Skill development and capacity building of
the ground staff and contractors engaged
in collection of municipal solid waste
was undertaken when the system was
introduced.
• Ensuring that the time delay and average stoppage
time (4–5 minutes) for each
vehicle was tracked.
• Effective and timely redressal of complaints was
generated through the GPS
monitoring system by the ward level sanitary staff.

482 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

• Ge points.
ne
• Information, transparency and data
ra
tio availability on the public domain for
n citizens and public representatives with
of respect to the routing and timings of
da the vehicles increased confidence in
ily the system.
an
d Success Factor:
w
ee • Proactive role of NMC to streamline and
kl monitor the collection and
y transportation system.
re
• Capacity building of the NMC staff,
po
rts contractors, vehicle drivers, and
by workers was developed prior to the
ve installation of the system.
hi
• Collection of waste at a stipulated time by the
cl
contractors.
es
to • Real time report generation through
en GPS helped in resolution of disputes
su among citizens, officials, and contractor,
re
thereby creating a transparency
ad
he between the consumers and service
re providers.
nc
e
to
th
e
ti
mi
ng
an
d
co
lle
cti
on
of
w
as
te
at
th
e
re
sp
ec
tiv
e
co
lle
cti
on

MANAGEMENT ASPECTS: MONITORING MSWM SERVICE 483

PROVISION
 • Regular monitoring of the reports by the commissioner and the health
officer resulted in the improvement in the collection and transportation
efficiency.

Overall Sustainability:

By appointing an operator for regular O&M of the GPS system, NMC has ensured
that the GPS machines and the monitoring system is functional and the initial
teething troubles faced by NMC, because of dysfunctional or destruction of GPS
machines installed in the ghantagadis, was overcome. The proactiveness of the
commissioner and the Health Department of NMC towards transparency in
municipal solid waste management ensured the sustainability of the system
in the city.

6.1.3.1 RECORD KEEPING

Based on the monitoring requirements specified As stipulated

in Table by
6.1theand
Solid Waste Management (
should report to the SPCB annually
Table 6.2, ULBs need to maintain reports for all elements that need
to be monitored. The Head of the MSWM department should review
all reports along with the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) team.
Monitoring and reporting proves to be extremely beneficial when the
data generated are analysed effectively to improve performance.

Appropriate training and strengthening of capacities of existing staff is

required to ensure accurate collection and reporting of data. Capacity
building is required for all levels of staff; external support from experts
may be sought to streamline and integrate M&E of all functions.

6.2 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE PLAN FOR

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
SERVICES
As per SWM Rules, 2016:

Clause 15: Duties and responsibilities of local authorities:-

(v) facilitate construction, operation and maintenance of solid waste

processing facilities and associated infrastructure on their own or
with private sector participation or through any agency for
optimum utilisation of various components of solid waste adopting
suitable technology including the following technologies and
adhering to the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Urban
Development
(w) undertake on their own or through any other agency
construction, operation and maintenance of sanitary landfill and
associated infrastructure as per Schedule 1 for disposal of residual
wastes in a manner prescribed under these rules;
(x) make adequate provision of funds for capital investments as well
as operation and maintenance of solid waste management services
 in the annual budget ensuring that funds for discretionary functions of
the local body have been allocated only after meeting the requirement of
necessary funds for solid waste management and other obligatory
functions of the local body as per these rules;

Irrespective of whether the provision of services is by the ULB or private

contractor, an operation and maintenance (O&M) plan should be prepared
and followed. The O&M plan should be drafted by the authority
responsible for procurement and management of equipment or facilities;
this authority could be either the ULB or the private operator, depending
on the contractual conditions for the equipment or facility. O&M plans
developed by private operators should be ratified by ULB’s MSWM
department.

The O&M plan should include preventive maintenance schedules,

responsibilities and also guidance for breakdown maintenance. It should be
the responsibility of the supervisor from the ULB and the operator to regularly
maintain and update the O&M plan and use it as an instrument for monitoring.
The plan should also indicate procedures for recording, reporting, analysis,
and further action.

Preventive O&M of equipment, vehicles, and facilities ensures the long term
sustainability of MSWM service provision. All contracts to private sector
players, irrespective of the mode of contracting, should include a provision
for O&M of all vehicles, equipment, and installations during the period of the
contract. The term of the contract should be co-terminus with the expected life
of the vehicles and equipment, particularly where the contractor is expected
to invest in the procurement of vehicle and equipment.

es

ment used for MSWM services ensures reduction in downtimes, thereby ensuring

ar components, and critical components with long lead times for procurement) can be done easily through regular monitori
budget and information to finance additional spares, equipment, and vehicles as maybe required.
ent activities (such as primary collection, secondary collection and transportation, transfer station, processing site, and lan

ear and tear, avoiding potential cost implications of breakdown maintenance.

484 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 • The O&M plan should be prepared at the time of procurement by the
authority, and schedule of preventive maintenance should be determined and
strictly observed.
• O&M records should be maintained for all equipment. An analysis of this
information will indicate critical issues of frequent breakdowns and
components undergoing regular wear and tear. Supervisors could use this
information to identify incorrect operating practices leading to frequent
breakdowns. This analysis could also lead to the identification of equipment
which is ill-suited to perform the requisite tasks and which needs
replacement.
• The O&M plan should include contact information of concerned staff responsible
for maintenance of specific equipment.
• Management personnel should periodically review this information to
refine maintenance plans for individual vehicles and to identify
improvements to the overall maintenance program.
• The effectiveness of the O&M plan can be measured by observing plant or
Disposal Facilities
operating the waste management facility with due consideration to minimum qualification
Standard operating procedures (SOP) and manuals
. for all technical processes, procedures, and equipment should be m
ing timely corrective measures.
vities on sites.
corded investigative processes, follow-up actions, and periodic analysis of mishaps to identify danger areas or weakne
e Management (SWM) Rules, 2016 and other applicable norms.

6.3 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance is an essential part of the operation of
Preventive
collection equipment, maintenance
machinery, helps in identifying
and transportation mechanical
vehicles to ensure problems at an early sta
their maximum life. However, there is a need to make a clear distinction
between preventive maintenance and crisis maintenance. Preventive
maintenance is carried out at a pre-defined time and on the basis of
a disciplined schedule for maintenance, while crisis (or breakdown)
maintenance is carried out when a fault develops.

Good preventive maintenance starts with the selection and

specification of appropriate vehicles and equipment. Vehicles should be
well-suited to predefined requirements and localised conditions, and
should be
 procured only after ascertaining ease of availability of spare parts (cost
of spares should also be considered). Local availability of spare parts
is often associated with reliability. Preventive maintenance schedule
must be notified well in advance to all concerned parties and should be
strictly enforced.

6.3.1 BENEFITS OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

An important aspect of a planned preventive maintenance programme

is that it helps to take corrective measures well in advance, anticipates
faults, and prevents a major breakdown which could endanger the
safety of the personnel and entail huge cost. A preventive maintenance
programme ensures that an advance notice is available for any
requirement for spare parts, ensuring that equipment or vehicles are
not out of service while the parts are being obtained. A planned
nal culture of municipal administration: breakdowns
preventive are no
maintenance longer seenwill
programme as anot
regular
only matter
help in keeping
existing equipment operating at its maximum efficiency with minimum
downtime but will also provide requisite information to financial
planners, enabling them to include accurate forecasts of required
expenditure for repairs, maintenance, and replacement of vehicles and
equipment. Preventive maintenance programmes can change the
institutional culture of the municipal administration, where
breakdowns will no longer be seen as a regular routine.

Accountability and Responsibility for Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance imposes responsibility and accountability at

various levels (drivers, store in-charge, mechanics, workshop
managers, etc.) for breakdowns and delays in repairs after a
breakdown. Delays in procuring spares may also be due to a lack of
funds, for which the financial controller or officer may be accountable.

Example of a Preventive Maintenance Schedule for Vehicles

of ownership and accountability within all tiers of administration
Daily checks carried out by drivers.
Weekly servicing checks by a junior mechanic highlights issues which a
driver may not be able to identify or indicate if the daily checks are not effective.
Monthly service check by a senior mechanic reveal any inadequacies in the weekly
checks.
The six monthly checks identify issues which have not been identified or addressed by
the monthly checks.

The success of a preventive maintenance programme is indicated by

fleet and equipment availability on any day. It can be indicated by
calculating the number of vehicles (perhaps of a particular type) that
are ready for service on any particular day, divided by the total number

486 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 of vehicles in the current fleet. The numbers could indicate the
condition of the vehicles and whether the maintenance programme is
improving or weakening. Availability levels can be used to show the
number of standby vehicles that are needed (for each type of vehicle)
and which types of vehicle are more reliable.

Management personnel should periodically review this information

to refine maintenance plans for particular vehicles and to identify
improvements to the overall maintenance program.

Similar systems should be in place for monitoring the downtimes and

availability of other equipment and machinery used for all MSWM
activities. MSWM processing, treatment, and disposal facilities should
be encouraged to maintain records to ensure minimum downtime.

6.4 COMPLAINT REDRESSAL SYSTEM

A complaint redressal system is an effective tool which
A complaint redressal system creates a management
platform for citizens to voicethe redressal process in a
and expedites
their complaints and grievances regarding provision of MSWM services
and also helps in promoting efficiency and transparency at the ULB
level. The ULB, through an analysis of the complaints or grievances it
receives, is able to identify lacunae and bridge gaps in service delivery.
The time taken for resolution of grievances and the action taken are
also monitored and recorded through this system. Typically, ULBs have
a common complaint redressal system for all municipal services.

A complaint redressal system is effectively supported through the

introduction of a citizen charter. The citizen’s charter is a written
voluntary declaration by a ULB with the basic objective to empower
the citizens to get public service in a given time frame.

The Citizen’s Charter includes:

 information on municipal services and expected outcomes,
A citizen’s charter is a commitment of the ULB
 municipal service delivery standards, toward a stated level of service delivery, thereby

 response time for rendering services or redressing grievances,

 information dissemination process on the complaint redressal
process, and
 contact details of officers responsible for provision of the various
municipal services.

The citizen’s charter should be prepared by the ULB and officially

adopted by the municipal council or committee and widely publicised.
Urban development or local government departments may prepare a
model citizen’s charter to be adopted by all ULBs in the state after
preparing city-specific citizen’s charters for their own city.
 6.4.1 ELEMENTS OF A COMPLAINT REDRESSAL SYSTEM

Typical elements of a complaint redressal system include the following:

al system is enabled through the Complaint
1.following: management system: A computerised central
complaint management system should be networked to all the
zonal or ward level complaint centers. In small ULBs, the complaints
could be recorded through a register. A grievance redressal officer
from the MSWM department or cell at senior level should be
responsible for recording and monitoring the complaints and also
for taking necessary actions for redressal.
2. Medium of complaint registration: Multiple channels or a
combination of different channels may be adopted for receiving
complaints, e.g., phone calls to a centralised customer service or
complaint number, SMS messages to notified mobile numbers,
automated generated complaints sent to commissioners for their
records, walk-in complaint registration, and online complaint
registration. Complaint registration through the postal service may
be considered, if relevant, based on the demography and size of the
ULB.
3. Complaint registration and recording system: This system should
• assign a unique ID to each complaint generated;
• record contact details of the complainant;
e registered complaints is necessary• forrecord
futuredetails
reference
of the physical location (zone, ward, area) relevant
to the complaint;
• assign the complaint to the concerned official in the MSWM
department or cell;
• record the stipulated time within which the complaint shall be
redressed;
• provide an acknowledgement receipt to the complainant with
all the above details, in case the complaint is registered
manually or online; and
• provide a complaint reference number with an SMS of registration
to telephone-based complainants.
4. Resolution certificate: Field officers, after resolving the complaint,
should take resolution certificate from the complainant and
subsequently inform the complaint cell. The complaint shall
thereafter be treated as resolved.
5. Complaint resolution and feedback: The designated official for
complaint resolution in the MSWM department or cell shall be
made aware of received complaints on a daily basis. Feedback could
be taken through telephone, internet, SMS.
6. Pending complaints: Complaints which are not resolved in
stipulated time shall be deemed pending. The reason for the
pending complaint should be recorded and the designated officer
and the

488 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 complainant should be duly informed. Such pending complaints
should automatically be escalated to higher officials for monitoring
and directions.
7. Reporting and complaint analysis: A daily status report of
complaint redressal should be prepared by an officer and submitted
to the higher officer-in-charge for further directions. The complaint
management system should generate periodic, area-wise reports on
number of complaints received, nature of complaints, time taken for
resolution, etc. The report should highlight the critical issues such
as most frequently received complaints, frequently delayed
responses, repetition of complaints (if any), time for resolution of
complaints, etc. The weekly analysis of all complaints received
should be reported to the chief executive officer or commissioner.
Status of the complaints should be put in public domain and
updated on a daily basis for ensuring transparency of the system.

6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

MONITORING OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
TREATMENT, PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL
FACILITIES
Environmental and occupational health monitoring of waste processing
and disposal facilities is one of the most important aspects of overall
management. For monitoring, collection and transportation, a number
of tools have been already described (MIS, GIS, GPS, RFID, GPRS, etc.).
When it comes to processing and disposal issues, additional tools are
required in the form of standard operating procedure (SOP), which
would be combined with MIS for proper operation and maintenance
(O&M). In this case MIS would be designed to check if SOP for
processing and disposal (sanitary landfilling) is being followed.

Annual audits supplemented by quarterly audits would be of great

value. The following four types of audit would be necessary:

1. Compliance audit: This audit checks the level and extent of

compliance with the applicable regulations. In this case the
applicable regulations are Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules,
2016 (overall management including processing and sanitary
landfill); and Fertilizer Control Order (FCO), 2009 (for compost
quality standard) and 2013 (for quality standard of phosphate rich
organic manure). There are other waste regulations which would
also need to be audited for overall environmental compatibility of a
city, such as Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016; E-Waste
Management Rules, 2016; Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules,
2016.
The prescribed authority, i.e., the State Pollution Control Board
(SCPB) or Pollution Control Committee (PCC), is mandated to
 carry out these compliances except FCO, 2009 and 2013, which are
under the concerned state agriculture department.
However, it would be desirable that the concerned ULB and the
build–operate–transfer (BOT) operator or any other concessionaire
get these compliances audited through their respective internal
audit mechanism. This would lead to better performance and
voluntary improvements.
2. Resource management audit: This audit checks how efficiently
the resources are deployed. Water, energy, material resources (e.g.,
diesel), and staffing are crucial factors for smooth operation and
long-term sustainability.

3. Operational risk audit: This audit brings out the consequences of

operational risks and frequency with which these risks may occur,
including constraint in necessary supplies, environmental damage,
and preventive measures.

4. Occupational risk audit: This audit checks the measures for

occupational safety. It is best done as per Occupational Health and
Safety Assessment Series (OHSAS 18001) norms, which are
accepted as standard norms across the globe. These are based on
hazard identification, risk assessment, and determination of
applicable controls.

The above audits have a significant impact on performance of the tasks

related to waste management and ensure long-term sustainability
along with environmental compatibility. Training and awareness
generation are important adjuncts to achieving these goals.

6.5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AS PER SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016

SWM Rules, 2016 stipulate regular monitoring of soil, water, and air
quality around the municipal waste processing, treatment, and disposal
rating and monitoring different MSWM technologies, such as composting and landfilling
facility. Schedules I, II, III, and IV of SWM Rules stipulate environmental
norms for treatment, processing, and disposal facilities. Operators of
MSW treatment, processing, and disposal facilities are responsible for
regular monitoring of these parameters. Monitoring data should be
reported to the SPCB by the ULB on an annual basis, as part of the
annual reporting of ULBs. The MSWM service monitoring framework
of the ULB should capture this information on a regular basis. The
SPCB should monitor the compliance of standards for groundwater,
ambient air, leachate, compost quality, and incineration as specified
under schedules I and II (refer Section 3.2, 3.3 and 4.1 of Part II).

490 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 The SWM Rules, 2016 also specify environmental monitoring
requirements for designing, disposal, treatment and processing
facilities, to ensure pollution prevention and environmentally sound
operation of these facilities. These specifications are detailed out in
Section 3.2.1, 3.2.12, 3.3.13, 3.5.9, 3.6 and 4.1 of Part II.

6.5.2 REPORTING REqUIREMENTS

SWM Rules, 2016 specify reporting requirements for the State Level
Advisory Body and Local Authorities:

Clause 15(za) prepare and submit annual report in Form IV on or

before the 30th April of the succeeding year to the Commissioner or
Director, Municipal Administration or designated Officer;
(zb) the annual report shall then be sent to the Secretary-in-Charge of
the State Urban Development Department or village panchayat or rural
development department and to the respective State Pollution Control
Board or Pollution Control Committee by the 31st May of every year;

Clause 23: State Level Advisory Body:-

(2) The State Level Advisory Body shall meet at least one in every six
months to review the matters related to implementation of these rules,
state policy and strategy on solid waste management and give advice to
state government for taking measures that are necessary for
expeditious and appropriate implementation of these rules.

(3) The copies of the review report shall be forwarded to the State
Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control

Committee for necessary action.

Clause 24: Annual Report:-

(1) The operator of facility shall submit the annual report to the local
body in Form-III on or before the 30th day of April every year.
(2) The local body shall submit its annual report in Form-IV to
State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Committee and the
Secretary-in-Charge of the Department of Urban Development of
the concerned State or Union Territory in case of metropolitan city
and to the Director of Municipal Administration or Commissioner
of Municipal Administration or Officer in -Charge of Urban local
bodies in the state in case of all other local bodies of state on or
before the 30th day of June every year
(3) Each State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee
as the case may be, shall prepare and submit the consolidated
 annual report to the Central Pollution Control Board and Ministry
of Urban Development on the implementation of these rules and
action taken against non complying local body by the 31 st day of
July of each year in Form-V.
(4) The Central Pollution Control Board shall prepare a consolidated
annual review report on the status of implementation of these rules
by local bodies in the country and forward the same to the Ministry
of Urban Development and Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change, along with its recommendations before the 31 st
day of August each year.
(5) The annual report shall be reviewed by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change during the meeting of
Central Monitoring Committee.

Clause 25: Accident reporting-

In case of an accident at any solid waste processing or treatment or
disposal facility or landfill site, the Officer- in- charge of the facility
shall report to the local body in Form-VI and the local body shall review
and issue instructions if any, to the in- charge of the facility.

6.6 TRAINING REqUIREMENTS FOR

MONITORING MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
SERVICE PROVISION
As per SWM Rules, 2016:
Clause 15(zc) educate workers including contract workers and
supervisors for door to door collection of segregated waste and
transporting the unmixed waste during primary and secondary
transportation to processing or disposal facility;

Suitably qualified sanitary supervisors, sanitary inspectors, chief

sanitary inspectors, and responsible officer-in-charge are to be trained
in the basics of MSWM service provision. Their training requirements
are listed below:
 They should be made aware of the data requirements for
monitoring MSWM service provision. The importance of regular
data collection and record keeping should be emphasised. They
should also be made aware of the different sources of data
required.
 They should be trained in data analysis to be able to effectively use
data for monitoring the performance of the system.
 Skills of all staff of the MSWM department should be regularly
upgraded for understanding of and effective use of the management
information system (MIS).

492 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

6.7 ACTION POINTS FOR AWARENESS
GENERATION THROUGH INFORMATION,
EDUCATION, AND COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITIES FOR MONITORING MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE SERVICE PROVISION
 Inform community of the scope and need for involvement in
monitoring MSWM service provision.
 Publicise the citizen’s charter for service provision to enhance
accountability and details of the complaint redressal mechanism.
 Specify role of the ward committees in monitoring MSWM service
provision and publicise contact details of ward committee
members.
 Introduce local sanitary workers and supervisors to residents and
owners of commercial establishments to enhance compliance from
citizens and accountability of staff, which are a spin-off of increased
interactions.
 Inform citizens about the institutionalisation of monitoring and
reporting systems.
 Conduct quarterly community level meetings to discuss findings
from the monitoring and reporting system and maintain a ward
level service provision report card.
494 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent
 7

Management
Chapterof1:
Special Waste
Municipal
Including Solid
Waste Management
Domestic
Plan: Step-Wise
Hazardous Waste
Guidance
 IN THIS SECTION

7.1 Introduction to Special Waste Including Domestic Hazardous Waste 495

7.2 Existing Rules for Management of Special Waste Including
Domestic Hazardous 495
7.3 Special Waste Management including domestic hazardous waste –
Guidance From the Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) Framework 498
7.4 Plastic Waste 498
7.5 Bio-medical Waste 509
7.6 Slaughterhouse Waste 511
7.7 Electric and Electronic Waste 516
7.8 Waste Tyres 519
7.9 Lead Battery Waste 521
7.10 Action Points for Awareness Generation Through Information,
Education, and Communication Activities for Special Waste
Including Domestic
Hazardous Waste 522

496 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

7. MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL WASTE
INCLUDING DOMESTIC HAzARDOUS
WASTE
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL WASTE
INCLUDING DOMESTIC HAzARDOUS WASTE
Special waste including domestic hazardous waste comprises of any
solid waste or a combination of solid wastes that requires special
handling and disposal because of its quantity, concentration, physical
and chemical characteristics, or biological properties, in order to
protect human health, as well as the environment and to exploit its
potential for recycling.
Special waste including domestic hazardous waste requires
In line with this definition, the following waste are defined as special
to its physical and chemical characteristics
waste:
1. Plastic waste
2. Bio-medical waste
3. Slaughterhouse waste
4. Electric and electronic waste (e-waste)
5. Waste tyres
6. Battery waste

Special waste including domestic hazardous waste should not enter

the municipal solid waste (MSW) streams. But these wastes are also
generated at the household and commercial level and, due to lack of
segregation at source or improper collection systems, they frequently
end up in the mixed MSW stream.

7.2 ExISTING RULES FOR MANAGEMENT OF

SPECIAL WASTE INCLUDING DOMESTIC
HAzARDOUS WASTE
The various rules notified for environmentally sound management of
different types of special wastes including domestic hazardous waste
are discussed briefly in Table 7.1. Copies of all the rules of the Ministry
of Environment, Forests & Climate Change (MoEFCC), which govern
the management of such wastes, are included in Annexure 9, 11, 12, 14
and 15 of the manual.

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 497

Table 7.1: Existing Rules for Treatment of Special waste
LAWS AND MAJOR CONTENTS TYPE
REGULATIO OF
NS WASTE
Plastic The manufacture, importer stocking, distribution, sale, Plastic
Waste and use of carry bags, plastic sheets or like, or cover wastes
Management made of plastic sheet, and multilayered packaging is
Rules, regulated by this rule. Requirements for management
20161 of plastic waste are also specified in this rule. Norms
Guidelines for for labelling plastic bags and recycled plastic products
Recycling of (not less than 50 microns in thickness); and recycling,
Plastics recovery, or disposal of plastic waste are to be carried
(Indian out as per the rules and standards notified by the
Standards [IS] central government.
14534), 19982 Guidelines for co-processing has relevance for both
Guidelines on hazardous and non-hazardous waste (plastic and tyres)
Co-processing in and are therefore mentioned with special reference to
Cement/Power/ utilisation of non-hazardous waste in cement or
Steel Industry, power industry.
February 20103
Bio-Medical Waste According to these rules, the ‘occupier’ (a person who Bio-medical
(Management and has control over the concerned institution or premises) wastes
Handling) Rules, of an institution generating bio-medical waste is
19984 Draft Bio- responsible for ensuring that such waste is handled
Medical Waste without any adverse effect to human health and the
(Management and environment. The rules govern the categorisation, on-
Handling) Rules, site, and off-site storage, transport, treatment, and
20115 and The disposal of bio- medical wastes.
Bio-Medical Waste
Management The Bio-Medical Management Rules, 2016
Rules, 20166 mandates every occupier to obtain authorisation
irrespective of the number of patients being treated;
Bio-medical waste has now been classified in to 4
categories instead 10 to improve the segregation of
waste at source; and specifies colour coding for
various categories of bio-medical waste to avoid
overlapping; establish a Bar-Code System for bags
or containers containing bio-medical waste for
disposal. The new rules prescribe more stringent
standards for incinerator and existing incinerators to
achieve the standards for retention time in secondary
chamber and Dioxin and Furans within two years;

1 Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016. Available at: http://www.moef.gov.in/sites/default/files/PWM%20Rules%2C%202016.pdf

(accessed on 20th April, 2016)
2 Guidance for Recycling of Plastics,1998. Available at: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/hsm/plastic.html
3 CPCB (2010), Guidelines on Co-processing in Cement/Power/Steel Industry. Available at:
http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Latest/Latest_51_ GUIDELINES-ON_CO-ProcessinginCement.pdf
4 Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998. Available at: http://envfor.nic.in/legis/hsm/biomed.html
5 Draft Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011. Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/wast/bioimedicalwast/DraftBio-
medicalWaste(M&H)Rules,2011.pdf
6 The Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016. Available at: http://www.moef.gov.in/sites/default/files/BMW%20Rules%2C
%20 2016_0.pdf (accessed on 20th April, 2016)
7 E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016. Available at: http://www.moef.gov.in/sites/default/files/EWM%20Rules%202016%20english%20
23.03.2016.pdf (accessed on 20th April, 2016)
Table 7.1: Existing Rules for Treatment of Special waste [contd.]

LAWS AND MAJOR CONTENTS TYPE

REGULATIO OF
NS WASTE
E-Waste These Rules are based on the principles of extended E-Wastes
Management producer responsibility (EPR), wherein the producer (electrical
Rules, 20167 engaged in the manufacture, sale, and purchase of and
electrical and electronic equipment is responsible for the electronic
end of life management of the electrical and electronic wastes)
products listed in Schedule 1 of the rules. Procedures
are provided for handling E-Waste as applicable to all
stakeholders, such as collection centres, dismantlers,
and recyclers of E-Waste. Stipulations for reducing
the hazardous substances in electrical and electronic
equipment are also prescribed. Procedures and
formats for registration of facilities for recycling E-
Waste are specified.
Batteries These rules are for regulating the recycling of lead Lead acid
(Management and acid batteries after use. The rules specify batteries
Handling) Rules, responsibilities of manufacturers, importers,
20018 assemblers, dealers, and re- conditioners of lead acid
batteries, which are a source of electrical energy and
contain lead. Requirements for registration of recyclers
are prescribed under the rules. The rules also provide a
control on the imports of substances by original
equipment manufacturers and other equipment
manufacturers.
Hazardous Wastes The ambit of the Rules has been expanded by Waste
(Management including ‘Other Waste’. These rules are applicable streams
and Handling) to hazardous wastes and other waste as defined and from process
Rules, 1998 and listed in the rules; the rules specifies the procedure generating
Hazardous and for management of hazardous and other waste, hazardous
Other Wastes obligations of the occupier generating the hazardous wastes as
(Management and and other waste, the process for grant of authorisation mentioned in
Transboundary for handling such wastes from the State Pollution Schedule I of
Movement) Rules, Control Board (SPCB) or Pollution Control Committees the Amend-
20169 (PCC) and its procedure has been simplified to merge ment Rules,
all the approvals as a single window clearance for 2000
setting up of hazardous and other waste disposal
facility and import of other wastes; Requirements for
packaging, labeling, and transport and strategy for
import and export of hazardous and other wastes are
also mentioned in the rules. The process for
suspension or cancellation of licenses of generators
and restrictions on the import of these wastes are
also specified. The responsibility of the state
government to inventorise all hazardous waste
generators and the requirements for record keeping and
reporting by the operator and the SPCB or PCC are
mentioned. Co-processing as a preferential mechanism
over disposal for use of waste as supplementary
resource, or for recovery of energy has been provided
and the approval process for co-processing for waste to
energy recovery has been streamlined; the basic
necessity of infrastructure to safeguard the health and
environment from waste processing industry has been
prescribed as Standard Operating Procedure (SOPs)
specific to waste type.

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 499

 Note: Hazardous Waste is not commonly found in municipal waste streams and hence
its management is not described in detail in this manual.

500 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

7.3 SPECIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT INCLUDING
DOMESTIC HAzARDOUS WASTE – GUIDANCE
FROM THE INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT (ISWM) HIERARCHY
The integrated solid waste management (ISWM) hierarchy (Section 1.1
of Part II) indicates that the next preferred waste management method
to waste minimisation or reduction is reuse and recycling. Waste that
cannot be reduced or minimised should be reused (resource recovery)
and recycled. Some special wastes including domestic hazardous waste
like plastics waste, electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) can be
reused or recycled; on the other hand, slaughterhouse waste and bio-
medical waste should not be recycled and should be appropriately
treated and disposed of to prevent hazardous impacts of undesirable
dumping of these wastes.

Recycling of special wastes including domestic hazardous waste

provides economic as well as environmental benefits and reduces
reliance on virgin materials.

7.4 PLASTIC WASTE

The disposal of plastic waste is legislated under the Plastic Waste
Management Rules, 2016. These rules specify the responsibilities of
urban local bodies (ULBs) for managing plastic waste. However, most
of the discarded plastics find their way into the municipal waste
streams.

7.4.1 ExCERPTS FROM THE PLASTIC WASTE

MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016

Clause 4: The manufacture, importer stocking, distribution, sale

and use of carry bags, plastic sheets or like, or cover made of
plastic sheet and multilayered packaging, shall be subject to the
following conditions, namely:-

a) carry bags and plastic packaging shall either be in natural shade

which is without any added pigments or made using only those
pigments and colourants which are in conformity with Indian
Standard : IS 9833:1981 titled as “List of pigments and colourants
for use in plastics in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and
drinking water”, as amended from time to time;

8 Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001. Available at: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/hsm/leadbat.html

9 Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2000 Available at:
http://envfor.nic.in/legis/hsm/hwamdr.html Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules,
2016 http://www.moef.gov.in/sites/default/files/ Final%20HWM%20Rules%202016%20%28English%29.pdf
b) Carry bags made of recycled plastic or products made of recycled
plastic shall not be used for storing, carrying, dispensing or
packaging ready to eat or drink food stuff’;
c) carry bag made of virgin or recycled plastic, shall not be less than
fifty microns in thickness;
d) plastic sheet or like, which is not an integral part of multilayered
packaging and cover made of plastic sheet used for packaging,
wrapping the commodity shall not be less than fifty microns in
thickness except where the thickness of such plastic sheets impair
the functionality of the product;
e) the manufacturer shall not sell or provide or arrange plastic to be
used as raw material to a producer, not having valid registration
from the concerned State Pollution Control Boards or Pollution
Control Committee;
f) sachets using plastic material shall not be used for storing, packing
or selling gutkha, tobacco and pan masala;
g) recycling of plastic waste shall conform to the Indian Standard:
IS 14534:1998 titled as Guidelines for Recycling of Plastics, as
amended from time to time;
h) The provision of thickness shall not be applicable to carry bags
made up of compostable plastic. Carry bags made from
compostable plastics shall conform to the Indian Standard: IS
17088:2008 titled as Specifications for Compostable Plastics, as
amended from time to time. The manufacturers or seller of
compostable plastic carry bags shall obtain a certificate from the
Central Pollution Control Board before marketing or selling; and
i) plastic material, in any form including Vinyl Acetate - Maleic Acid
- Vinyl Chloride Copolymer, shall not be used in any package for
packaging gutkha, pan masala and tobacco in all forms.

Clause 5: The plastic waste management by the urban local bodies

in their respective jurisdiction shall be as under:-

(a) plastic waste, which can be recycled, shall be channelized to

registered plastic waste recycler and recycling of plastic shall
conform to the Indian Standard: IS 14534:1998 titled as Guidelines
for Recycling of Plastics, as amended from time to time.
(b) local bodies shall encourage the use of plastic waste (preferably the
plastic waste which cannot be further recycled) for road
construction as per Indian Road Congress guidelines or energy
recovery or waste to oil etc. The standards and pollution control
norms specified by the prescribed authority for these technologies
shall be complied with.

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 501

(c) Thermo set plastic waste shall be processed and disposed off as per
the guidelines issued from time to time by the Central Pollution
Control Board.
(d) The inert from recycling or processing facilities of plastic waste
shall be disposed of in compliance with the Solid Waste
Management Rules, 2000 or as amended from time to time.

Clause 6: Responsibility of local body.-

(1) Every local body shall be responsible for development and setting
up of infrastructure for segregation, collection, storage,
transportation, processing and disposal of the plastic waste either
on its own or by engaging agencies or producers.
(2)The local body shall be responsible for setting up,
operationalisation and co-ordination of the waste management
system and for performing the associated functions, namely:-
(a) Ensuring segregation, collection, storage, transportation,
processing and disposal of plastic waste;
(b) ensuring that no damage is caused to the environment during
this process;
(c) ensuring channelization of recyclable plastic waste fraction to
recyclers;
(d) ensuring processing and disposal on non-recyclable fraction of
plastic waste in accordance with the guidelines issued by the
Central Pollution Control Board;
(e) creating awareness among all stakeholders about their
responsibilities;
(f) engaging civil societies or groups working with waste pickers;
and
(g) ensuring that open burning of plastic waste does not take place.

(3) The local body for setting up of system for plastic waste
management shall seek assistance of producers and such system
shall be set up within one year from the date of final publication of
these rules in the Official Gazaette of India.
(4) The local body to frame bye-laws incorporating the provisions of
these rules.
Clause 8: Responsibility of waste generator:-

(1) The waste generator shall.-

(a) take steps to minimize generation of plastic waste and segregate
plastic waste at source in accordance with the Solid Waste
Management Rules, 2000 or as amended from time to time.
(b) not litter the plastic waste and ensure segregated storage of
waste at source and handover segregated waste to urban local
body or gram panchayat or agencies appointed by them or
registered waste pickers’, registered recyclers or waste
collection agencies;
(2)All institutional generators of plastic waste, shall segregate and
store the waste generated by them in accordance with the
Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000
notified vide S.O. 908(E) dated the 25th September, 2000 under the
Act or amendment from time to time and handover segregated
wastes to authorized waste processing or disposal facilities or
deposition centers either on its own or through the authorized
waste collection agency.
(3) All waste generators shall pay such user fee or charge as may
be specified in the bye-laws of the local bodies for plastic waste
management such as waste collection or operation of the facility
thereof, etc.;
(4)Every person responsible for organising an event in open space,
which involves service of food stuff in plastic or multilayered
packaging shall segregate and manage the waste generated during
such events in accordance with the Municipal Solid Waste
(Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 notified vide S.O. 908(E)
dated the 25th September, 2000 under the Act or amendment from
time to time.

Clause 9: Responsibility of producers:-

(1) The producers, within a period of six months from the date of
publication of these rules, shall work out modalities for waste
collection system based on Extended Producers Responsibility and
involving State Urban Development Departments, either
individually or collectively, through their own distribution channel
or through the local body concerned.
(2) Primary responsibility for collection of used multi-layered plastic
sachet or pouches or packaging is of Producers, Importers and
Brand Owners who introduce the products in the market. They
need to establish a system for collecting back the plastic waste
generated due to their products. This plan of collection to be
submitted to the State Pollution Control Boards while applying for
Consent to Establish or Operate or Renewal. The Brand Owners
whose consent has been renewed before the notification of these
ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 503
 rules shall submit

504 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 such plan within one year from the date of notification of these
rules and implement with two years thereafter.
(3) manufacture and use of non- recyclable multilayered plastic if any
should be phased out in Two years time.
(4) The producer, within a period of three months from the date of final
publication of these rules in the Official Gazette shall apply to the
Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control Committee, as the
case may be, of the States or the Union Territories administration
concerned, for grant of registration.
(5) No producer shall on and after the expiry of a period of Six Months
from the date of final publication of these rules in the Official
Gazette manufacture or use any plastic or multilayered packaging
for packaging of commodities without registration from the
concerned State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control
Committees.
(6) Every producer shall maintain a record of details of the person
engaged in supply of plastic used as raw material to manufacture
carry bags or plastic sheet or like or cover made of plastic sheet or
multilayered packaging.

7.4.2 COMPOSITION OF PLASTICS

Plastics comprise of polymers which are distinct for each product.

The most common are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as
classified by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and others mentioned in
the box below. The Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) has established
the SPI resin identification coding system as a set of symbols placed on
plastics to identify the polymer type. The code is used internationally
and its primary purpose is to allow efficient separation of different
polymer types for recycling.
 Classification of Plastics – Bureau of Indian Standards
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) classifies plastic into seven types.

SYMBO SHORT NAME SCIENTIFIC USE IN

L NAME
Polyethylene
1 PET Water bottles, PET bottles etc.
terephthalate
High density Milk or detergent bags, Carry
2 HDPE
polyethylene bags, Container etc.
Cables, Pipes,
3 PVC Polyvinyl chloride
Floorings etc.
Low density
4 LDPE Carry bags, Films
polyethylene
Medicine bottles, Cereal liners,
5 PP Polypropylene
Packaging films etc.
Foam packaging, Tea cups, Ice
6 PS Polystyrene
cream cups, etc.
Thermoset plastics, Multilayer and
7 O Others Laminated Plastics, PUF, Bakelite,
Polycarbonate, Melamine, Nylone etc.

moplastics): PET, HDPE, LDPE, PP, PVC, PS, etc.

thermoset and others): Multilayer and laminated plastics, polyurethane foam (PUF), bakelite, polycarbonate, melamine

Extensive use of plastic leads to the generation of huge quantities of

plastic wastes that may account for 1%–10% (by volume) of the
total municipal solid wastes (MSW). India produces approximately 8
million tonnes of plastic products every year (2008). 10 Plastic is used for
several purposes (wrapping material, shopping and garbage bags, fluid
containers, clothing, toys, household and industrial products, building
Plastic waste choke the urban drainage system, causing urban flooding
materials, etc.). in
Plastic
manycannot be recycled
instances. indefinitely
Immediate action on and, eventually,management (focusing on
appropriate
all plastic products end up as waste since virgin plastic material can
be recycled 2–3 times only and the plastic material deteriorates due to
thermal pressure after each recycling. Plastics are also highly resistant
to biodegradation.

7.4.3 PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT

Following the integrated solid waste management (ISWM) hierarchy,

reuse and recycling of plastic waste are the preferred methods for
managing plastic wastes after reduction. However, as mentioned,
plastics cannot be recycled indefinitely; each recycling cycle reduces
the strength and utility of the plastic. Energy recovery from plastics
10 Material on Plastic Waste Management. Chapter – 1: Annual Report (2011-12) on Implementation of PWM. CPCB
(2013). http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pcp/management_plasticwaste.pdf

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 505

 shall be considered when recycling is no longer possible. Plastic waste
is accepted as fuel in cement kilns; residence times and temperatures
are adequate to preempt the production of dioxins and furans.
Incineration of plastic wastes for energy recovery may also be
considered under strictly controlled and monitored conditions (for
further details, refer to Section 3.3.2 of Part II). Reusing plastic waste to
form polymer blended bitumen roads is an accepted method for final
disposal of plastics in India. Landfilling of plastics should be avoided.

Plasma pyrolysis and production of liquid fuel from plastic waste

are technologies being tested; however, commercial viability of
such technologies is yet to be proven. The flowchart in Figure 7.1
depicts available options for plastic waste management, in order of
their preference. Conventional technologies are more reliable than
technologies still under development.

Figure 7.1: Options for Plastic Waste Management11

reuse (eg. reuse as a virgin material substitute) coupled with a longer product life should be preferred
Plastic waste management

Conventional processing technology

Technology under
review Disposal

Recycling Plasma Incineration

pyrolysis

Co-processing in cement plants Liquid fuel Landfilling

Polymer blended bitumen roads

se pollution and maximise efficiency including energy efficiency of

7.4.4 RECYCLING OF PLASTIC WASTES

To a large extent, plastics are recyclable. Recycled polymers exhibit

lower properties and performance than virgin polymers, and are useful
only for lower value applications. Recycling of plastics without prior
separation by resin produces a material with mechanical properties
similar to timber. Hence, it is often used as a replacement for timber
in certain applications. A higher quality of recycled plastics is achieved
when separation by resin is carried out prior to the remoulding step.

11 Central Pollution Control Board. Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/wast/plasticwast/Plastic_waste-1.pdf

7.4.4.1 STEPS INVOLVED IN THE RECYCLING PROCESS

Collection: Plastic waste should be collected from the door step from
all MSW generators along with other reusable and recyclable non-
biodegradable wastes and should be sorted out at intermediate sorting
facilities or at the MSW processing facility.

Segregation: Plastic waste should be segregated from the rest of the

recyclable waste based on different types of plastic, requiring different
recycling processes.

Processing: After collection and segregation, post-consumer waste

(used plastic waste) should be given away to recycling industry at a
pre-negotiated price by the municipality. In cases where the municipal
authority has already given the contract to a private operator to
process MSW, plastic waste may be allowed to be processed or sold to
the recycling industry by the operator following good industrial
practices.

7.4.5 SUSTAINABLE DISPOSAL OF PLASTIC WASTE

At a stage where further recycling is not possible, the plastic material

or product should be disposed of by suitable methods. Safe disposal of
plastics is possible through various technologies such as co-processing
of plastic waste in cement kilns and utilisation of plastic waste in road
construction.

7.4.6 CO-PROCESSING AND CO-INCINERATION OF PLASTIC

WASTE AS ALTERNATIVE FUEL AND RAW MATERIAL
Co-processing and co- incineration of plastic wa
(AFR) IN CEMENT KILNS are proven methods for substitution of raw mat
for energy recovery
Co-processing refers to the use of waste materials in the industrial
process such as cement and power stations or any other large
combustion plants. Co-processing indicates substitution of primary fuel
and raw material by waste. Waste material such as plastic waste,
multilayered packaging waste, etc. used for co-processing are referred
to as alternative fuels and raw material. Co-incineration refers to
utilisation of waste material for energy recovery.

Co-processing of plastic waste and multilayered packaging waste

offers advantages for cement industry as well as for local authorities
responsible for waste management. Producers save on fossil fuel and
raw material consumption in co-processing, resulting in the adoption
of eco-efficient production methods. Substituting fossil fuel and virgin
raw material by alternative fuels and raw materials reduces overall
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of the process (assuming that the waste
material being used would instead have been burned or disposed of
without energy recovery). So far its application has been successful in

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 507

 the cement industry, and municipal authorities are also benefitted since
co-processing of plastic wastes is an efficient and environmentally safe
method to manage a sizeable quantity of non-recyclable plastic waste
in MSW.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has prescribed guidelines

on co-processing of plastic waste as an alternative fuel. 12 The defined
protocol is summarised below in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2: Central Pollution Control Board Guidance on Protocol for Co-
processing of Plastic Waste13

SR. ITEM DESCRIPTION ACTION TO

NO. BE TAKEN
BY
1 Collection of Concerned municipal authority should create Municipal
plastic waste a system for collection of plastic wastes corporation,
from dustbins or dhalaos through PPP municipality,
mode or any other feasible method. municipal council,
and cantonment
board
2 Segregation Collected plastics can be reprocessed or Municipal
& pre- sorted into recyclable and non-recyclable corporation,
processing fractions. The non-recyclable plastic wastes municipality,
of plastic will be transported to nearest cement kilns municipal council,
waste and power plant for co-processing by and cantonment
concerned municipal authority in board
consultation with SPCB or PCC.
3 Identification Mapping of cement kilns and power SPCB, PCC,
of cement plant for accepting co-processing of and municipal
factory plastic waste in the same state or authorities
neighbouring state. An
agreement shall be signed between municipal
corporations and cement kilns.
4 Modification Cement industry or power plant is to set Concerned cement
for feeding up storage facility, shredder, conveyor belt, industries or
plastic waste one hopper, one winch machine, and one power plant
in cement double- flap damper.
kilns or
power plants
5 Setting-up Cement industry or power plant shall Concerned cement
of laboratory set up a minimum laboratory facility to industry or power
for plastics analyse plastic wastes before co- plant
waste processing. The
analysis instrumentation includes
thermogravimetric analyser; bomb
calorimeter; and C, H, N, S analyser.
6 Monitoring Cement industry or power plant shall Concerned cement
of emission monitor the stack emission with respect industry, power
by cement to routine parameters and hazardous air plant, and SPCB
industry or pollutants. or PCC
SPCBs

12 Material on Plastic Waste Management. Chapter – 1: Annual Report (2011-12) on Implementation of PWM. CPCB.
(2013). http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pcp/management_plasticwaste.pdf
13 Material on Plastic Waste Management. Chapter – 1: Annual Report (2011-12) on Implementation of PWM. CPCB.
(2013). http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pcp/management_plasticwaste.pdf
Table 7.2: Central Pollution Control Board Guidance on Protocol for Co-processing of
Plastic Waste [contd.]

SR. ITEM DESCRIPTION ACTION TO

NO. BE TAKEN
BY
7 Forwarding Cement industry or power plant shall Concerned cement
progress forward quarterly progress report of co- industry, power
report to processing of plastic waste to CPCB. plant, and SPCB
CPCB or PCC

7.4.7 OTHER PLASTIC WASTE DISPOSAL OPTIONS

7.4.7.1 USE OF WASTE PLASTIC IN

CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS ROADS

The use of plastic waste in bitumen roads (Figure 7.2) has been found
to have several advantages including decreasing the susceptibility of
the road to infiltration. There are also no observed deleterious impacts
on the strength or properties of the road.14

Process Description:

• Waste plastic bags collected from roads, garbage trucks, dumpsites,

compost plants, waste pickers, waste buyers, and households can be
utilised in this process. Here plastic waste is sorted as per its
thickness and type. Polyethylene with a thickness greater than 60
microns is sent for recycling; polyethylene below 60 microns is to be
used in this process. Plastic waste should be cleaned by de-dusting or
washing if required.
• Collected plastic is cut and sized into fine pieces.
• Lower micron plastic mixes easily with bitumen at higher
temperatures (160°C–170°C). Bitumen is heated up to its melting
temperature (160°C–170°C). Finely sized plastic pieces are added
slowly to the hot bitumen, and the mixture is stirred for about 20–30
minutes at the same temperature. Polymer–bitumen mixtures of
different compositions are prepared and tested for their application
in road construction.

14 Plastic Waste Management. CPCB (2013). Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/wast/plasticwast/Plastic_waste-1.pdf

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 509

 Figure 7.2: Use of Plastic Waste in Construction of Bituminous Road 15

Construction of Polymer (Plastic) Coated Bitumen Road

Plastic waste collection

Cleaning
segregation
and dryingShredding
and storage plastic waste into of plastic wasterequired size (2 to 4mm)

Shredded polymer
The coated
waste
aggregate
(5-10%isw/w)
mixed
is with
addedhot
tobitumen
heated stone
at temperature
aggregate ranging
for 30-40 (granite,
Stone aggregate sec and mixed for heated
ceramic) uniformtocoating
aroundat the
160 surface
oC-170 oC of aggr

from 155oC-163oC

The mix (composite) known as waste plastic-aggregate- bitumen mix (130oC-140oC). This composite used for road laying at temperature betwee

7.4.7.2 CONVERSION OF PLASTIC WASTE INTO LIqUID FUEL

The conversion of plastic waste into liquid fuel has been considered as
a possible solution for the disposal of plastic waste, however, it is still
experiment with non-proven technologies
at its nascent stage. A research-cum-demonstration plant in Nagpur,
Maharashtra converts waste plastics into liquid fuel. The process
adopted is based on random de-polymerisation of waste plastics into
liquid fuel in presence of a catalyst. The entire process is undertaken
in closed reactor vessels followed by condensation. Waste plastics
while heating up to 270°C to 300°C convert into liquid–vapour state,
which is collected in condensation chambers in the form of liquid fuel
while the tarry liquid waste is topped-down from the heating reactor
vessel. Organic gas is generated, which is vented due to lack of storage
facility. However, the gas can be used in dual fuel diesel-generator set
for generation of electricity. This technology is at an experimental stage
and may be considered only after it is well established as a technically,
financially, and environmentally viable option of plastic waste
processing or disposal.

15 Material on Plastic Waste Management, CPCB (2012). Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pcp/

management_plasticwaste.pdf
 Plastic to Liquid Fuel: Initiative in New Moti Bagh, New Delhi
Under a ‘zero waste’ project at the ‘General Pool Residential Accommodation Complex (GPRA)’ of the Mi
in New Moti Bagh, a small facility to convert plastic waste into liquid fuel has been installed. The facility

7.4.7.3 INCINERATION OF PLASTIC WASTE

In cases where material recovery is not feasible, incineration with

energy recovery is an accepted technology internationally for plastic
waste disposal, with provision for adequate pollution abatement
safeguards. Inappropriate operating conditions can cause the release
of several harmful gases including dioxins and furans from chlorinated
and brominated plastic waste. However, it is to be noted that achieving
the requisite temperature and retention time in incinerators, coupled
with an appropriate flue gas scrubbing or treatment system will ensure
the safety of such technologies. For incineration technology, please
refer to Section 3.3.3 of Part II.

7.5 BIO-MEDICAL WASTE

“Bio-Medical Waste” means any waste, which is generated during the
diagnosis, treatment or immunisation of human beings or animals or
research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of
biological or in health camps, including the categories mentioned in
Schedule I appended to these rules.

Waste from kitchen, store, residential facilities, and gardens of health

care establishments that are free from bio-medical waste
contamination can enter the municipal waste stream.

7.5.1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES,

2016 - REqUIREMENTS ON BIO-MEDICAL
WASTE

SWM Rules, 2016 prescribes that bio-medical wastes, industrial wastes,

e-waste and domestic hazardous wastes shall be handled as specified
in specific rules framed for management of such wastes and domestic
hazardous waste may be handled as directed by the state pollution
control board or pollution control committee.

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 511

 As per the criteria for site selection given in Schedule I (x) of SWM Rules,
2016, the biomedical waste shall be disposed of in accordance with the
Bio-medical Waste Management Rules, 2016, as amended from time to
time.

The Schedule III of the Bio-medical Wastes Management Rules, 2016

mandates local authorities such as gram panchayats, municipalities or
corporations to provide or allocate suitable land for setting up of
Common Bio-Medical Waste Treatment Facility in their respective
jurisdictions as per the guidelines of CPCB.

Collect other solid waste (other than the bio-medical waste) from the
health care facilities as per the SWM Rules, 2016 or as amended time to
time.

Clause 17 Site for common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal

facility.-

(1) Without prejudice to rule 5 of these rules, the department in the

business allocation of land assignment shall be responsible for
providing suitable site for setting up of common biomedical waste
treatment and disposal facility in the State Government or Union
territory Administration.
(2) The selection of site for setting up of such facility shall be made in
consultation with the prescribed authority, other stakeholders and in
accordance with guidelines published by the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change or Central Pollution Control Board.

7.5.2 COLLECTION AND SEGREGATION OF WASTE IN

HEALTH CARE ESTABLISHMENTS

Schedule I Part II of Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016:

Bio-medical waste generated in households during healthcare activities

shall be segregated as per these rules and handed over in separate bags
or containers to municipal waste collectors. Urban Local Bodies shall have
tie up with the common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal facility
to pickup this waste from the Material Recovery Facility (MRF) or from
the house hold directly, for final disposal in the manner as prescribed in
this Schedule.

Due to its infectious and hazardous characteristics, bio-medical waste

should be segregated from other municipal wastes at source and
handled appropriately at collection and storage points in the health care
establishments. Bio-medical waste has been classified into four categories
as per the rule (2016), and different treatment or disposal systems have
been indicated for them. Health care establishments such as hospitals,
nursing homes, pathological laboratories etc,. generate bio-medical
waste as well
 as MSW (especially from their kitchen, garden, recreational area, etc.).
These wastes should be segregated at the point of generation and
ULBs should collect MSW generated by hospitals and other hea
stored in the colour coded establishments
containers separately following the
after ensuring that such waste streams are not
provisions of Bio-medical Waste (M&H) Rules, 1998 and as amended in
2011 and 2016. This way the load on the bio-medical waste treatment
facility would be much less because, normally, this category of waste is
hardly 25%–30% of the total waste generated by health care facilities.
The bio-medical waste should be sent for further treatment and
disposal as per Bio-medical Waste (M&H) Rules, 1998 and as amended
in 2011 and 2016; other solid wastes should be handled in accordance
with the SWM Rules, 2016. This is essential to ensure that MSW
generated from health care establishments is not contaminated, and
does not pose any health and environmental risks to the waste
handlers, processing plants, and users of end products of MSW at
processing facilities.

7.6 SLAUGHTERHOUSE WASTE

Slaughterhouse waste is predominantly disposed in dump sites or
processed along with other organic waste in compost plants which
are not scientifically and properly managed. Scientific processing and
disposal of slaughterhouse waste is essential to recover useful fractions
and for safe disposal of residual pathogenic biological wastes.

Processes undertaken in a modern slaughterhouse include

slaughtering, dressing, cutting, and inspection of meats, and
refrigeration, curing, and manufacturing of by-products. In the absence
of a proper slaughterhouse waste processing or disposal facility, urban
local bodies (ULBs) can practice deep burial of carcasses and animals
killed in accidents with adequate precaution. However, ULBs should
regularly monitor sites where deep burial is practiced for potential
environmental and public health impacts.

Based on scale of operations, slaughterhouses have been classified into

three categories: large, medium, and small (Table 7.3).

Large slaughterhouses are mostly in cities. They generate substantial

quantity of solid wastes that have to be processed in an
environmentally acceptable manner.

Table 7.3: Classification of Slaughterhouses16

CATEGORY SLAUGHTERING CAPACITY (TONNES

OF
LIVE WEIGHT KILLED PER DAY)
Large Above 70
Medium 15-70
Small Below 15

16 Central Pollution Control Board, 2004

514 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Waste materials produced in these establishments are of three types:
solid, liquid, and gas. Solid waste is generated from manure, intestinal
contents, hair, horns, hooves, gallbladders, trimmings, internal organs,
condemned carcasses or body parts, carton, and plastics. Solid wastes
from slaughterhouses are varied depending on the kind and scale of
operations. Liquid wastes of slaughterhouses come from urine, blood,
and wastewater from the slaughter processes. Odours and emissions
are also produced in the operations.

These waste materials if not handled and managed properly pose a

hazard to the environment. High concentration of animal blood and
fat, dirt, and other pollutants in slaughterhouse effluent renders it very
toxic to the receiving water bodies.

Usually the quantity of wastes per animal is large in small scale

operations, where the recovery of offal is ineffective. Its main products
are fresh meat in the form of whole, half, or quarter carcasses, or in
smaller meat cuts. By-product processing is usually absent. In modern
slaughterhouses, there is extensive processing of by-products. In such
plants at least three additional operations are conducted: (i) rendering,
paunch, and viscera handling; (ii) blood processing; and (iii) hide and
hair processing. By these operations, maximum recovery of edible and
inedible materials from the offal is achieved, and this results in lower
production of wastes per animal.

7.6.1 PROCESSING SLAUGHTERHOUSE WASTE

The solid waste of slaughterhouses can be broadly classified into two

type-I waste and rendering for type-II waste are suggested
categories: (i) vegetative matter (type I) such as rumen, stomach and
intestine contents, dung, agriculture residues, etc., and (ii) animal
matter (type II) like inedible offals, tissues, meat trimmings, waste and
condemned meat, bones, etc. These waste streams can be segregated
and treated separately.
ing for type-II waste are suggested. Biomethanation requires less space, which is advantageous for the slaughterhouse

able due to low volume of wastes and non-availability of other infrastructure facilities. For small slaughterhouses, a viab

biomethanation or deep burial facility is suggested

The best practicable methods currently available for processing and

disposal of different wastes from slaughterhouses are detailed in Table
7.4.
Table 7.4: Methods for Processing, Utilisation and Disposal of Solid Wastes from
Slaughterhouse17

WASTE CONSTITUENTS OF SH METHOD(S)

WASTES CATEGORY
Type I Vegetable matter such as Large Biomethanation or in-vessel
rumen, stomach and intestinal composting
contents, dung, agriculture Medium Biomethanation or in-vessel
residues, etc. composting
Small Biomethanation or pooling
to a centralised facility
Type II Animal matter such as Large Rendering or CPU
inedible offal, tissues, Medium Rendering or CPU
meat trimmings, waste and Small Deep burial facility provided
condemned meat, bones, by municipality
etc.

Composting: Composting is an aerobic biological decomposition

of organic material, resulting in a stable humus-like product. This
is a common practice of waste stabilisation but requires proper
understanding of the method (for more details, refer to Section 3.2 of
Part II).

Both type I and type II slaughterhouse wastes can be stabilised through

composting. The compost stack is prepared by adding alternate layers
of type I waste and type II waste, to build a 4 to 5 feet high heap. The
heap should be laid directly on the ground. It is advisable to put a
layer of about 6 -inches of coarse material underneath, such as maize or
millet stalks, banana stumps, straw, grass, small twigs, etc., to achieve
proper ventilation.

Large- sized matter (organs such as kidneys and lungs, or other similar
wastes) in type II wastes should be minced to 2 to 3-inch pieces before
composting. For better results, it is advised to mix these pieces with
earth and evenly spread out in the centre of the heap where the
temperature is high.

The ruminal and intestinal contents provide sufficient moisture for

initiating and sustaining bacterial activity. As such, under normal
circumstances, no additional water is required.

Biomethanation: Slaughterhouse waste is anaerobically stabilised in

biomethanation. The success of the process, especially the effective
removal of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), has led to the
acceptance of biogas plants for processing slaughterhouse wastes.

17 Sanitation in Slaughter House, CPCB (2004). Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pci3/pciiiidivslaughter.pdf.

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 515

 High Rate Biomethanation: The essential elements of a high rate
biomethanation process are: size reduction and slurry making,
operation at thermophilic temperature range, and complete mixing to
achieve a uniform temperature with more or less uniform feeding of
the waste. Pre- thickening or dilution of the digester contents are
optional features of a high rate digestion system. The benefits of high
rate biomethanation are reduced digester volume and increased
pathogen kill. Wastes consisting of rumen and paunch contents, dung,
agriculture residue, fat, and blood may be processed in the high rate
biomethanation plant.

Rendering: Rendering plants are set up for the recovery of fats and
bone and meat meal. This is a useful method for the recovery of by-
products from slaughterhouse waste.

All animal matter such as inedible offal, tissues, meat trimmings, waste
and condemned meat, bones, etc. can be processed in a rendering
system, since the main constituents of animal matter are fat, water, and
solids. Rendering is effected by heating; heat ruptures the connective
tissue of individual fat and muscle cells so that raw fat and other
material bound within is released. Wet and dry rendering plants may
be adopted. Wet rendering plants yield animal fat and bone meal. Dry
rendering enables 20% higher yield than wet rendering.18

Fat recovered during rendering is used for industrial purposes, and

making soap and greases. Fat recovered from flesh of healthy parts can
be edible. Meat meal or bone meal is utilised for the manufacture of
stock feed and fertilizers. Sludge bio-solids from dry rendering plants
should be appropriately treated and disposed.

Incineration is also an option for the treatment of slaughterhouse waste.

Clean Technology and Modernisation for Slaughterhouse Waste Treatment: Initiative of Municipal Corporation of Delhi in G
CASE STUDY

Location: Ghazipur, New Delhi

v Industries, Frigorifico Ala Anna Pvt Ltd.

to indiscriminate disposal of waste, inadequate water supply, and discharge of effluents in open drains. Concerns raised

18 Sanitation in Slaughter House, CPCB (2004). Available at: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pci3/pciiiidivslaughter.pdf.

to relocate the Idgah slaughterhouse to a modernised slaughterhouse in Ghazipur.
This led to the establishment of a modernised facility spread across 30 acres of
land having slaughterhouse, livestock markets, rendering plant, roads, etc. and an
effluent treatment plant (ETP) to ensure wastewater treatment and processing of
waste as per the standards prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The
slaughterhouse plant has been established as a turnkey project. The funding for
the project was from National Capital Region Planning Board (Rs. 60 crore loan),
Ministry of Urban Development (Rs. 20 crore grant + Rs. 20 crore loan), Government
of National Capital Territory of Delhi (Rs. 70 crore loan), and Ministry of Food
Processing Industries (Rs 4 crore grant). The plant operation and maintenance has
been handed over to the private operator named Frigorifico Allana, on annual royalty
in 2009 for 10 years. The approach that was adopted for installation and
operationalisation of the slaughterhouse plant is detailed below.

Institutional:

 Head of Veterinary Department of erstwhile MCD (now EDMC) and project in-
charge of the private operator work closely and coordinate on a daily basis
for smooth execution and functioning of the plant.
 Adequate health and safety measures (uniforms, gumboots, gloves, masks), as
well as intensive trainings on regular basis, were provided to the workers to
maintain cleanliness and hygiene during operation.
 Intensive trainings and capacity building on regular basis were provided to
the workers for them to operate the rendering plant.

Managerial:

 The plant operates in three shifts. The morning and evening shifts are
reserved for general traders and the middle shift for the operator of the
facility.
 Token systems for the general traders were introduced to maintain
transparency and discipline during peak shifts.

Stakeholder Consultations:

 Intensive meetings of MCD officials with the slaughterhouse association

convinced the association about the necessity and urgency of the
relocation.

Outcomes:

 Livestock market in Ghazipur is about 3–4 times larger than Idgah facility,
thereby reducing the chances of insanitation and overcrowding. An ETP of
1,750 kiloliters per day capacity to treat the liquid waste and a rendering plant
of 20 tonnes capacity including ETP of 250 kiloliters per day capacity have
been established.
 Three separate lairages with adequate water, shed, and fodder facilities have
been constructed to allow proper rest to the animals before slaughtering,
facilitating proper examination of each animal by the veterinary
department.

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 517

  The entire process in the slaughterhouse is carried out under hygienic
conditions, and effluents discharged are treated and disposed of safely.

518 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 Utilisation of the by-products obtained after the rendering process for industrial use.
 Capacity of slaughtering 5,500 animals per day (1,500 buffaloes and 4,500 sheep
and goats).
 Treatment capacity of 60 tonnes of paunch waste in the plant.
 Carcasses were taken back by the shopkeeper to their shop for retail distribution.
 There was gradual acceptance of the general shopkeepers and traders for
centralised and modern slaughterhouse facility, as it provided them a better
market price owing to the quality of the slaughtered product.

Success Factor:

 Intensive training was provided to the workers to handle the waste scientifically.
 Modern and sophisticated technology was used for slaughtering.

Overall Sustainability:

The total cost of the plant was Rs. 183 crore. The cost comprises the construction
and installation of the plant as well as the procurement of machinery for the
rendering plant. The operational agreement is such that the concessionaire has to pay
erstwhile MCD (now EDMC) Rs. 1.5 crore quarterly as a royalty for the plant. In
order to sustain and optimised operation of the plant, the concessionaire, in
consultation with erstwhile MCD, has introduced user charges against general
traders at Rs. 45 for sheep and goats and Rs. 300 for buffalo. The concessionaire
has been given the liberty to run one shift for their own export. Apart from this, the
by-products (bone meal, oils) obtained from the rendering plant act as value-added
material for the concessionaire.
Source: East Delhi Municipal Corporation

7.7 ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC WASTE

E-waste means any waste from electrical or electronic equipment,
whole or in parts, or rejects from their manufacturing and repair
processes, which are intended to be discarded.

7.7.1 E-WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016

E-waste is regulated under the E-Waste Management Rules, 2016.

According to Schedule IV of the E-Waste Management Rules, 2016, the

responsibilities of the Urban Local Bodies are:

• To ensure that e-waste if found to be mixed with MSW is properly

segregated, collected and is channelised to either authorised
dismantler or recycler.
 • To ensure that e-waste pertaining to orphan products is collected
and channelised to either an authorised dismantler
As perorE-Waste
recycler.Management Rules, 2016, the
e-waste found mixed with MSW to authorised e
Municipal authorities must therefore give basic education to their staff
on identification of e-waste and on measures to be taken when they
find such a waste mixed with municipal solid waste.

These rules are based largely on the principle of Extended Producer

Responsibility (EPR), which assigns the producer with the
responsibility of ‘end-of-life’ management of the electrical and
electronic equipment (for details refer to Section 2.1.2 of Part II). The
objective of the rules is to put in place an effective mechanism to
regulate the generation, collection, storage, transportation,
environmentally sound recycling, treatment and disposal of the e-
waste. It is mandatory that e-wastes be managed in accordance with
provisions under these rules.

wet, dry, and e-waste. More than 10 collection bins for e-waste disposed of by citizens have been set up in the city. Citiz

7.7.2 CURRENT STATUS OF E-WASTE GENERATION

AND ITS MANAGEMENT

Electronic waste is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the

country with a growth rate of 10% per annum. An increase in the use
of electrical and electronic products and their high rate of obsolescence
leads to generation of huge amounts of electrical and electronic waste
(e-waste). As per preliminary estimates of the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB), e-waste generation in India was 0.8 million tonnes in
2012.

E-waste management practices in India are beset with numerous

shortfalls, such as the difficulty in maintaining an inventory of
generated e-waste, unhealthy conditions of informal recycling,
inadequate capacities, and lack of awareness among generators and
ULBs.

7.7.3 E-WASTE CATEGORIES

E-waste is classified into two categories according to their

characteristics under Schedule I of E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
(Table 7.5).

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 519

Table 7.5: Categories of electronic wastes as per E- Waste Management Rules,
201619

WASTE WASTE STREAM TYPE OF E-WASTE

CATEGOR
Y
Category I Information Centralised data processing: Mainframes,
technology and Minicomputers; Personal Computing:
telecommunication Personal Computers (Central Processing Unit
equipment with input and output devices); Personal
Computing: Laptop
Computers (Central Processing Unit with input
and output devices); Personal Computing:
Notebook Computers, Notepad Computers;
Printers including cartridges; Copying
equipment; Electrical and electronic
typewriters; User terminals and systems;
Facsimile; Telex; Telephones; Pay telephones;
Cordless telephones; Cellular telephones and
Answering systems
Category II Consumer Television sets (including sets based on
electrical and (Liquid Crystal Display and Light Emitting Diode
electronics technology); Refrigerator; Washing Machine; Air-
conditioners excluding centralised air
conditioning plants;
Fluorescent and other mercury containing
lamps.

E-waste consists of more than 1000 different components which

can be categorised as “hazardous” and “non-hazardous”. Typically,
e-waste consists of:20
• ferrous metals (approximately 50%);
• plastics (approximately 21%);
• non-ferrous metals like copper, aluminium, silver, gold, platinum,
palladium etc. (approximately 13%); and
• other components like glass etc. (approximately 16%).

Most plastic components in e-waste include phthalate plasticiser and

brominated flame retardants, which are hazardous. Therefore, even
though the plastic recovery potential from e-waste can be quantified,
presence of above mentioned chemicals limits the actual recycling
potential.
19 E-Waste Management Rules, 2016
20 Converting Waste Plastics Into a Resource, United Nations Environment Programme (2009).
Available at: http://www.unep.or.jp/Ietc/Publications/spc/WastePlasticsEST_AssessmentGuidelines.pdf
 The following three E-Waste streams are not covered under the Schedule I of the E-Waste Management Rules, 2016:
Batteries used in electrical and electronic equipment, such as Ni-Cd, Li-ion, Mercury etc.
Dry cell batteries
It is very likely that these components are found in municipal solid waste (MSW) despite their inherent r

get segregated; the tube is chemically treated to recover mercury and phosphor. Phosphor powder and mercury can b

7.8 WASTE TYRES

The management of used tyres is a challenge for even the most modern
MSWM systems, due to the physical properties and shape of tyres.
Tyres are composed primarily of complex natural and synthetic rubber
compounds, both of which have substantial heating value and various
other materials.

re Pyrolysis (Recycling) and Prohibition on Burning of Tyres (2014). The notification lays emphasis on life cycle approac
onmental compliances to be achieved by such units.
epartment, Government of Maharashtra

522 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

7.8.1 STORAGE OF USED TYRES

Stockpiles of used tyres can create substantial land use problems, and
serve as breeding grounds for insects and other small animals that
harbour pathogens detrimental to human health and environment.
Stockpiles can self-ignite; and when it does, the fire may be difficult to
control, leading to negative human health and environmental impacts.

7.8.2 REUSE OF USED TYRES

Some of the more common reuse practices include the following:

• Reuse is done through retreading for extended service.

• Used tyres are utilised for building retaining walls for narrow hill
roads, for controlling erosion along drainage channels, as barriers
in coastal areas, as crash barriers, for earth filling in civil
engineering works, etc. They are also used during landfill
construction for weighing down the liner material.
• Cuttings from used tyres are used in shoe soles, gaskets, continuous
conveyor belts, etc. They may also be used for low-grade products
such as automobile floor mats, and rubber wheel handcarts and
wheel barrows.

7.8.3 PROCESSING OF USED TYRES

The typical product yield from scrap tyres is tabulated in Table 7.6:

Table 7.6: Typical Product Yield from Scrap Tyres21

PRODUCT YIELD TRUCK EqUIPMENT CAR TYRES

FROM SCRAP TYRES MANUFACTURER
TYRES (EM) TYRES
Crumb rubber 70% 78% 70%
Steel 27% 15% 15%
Fiber and scrap 3% 7% 15%

The recovery of rubber from used tyres can be very energy-intensive,

and such processing may generate hazardous substances and many
other types of process residues. Processing of tyre materials should be
conducted under controlled conditions, as it generates dust and
buffing, which may be carcinogenic to workers. Pulling out the steel
wires followed by shredding are the main processes.

7.8.4 CO-PROCESSING OF WASTE TYRES

Co-processing of tyres as fuel in cement plants is approved as an

environmentally safe and efficient method to dispose of used tyres.
21 Scrap Tire Recycling, Reschner, K (2008). Available at: http://entire-engineering.de/Scrap_Tire_Recycling.pdf
 Co-processing with tyres is also known to improve the combustion
characteristics
Co-processing of high
of tyres as a ash
fuel coal.
in cement plants is a preferred environmentally safe method for dis

The CPCB guidelines on co-processing in cement, power, or steel

industry indicate specific requirements for the feeding of materials for
co-processing, suitability of substances for co-processing, operating
conditions for co-processing plants, air pollution control requirements,
and emission standards.

7.9 LEAD BATTERY WASTE

Once the lead acid battery is no longer capable of being recharged
or cannot retain its charge, it is a waste and should be disposed. At
the end of its life, the battery is classified as a hazardous waste and
should be handled as prescribed in the Batteries (Management &
Handling [M&H]) Rules, 2001 to prevent damage to human health
and environment.

7.9.1 THE BATTERIES (MANAGEMENT & HANDLING) RULES, 2001

The Batteries (M&H) Rules, 2001 govern the management of lead acid
batteries, which are a source of electrical energy and contain lead
metal. Used lead acid batteries are not considered a part of MSW and
should not be mixed while disposal.

These rules apply to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner,

assembler, dealer, recycler, auctioneer, consumer, and bulk consumer
involved in the manufacture, processing, sale, purchase, and use of
batteries or components thereof.

Clause 7: Responsibilities of dealer:

“It shall be the responsibility of the dealer to:

• ensure that the used batteries are collected back as per the
Schedule against new batteries sold;
• ensure safe transportation of collected batteries to the designated
collection centres or to the registered recyclers; and
• ensure that no damage is caused to the environment during storage
and transportation of used batteries.”

Clause 10: Responsibilities of consumer or bulk consumer:

“It shall be the responsibility of the consumer to ensure that the used
batteries are not disposed of in any manner other than depositing with
the dealer, manufacturer, importer, assembler, registered recycler, re-
conditioner or at the designated collection centres.

524 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

 It shall be the responsibility of the bulk consumer to:

1. ensure that the used batteries are not disposed of in any manner
other than by depositing with the dealer or manufacturer or
registered recycler or importer or reconditioner or at the
designated collection centres”

Clause 11: Responsibilities of auctioneer:

“The auctioneer shall ensure that used batteries are auctioned to the
registered recyclers only.”

Municipal authorities should acquaint their SWM staff with the above
provisions. When disposed lead acid batteries are found mixed with
MSW, ULB staff should be trained to report the identified defaulters to
the concerned authority for taking appropriate action.

7.10 ACTION POINTS FOR AWARENESS

GENERATION THROUGH INFORMATION,
EDUCATION, AND COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITIES FOR SPECIAL WASTE INCLUDING
DOMESTIC HAzARDOUS WASTE

• Provide information to the community on different types of special

wastes including domestic hazardous waste and their related
impacts on human life and environment.
• Generate awareness in the community about segregating special
waste at household level to prevent its mixing with MSW. Equally
important is to provide information on collection and disposal
systems for special waste and related initiatives taken up by the
ULB.
• Encourage usage of sustainable material such as jute or cloth bags,
energy efficient lighting and electronic appliances, and multi-use
consumables as an effective strategy to minimise special waste
generation.
• Provide and communicate incentives to the community for making
use of dry waste and domestic hazardous waste collection centres.
• Inform public about economic and environmental benefits of
reducing, reusing, and recycling special waste.
• Engage with local businesses or electronic suppliers and create
awareness on EPR initiatives around special waste. Promote
incentives to encourage such initiatives.
• Educate public about prevalent EPR initiatives.
Glossary

ManageMent of Special WaSte StreaMS 525

Acid gas Gases produced during the combustion process containing
significant quantities of acidic components such as
sulphides and chlorides.

Active gas collection A technique that forcibly removes gas from a landfill by
attaching a vacuum or pump to a network of pipelines in the
landfill or surrounding soils to remove the gases.

Aerated static pile The process of exposing bulk material, like compost, to air.
Forced aeration refers to the use of blowers in compost
piles.

Aeration The process by which air is circulated through, mixed with

or dissolved water for exposing bulk material, like compost.

Aerobic A system / material where free oxygen is available so that

aerobic reactions can take place.

Aerobic composting A controlled process involving microbial decomposition of

organic matter in the presence of oxygen.

Agricultural waste Waste material generated from agricultural activity or agro

industry residues, e.g., straw, husk, tree pruning etc.

Air classifier A device used to separate materials by a combination of

size, shape and density at a facility( such as a MRF). It is
the column of rising air with an upward force act on the
mixed material to be sorted. The mixed materials with
differing physical characteristics can be separated quickly
and efficiently.

Air Density A device to separate sand, grit and other heavy particles
Separator (ADS) from compost, by using floatation from a fluid bed condition.
Compost is sucked up and heavy particles fall behind.

Anaerobic digestion A controlled process involving microbial decomposition of

organic matter in absence of oxygen.

Animal house A place where animals are reared/kept for the purpose of
experimenting or texting.

Aquifer Aquifers are underground layers of rock that are saturated

with water that can be brought to the surface through
natural springs or by pumping.

Ash The non-combustible, solid by-product of incineration or

other combustion process.

GLOSSAR 527
Y
Ash residues The left-over material from a combustion process. They may
take the form of fly ash or bottom ash.

Assembler A person who manufactures lead acid batteries by

assembling various components.

Attenuation A process of converting and destroying a chemical

compound as it passes through layers of soil or rock.

Auction Bulk sale of used lead acid batteries or component (s)

thereof by invitation of tenders or auction, contract or
negotiation by individual(s), companies or Government
Departments.

Auctioneer A person(s) who auctions used lead acid batteries or

components, thereof.

Authorisation The permission given by the State Pollution Control Board

or Pollution Control Committee as the case may be, to the
“operator of a facility” or “urban local body”, or any other
agency responsible for processing and disposal of solid
waste.

Authorised person An occupier or operator authorised by the prescribed

authority to generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat,
dispose or handle bio-medical waste in accordance with
these rules and guidelines issued by the Central Pollution
Control Board, Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India.

Autoclaving Sterilisation via a pressurised, high-temperature steam

process.

Bag house A combustion plant emission control device that consists of

an array of fabric filters through which flue gases pass in
an incinerator flue. Particles are trapped and thus prevented
from passing into the atmosphere.

Bailing A machine used to compress recyclables into bundles to

reduce volume. Balers are often used for newspaper,
plastics, and corrugated cardboard.

Battery A battery is a device consisting of one or more

electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy
into electrical energy.
Bentonite A type of soil that swells greatly in the presence of water.
Since bentonite impedes the flow of water, it is used for
liners, covers, and various other landfill applications.

Berm An elongated pile of soil used to control and direct the flow
of surface water runoff. Berms may also be used to block out
noise and screen operations from public view.

Bio-degradable Any organic material that can be degraded by micro-

substances organisms into simpler stable compounds.

Biologicals Any preparation made from organisms and micro-organisms

or product of metabolism and biochemical reactions
intended for the use in diagnosis, immunisation, or the
treatment of human beings or animals, or in research
activities pertaining thereto.

Bio-medical waste Any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis,

immunisation, treatment of human beings or animals, or in
research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or
testing of biologicals including the categories.

Bio-medical waste Any facility wherein treatment, disposal of bio-medical

treatment and waste or processes incidental to such treatment and or
disposal facility disposal is carried out and includes common treatment
facilities.

Biomethanation A process which entails enzymatic decomposition of the

organic matter by microbial action to produce methane rich
biogas.

Bottle bill A law requiring deposits on beverage containers.

Bottom ash Bottom ash is primarily a toxic residue of incineration made

from agglomerated ash particles that are too large to be
carried in the flue gases and fall through open grates to an
ash hopper at the bottom of the furnace.

Buffer zone A zone of no-development which shall be maintained

around landfills, processing and disposal facilities of solid
waste demarcated.

Bulking agent A material used to add volume to another material to make

the second material more porous, which increases air flow.
For example, municipal solid waste may act as a bulking
agent when mixed with water treatment sludge.

GLOSSAR 529
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Bulky waste Large wastes (such as appliances, furniture, trees and
branches, etc.) that cannot be handled by normal MSW
processing methods.

Buy back centre A facility to which individuals bring recyclables in exchange

for payment.

Capacity building Enabling people, organisations, and societies to

develop, strengthen, and expand their abilities to meet
their goals or fulfill their mandates is referred to capacity
building. . It is a long-term and continuous process that
focuses on developing human resources, organisational
strength, technology know-how etc involving all
stakeholders and is strengthened through the transfer of
knowledge and skills that enhance individual and
collective abilities to deliver services and carry out
programs that address challenges in a sustainable way.

Cell The basic unit by which a landfill is developed. It is the

general area where incoming waste is tipped, spread,
compacted, and covered.

Central Pollution The Central Pollution Control Board constituted under sub-
Control Board section (1) of Section 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974).

Cleaner production Processes designed to reduce the wastes generated by

production.

Co-disposal The disposal of different types of waste together in one area

of a landfill or dump. For instance, sewage sludge may be
disposed of with regular solid wastes.

Cogeneration Production of both electricity and steam from one facility,

from the same fuel source.

Collection Lifting and removal of municipal solid waste from collection

points or any other location.

Collection centre A centre established, independently or jointly or a registered

society, or a designated agency, or a company or an
association to collect e-waste.

Combustibles Inflammable materials in the waste stream, including paper,

plastics, wood, food and garden wastes.
Combustion Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance
reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives off heat. In MSWM,
the combustion process is carried out in in an incinerator.

Combustion Facility Any unit and/or equipment dedicated to the thermal or

oxidation treatment of municipal solid waste with or
without recovery of heat generated.

Commercial waste Waste materials originating in wholesale, retail, institutional,

or service establishments, such as office buildings, stores,
markets, theatres, hotels and warehouse.

Commingled Mixed recyclables that are collected together after having

been separated from mixed MSW.

Communication An exchange or flow of information or ideas across the

people through not as learners but as a target audience.

Compactor vehicle A collection vehicle using high-power mechanical or

hydraulic equipment to reduce the volume of solid waste.

Composite liner A liner system for a landfill consisting of an engineered soil

layer and a synthetic sheet of material.

Compost The material resulting from decomposition of organic

matter also called humusit act as is a soil conditioner.

Compost pad Hard impermeable surface, preferably concrete, on which

/ platform composting is done.

Composting A controlled process involving microbial decomposition of

organic matter.

Construction The process of erecting of buildings or built facility or other

structure, or building of infrastructure including alteration
in this entities.

Construction and The waste comprising of building materials debris and

demolition waste rubble resulting from construction, re-modelling, repair and
demolition of any civil structure.

Consumer Any person using electrical and electronic equipment

excluding the bulk consumers.

Contractors A person or firm that undertakes a contract to provide

materials or labour to perform a service or do a job for
service providing authority.

GLOSSAR 531
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Controlled dump A planned landfill that incorporates, to some extent, some
of the features of a sanitary landfill: siting with respect to
hydro-geological suitability, grading, compaction in some
cases, leachate control, partial gas management, regular (not
usually daily) cover, access control, basic recordkeeping, and
controlled scavenging.

Conveyor belt A wide belt made of rubber, textile, nylon or more

commonly composite material, which moves on wide
rollers. In compost industry chain drive is popular as the
belt moves in a guided manner, directed by the chain
sprockets. Conveyor belts are used for material movement
in different stages.

Co-processing Co-processing is a secure form of waste management that

fully recovers the energy and mineral content from waste
for beneficial re-use as fuel for energy generation and
product additives for manufacturing. Use of solid waste as
raw material(plastics, tyres etc or as a source of energy or
both to replace or supplement the natural mineral
resources) and fossil fuels in industrial processes.

Cover material Material, either natural soil or geosynthetic material, used in

a landfill to impede water infiltration, landfill gas emissions,
and bird and rodent congregation. It is also used to control
odors and make the site more visually attractive. Landfills
have three forms of cover: daily cover, intermediate cover,
and final cover.

Curing Allowing partially composted materials to reside in a pile

for a specified period of time as part of the maturing process
in composting.

Daily cell In landfills, a portion of refuse that has been compacted

and then surrounded with cover material. Daily cover is
placed over the landfilled materials at the end of each day to
complete the cell.

Daily cover material Material, usually soil that is used in a landfill to cover the
refuse after it has been compacted at the end of each day.
The cover is placed mainly to ward off animals and for odor
control.

Dealer A person who sells and receives lead acid batteries or

components thereof to and from the consumers or other
dealers or retailers on behalf of the manufacturers,
importers, assemblers and reconditioners or otherwise.
De-Construction A planned selective demolition in which salvage, re-use and
recycling of the demolished structure is maximised.

Demolition Breaking down or tearing down buildings and other

structures either manually or using mechanical force (by
various equipment) or by implosion using explosives.

Designated A collection centre established, individually or jointly by

collection centre one or more manufacturers or importers, assemblers and
re-conditioners in pursuance of their responsibilities under
rule – 4 of these rules.

Detention basin An excavated area of land that is used to collect surface

water runoff for the purpose of creating a constant outflow
from the basin.

Detinning Recovering tin from “tin” cans by a chemical process that

makes the remaining steel more easily recycled.

Dismantler Any person, or registered society, or designated agency, or

a company or an organisation engaged with dismantling
the used electrical and electronic equipments into their
components.

Disposal The final and safe disposal of solid waste on as specified in

schedule I to prevent contamination of ground-water,
surface water, ambient air and attraction of animals and
birds.

Domestic hazardous Domestic hazardous wastes means waste contaminated

waste with hazardous chemicals or infectious waste such as
discarded paint drums, pesticide cans, CFL bulbs, tube lights,
expired medicines, broken mercury thermometers, used
batteries, used needles, gauge and syringes, etc. generated at
the household level.

Drop-off centre An area or facility for receiving compostable or recyclables

that are dropped off by waste generators.

Drop-off collection A method of collecting recyclable or compostable materials

in which the materials are taken by individuals to collection
sites, where they deposit the materials into designated
containers.

Dry waste Waste other than food waste and inert and includes
recyclable waste, non-recyclable waste, combustible waste

GLOSSAR 533
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 and sanitary waste.

534 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Dump sites A land utilised by urban local body for unscientific disposal
of municipal solid waste without following the principles of
sanitary landfilling.

E-waste Means electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in

part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process,
which are intended to be discarded as waste.

Electrical and Means equipment which are dependent on electrical

electronic currents or electro-magnetic fields to be fully functional.
equipment

Electrostatic Device for removing particulate matter from an incinerator

precipitator facility’s air emissions. It works by causing the particles to
become electrostatically charged and then attracting them
to an oppositely charged plate, where they are precipitated
out of the flue gasses.

Emissions Gases released into the atmosphere.

End use market A company that purchases recycled materials for use as
feedstock in manufacturing new products.

Energy recovery The process of extracting useful energy from waste, typically
from the heat produced by incineration or via methane gas
from landfills.

Environmental An evaluation designed to identify and predict the impact of

Impact Assessment an action or a project on the environment, human health
(EIA) and well-being. It can include risk assessment as a
component, along with economic and land use assessment.

Environmental Means any technology approved by the Central Government

technologies from time to time.

Environmentally Means taking all steps required to ensure that e-waste

sound management are managed in a manner which shall protect health and
of E-waste environment, against any adverse effects, which may result
from hazardous substances contained in such wastes.

Environmentally Means taking all steps required to ensure that the

sound management hazardous waste are managed in a manner which shall
of hazardous waste protect health and the environment against the adverse
effects which may result from such waste.
Extended Producer Means responsibility of any producer of electrical
Responsibility and electronic equipment, for their products beyond
(EPR) manufacturing until environmentally sound management of
their end-of-life products.

Export With its grammatical

variations and cognatic
expressions, means taking
out of India to a place
outside India.

Exporter Means any person under

the jurisdiction of the
exporting country who
exports hazardous waste
including the country,
which exports hazardous
waste.

Facility Any establishment wherein

the solid waste
management processes
namely segregation,
recovery, storage,
collection, recycling,
processing, treatment or
safe disposal are carried
out.

Ferrous metals Metals derived from iron.

They can be removed from
commingled materials
using large magnets at
separation facilities.

Flaring The burning of landfill

gas/methane captured and
emitted from collection
pipes at a landfill.

Flood plain A region of land around a

body of water, usually a
river or stream, that is
flooded on a regular basis,
usually annually.

Flue gas All gasses and products of

combustion that leave a

GLOSSAR 535
Y
 f e n which the stoker grate is
u r replaced by a bed of limestone or
r a sand that can withstand high
n t temperatures. The heating of the
a o bed and the high air velocities
c r used, causes the bed to bubble,
e which gives rise to the term
i “fluidised”.
b
y Fly ash A highly toxic particulate
matter captured from the
w flue gas of an incinerator
a by the air pollution control
y system.

o Food stuff Means ready to eat food

f products, fast foods,
processed or cooked food
a in liquid, powder, solid or
semi-solid form.
f
l Garbage It is the common term used
u
for unwanted or discarded
e
material which is not used
anymore, is called refuse or
o
garbage.
r

d
u
c
t
.

Fluidi A
sed-
bed t
incin y
erator p
e

o
f

i
n
c
i
n

536 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Gas control A series of vertical wells or horizontal trenches containing
and recovery permeable materials and perforated piping. The systems are
system designed to collect landfill gases for treatment or for use as
an energy source.

Gas Probes placed in the soil

mo surrounding a landfill above the
nito groundwater table. The probes are
rin used to determine if landfill gases
g are migrating away from the
pro landfill.
be

Generation rate The amount of waste

that is produced over a
given amount of time.
For example, a district
may have a generation
rate of 100 tons per
day.

Generator of waste Persons or establishments

generating municipal solid waste.

Geog A system, usually computerised,

raphi that includes locations of all
c geographical characteristics of an
infor area of land. Items may include
matio elevation, houses, public utilities, or
n the location of bodies of water,
syste aquifers, and flood plains.
m
(GIS)

Geotextile A synthetic component

that is used as a filter
to prevent the
passing of fine-
grained material such
as silt or clay. A
geotextile may be
placed on top of a
drainage layer to
prevent the layer from
becoming clogged with
fine material.

Goals Specific, discrete aims

 tha s . A well-graded soil has a uniform
t i grain size distribution while a
def z poorly graded soil has a non-
ine e uniform grain size distribution.
acc
om Groundwater Water beneath the
pli earth’s surface that
sh fills underground
me pockets (known as
nt aquifers), supplying
of wells and springs.
the
vis Gro A well placed at an appropriate
ion un
an location and depth for taking
dw water samples to determine
d ater
mi groundwater quality in the area
mo surrounding a landfill or other
ssi nito
on. site.
ring
well
Grain A
size me Hammermill A type of crusher or
distributio tho
shredder used to
n d break materials up
of into smaller pieces.
cat
eg Handling Includes all activities
ori relating to sorting,
zin segregation, material
g recovery, collection,
soi secondary storage,
ls shredding, baling,
in crushing, loading,
wh unloading,
ich transportation,
soi processing and
l disposal of solid
par waste.
ticl
es
are
sep
ara
ted
acc
ord
ing
to
Hazardous Waste A waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public
(HW) health or the environment generally exhibiting one or more
of these characteristics: ignitable, oxidizing, corrosive, eco-
toxic, radioactive, etc. Such wastes arising from industries
are called as Industrial Hazardous Waste.

Heat value Heat generated per unit

weight or volume of
combustible material
completely burned.

Heavy metals Metals of high atomic

weight and density that are
toxic to living organisms,
such as mercury, lead, and
cadmium.

HELP A specialised computer program that

(hydrolo performs the water balance equation
gic and aids in modeling by predicting
evaluati leachate generation. By selecting
on different covers and liners, an
of landfill optimum combination can be
performan achieved.
ce) model

Househ Products used in residences that are

old toxic to living organisms and/or the
hazardo environment, such as paints and
us waste some cleaning compounds.

Humus The end product of

composting which is a dark
organic material forms after
the decomposition of organic
waste also called compost.

Hyd The hydraulic conductivity of a soil

rauli is a measure of the soil’s ability to
c transmit water when submitted to a
cond hydraulic gradient. These
uctivi properties determine the behavior
ty of the soil fluid within the soil
system under specified conditions.

Importer A person who imports new

lead acid batteries or
components containing lead
GLOSSAR 537
Y
 t ing burning or combustion
h of MSW to thermally degrade
e waste materials at high
r temperatures.
e
o Industrial waste Materials discarded from
f industrial operations or
derived from
f manufacturing processes.
o
r Inerts Wastes which are not bio-
degradable, recyclable or
t combustible and includes
h non recyclable fraction of
e construction and demolition
waste, street sweeping or
p dust and silt removed from
u the surface drains.
r
p
Infiltration layer A low hydraulic conductivity
o
layer in a landfill, usually a
s
component in the cover that
e
is placed to minimise liquid
o infiltration to the waste
f layer.

s
a
l
e
.

tion

p
r
o
c
e
s
s

i
n
v
o
l
v

538 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Informal sector The part of an economy that is characterised by private,
usually small-scale, labour-intensive, largely unregulated,
and unregistered manufacturing or provision of services.

Inoculants Microbial concoction or natural material containing

microbes, e.g., stabilised sewage sludge, cattle manure,
and commercially available proprietary material to boost
composting, e.g., EM solution.

Inorganic waste Waste composed of material other than plant or animal

matter, such as sand, dust, glass, and many synthetics.

Institutional Includes occupier of the institutional buildings such as

Generator building occupied by central government departments, state
government departments, public or private sector
companies, hospitals, schools, colleges, universities or other
places of education, organisation, academy, hotels and
restaurants.

Institutional waste Waste materials originating in schools, hospitals, prisons,

research institutions, and other public buildings.

Integrated Solid ISWM refers to a strategic initiative for the sustained

Waste Management management of solid waste through the use of a
(ISWM) comprehensive integrated format generated through
sustained preventive and consultative approach to the
complementary use of a variety of practices to handle solid
waste in a safe and effective manner.

In-vessel Composting in an enclosed vessel or drum with a controlled

composting internal environment, mechanical mixing, and aeration.

Itinerant A person who moves around the streets buying (or bartering
waste buyer for) reusable and recyclable materials.

Kerbside collection Collection of compostable, recyclables, or trash at the edge

of a sidewalk in front of a residence or a shop.

Key Performance Parameters that provide a meaningful, concise, overall

Indicators (KPI’s) picture of an organisation’s performance or that of the
project/programme, used to report progress that is chosen
to reflect the critical success factors of a program or plan.
The KPI’s reflect long-term considerations.

Landfill gases Gases arising from the decomposition of organic wastes;

principally methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
sulphide. Such gases may cause explosions at landfills.
Landfill mining A process of removing reusable resources from old landfills
for recycling.

Landfilling The disposal of residual municipal solid waste on land in a

facility designed with protective ·measures against pollution
of ground water, surface water and air fugitive dust, wind-
blown litter, bad odour, fire hazard, bird menace, pests or
rodents, greenhouse gas emissions, slope instability and
erosion.

Leachate The liquid that seeps through solid waste or other medium
and has extracts of dissolved or suspended material from it.

Leachate collection Network of pipes or geotextiles/geonets placed at low areas

system of the landfill liner to collect leachate from a landfill for
storage and treatment. Flow of leachate along the liner is
facilitated by the use of a soil drainage blanket or geonet.

Leachate pond A pond or tank constructed at a landfill to receive the

leachate from the area. Usually the pond is designed to
provide some treatment of the leachate, by allowing
settlement of solids or by aeration to promote biological
processes.

Liner a protective layer, made of soil and/or synthetic materials,

installed along the bottom and sides of a landfill to prevent
or reduce the flow of leachate into the environment.

Magnetic band Magnets fixed on a moving belt or band which moves close
to a surface (e.g., a belt conveyor) and continuously picks up
ferrous material and sheds them systematically into a
hopper or another conveyor belt.

Magnetic separation A system to remove ferrous metals from other materials in

a mixed municipal waste stream. Magnets are used to collect
the ferrous metals.

Manufacturer In relation to any factory manufacturing lead acid batteries

or components thereof means a person or Chief Executive
Officer (CEO) of the company who has control over the
affairs of the factory or the premises for sale and collection
of lead acid batteries or components thereof.

Market waste Primarily organic waste, such as leaves, skins, and unsold
food, discarded at or near food markets.

GLOSSAR 539
Y
Mass burn A type of incinerator in which solid waste is burned without
incinerator prior sorting or processing.

Materi A facility where non-combustible solid

al waste can be temporarily stored by the
recove urban local body or any person
ry authorised by the urban local body to
facilit facilitate segregation, sorting and
y recovery of various components of
(MRF) waste by informal sector of waste
pickers or any other work force
engaged for the purpose before the
waste is delivered or taken up for its
processing or disposal.

M A system to remove ferrous metals

ec from other materials in a mixed
ha municipal waste stream. Magnets are
ni used to collect ferrous metals.
ca
l
se
pa
ra
ti
o
n

Methane An odourless, colourless,

flammable, explosive gas,
CH4, produced by
anaerobically
decomposing MSW at
landfills.

Moisture content The fraction or percentage of a substance

or soil that is water.

M thority
u
n
ic
i
p
al
A
u
Th n mittee (NAC) and any other peri
e c a urban area declared as census town
Mu h r or urban centre during publication
nic a e of 2011 census of India or any
ipa y a other urban local body constituted
l a under the Acts for time being in
Co t c force and, where the management
rp o and handling of municipal solid
or , m waste is entrusted to such agency.
ati
on, n Muni Includes the domestic waste,
Na o cipal commercial waste, institutional waste,
ga t Solid market waste and other non
r i Wast residential wastes, street sweepings,
Ni f e silt removed/collected from the
ga i (MS surface drains, horticulture waste,
m, e W) construction and demolition (C&D)
Mu d waste and treated bio-medical waste
nic excluding industrial hazardous waste,
ipa i and e-waste generated in any
l n municipal authority area in either
co d solid or semi-solid form.
un u
cil, s Munici
Na t Planning, implementation and
pal enforcement of reduction, re-use,
ga r Solid
r i recovery and recycling of municipal
Waste solid waste in a scientific and
Pal a Manage
ika l hygienic manner, the storage of
ment segregated municipal solid waste at
Na (MSW
ga t source, primary collection from the
M) source of waste generation, street
r o
pal w sweeping, removal of silt from the
ika n surface drains, storage and collection of
Pa s C&D waste, dairy waste, horticulture
ris h waste, secondary storage,
ha i transportation, processing and safe
d, p disposal of municipal solid waste.
Na ,
ga
r n
Pa o
nc t
hy i
at, f
To i
wn e
pa d
 Mulch Ground up or mixed yard trimmings placed around plants
to prevent evaporation of moisture and freezing of roots and
to nourish the soil.

Municipal (project) A method of financing in which bonds are given on the basis
revenue bond of the worthiness, technological feasibility, and projected
revenue of a project.

Non-biodegradable Any waste that cannot be degraded by micro organisms into

Waste simpler stable compounds.

Occupier A person having the administrative control over the

institution and the premises generating bio-medical waste
which includes a hospital, nursing home, clinic, dispensary,
veterinary institution, animal house, pathological laboratory,
blood bank, health care facility, and clinical establishments
by whatever name it may be called.

Operator of a A person who owns, or controls or operates, for the

common bio- collection, reception, transport, storage, treatment, disposal
medical waste or any other form of handling bio-medical wastes.
treatment facility

Operator of facility A person or entity, who owns or operates a facility for

handling solid waste which includes the urban local body
and any other entity or agency appointed by the urban local
body.

Organic compost Compost made from raw materials, which may include
materials of biological origin (plant, animal) such as food
waste, horticultural waste, fruit / vegetable / meat / fish
market waste, chemically unprocessed minerals etc. (such
as, rock phosphate).

Organic material Composed of organic components containing carbon and

(Organic waste) other chemical compounds. The organic fraction of MSW
includes paper, wood, food scraps, plastics, and yard
trimmings.

Original Manufacturer of equipment or product using lead acid

equipment batteries as a component.
manufacturer

Orphaned products Non branded or assembled electrical and electronic

equipment as specified in the Schedule I, or those products
by a company, which has closed its operations or has
stopped product support.

542 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent

Particulate matter Tiny pieces of matter resulting from the combustion
(pm) process. PM can have harmful health effects when breathed.
Pollution control at combustion facilities is designed to limit
particulate emissions.

Passive venting A venting technique

using the natural
pressure created in
landfills to expel
gases and control
gas migration.

Pathogens Disease-causing
agents, especially
microorganisms
such as bacteria,
viruses, and fungi.

Pelletisation A process whereby

small cubes or
cylindrical pieces are
made out of
segregated
combustible solid
wastes.

Percolate To filter gradually

through a porous or
a permeable
substance.
Groundwater may
percolate into the
bottom of an unlined
landfill.

Permeability A measure of how

well a liquid moves
through the pores of
a solid. Expressed as
a number applied to
landfills in terms of
how quickly water
moves through soil;
it is typically
expressed as
centimeters per
second.
Permeable and contain enough
detail to move
open smoothly from phase
ings to phase.
that
per Phasing A system of running
mit a project in more
liqui than one step
ds or (phase). Each phase
gass is generally
es to independent of the
pass others, which offers
thro more flexibility in
ugh. management and
operation.
Phase diagram A
diag Plastic Material which
ram contains as an
(or a essential ingredient
serie a high polymer and
s of which at some stage
diag of its processing into
ram its finished products
s) can be shaped by
used flow.
to
sho Plastic waste Any plastic product
w such as carry bags,
chro pouches or multi-
nolo layered packages
gical which have been
orde discarded after use
r in or after their
a intended life is over.
proj
ect. Platform A type of transfer
The station that has a
diag waste storage
ram capacity of several
shou days or more. While
ld the waste is in
sho temporary storage,
w recyclable materials
key may be removed.
tran
sitio
n
poin
ts
Post-closure care A procedure of maintaining the environmental controls and
appearance of a landfill after it has ceased to accept waste.

Post-consumer The reuse of materials generated from residential and

recycling commercial waste, excluding recycling of material from
industrial processes that has not reached the consumer,
such as glass broken in the manufacturing process.

Precycling The decision-making process consumers use to judge a

purchase based on its waste implications. Criteria include
whether a product is reusable, durable, and repairable;
made from renewable or non-renewable resources; over-
packaged; or in a reusable container.

Prescribed The Authority declared as State Pollution Control Board or

Authority Pollution Control Committee for Union Territory under rule
4 and made responsible to perform the duties and
undertake responsibilities as specified in rule 5.

Primary collection Collecting, lifting and removal of segregated solid waste

from source of its generation including households, shops,
offices and any other non-residential premises or from any
collection points or any other location specified by the
urban local body.

Primary leachate When waste enters a landfill, it contains some amount of

liquid, which leaches out of the refuse as primary leachate.

Processing The process by which municipal solid waste is transformed

into new or recycled products.

Producer Means any person who, irrespective of the selling technique

used, 1. Manufacturers and offers to sell electrical and
electronic equipment under his own brand; or 2. Offers to
sell under his own brand, assembled electrical and
electronic equipment produced by other manufacturers or
suppliers; or
3. Offers to sell imported electrical and electronic equipment.

Reconditioner A person involved in repairing of lead acid batteries for

selling the same in the market.

Recycler An occupier who processes used lead acid batteries or

components thereof for recovering lead.

Recycling The process of transforming segregated solid waste into a

new product or a raw material for producing new products.

GLOSSAR 543
Y
Redevelopement Rebuilding of old residential or commercial buildings
at the same site, where the existing buildings and other
infrastructures have become dilapidated.

Refractory A material that can withstand dramatic heat variations. Used

in conventional combustion chambers in incinerators.

Refuse Derived Segregated combustible fraction of solid waste other than

Fuel (RDF) chlorinated plastics in the form of pellets or fluff produced
by drying, shredding, dehydrating and compacting
combustible components of solid waste that can be used as
fuel.

Registered recycler A recycler registered with the Ministry of Environment and

Forests or an agency designated by it for reprocessing used
lead acid batteries or components thereof.

Registration The process of authentication of the facility run by an

operator (NGO, CBO, private company), which would
ensure standard operating procedure and produce material
in compliance with applicable quality standards. This would
be done in a time bound manner – initially for one year, to
be renewed on yearly basis subject to appropriate
inspection of the premises and sampling of the compost
produced for quality check. Valid registration would be a
pre-condition for consideration of any assistance from the
Government or the Local Body.

Residual waste Includes the waste and rejects from the solid waste
processing facilities which are not suitable for recycling or
further processing.

Resource recovery A term describing the extraction and use of materials and
energy from the waste stream. The term is sometimes used
synonymously with energy recovery.

Reuse The use of a product more than once in its same form for
the same purpose; e.g., a soft drink bottle is reused when it
is returned to the bottling company for refilling.

Rotary screen A round screen which moves either on its axis or preferably
moved from outside, so that the material inside goes
through ‘cascading’ action. The feeding side is kept slightly
higher than the discharge side.
Sanitary landfill The final and safe disposal of residual solid waste and inert
wastes on land in a facility designed with protective
measures against pollution of ground water, surface water
and fugitive air dust, wind-blown litter, bad odour, fire
hazard, animal menace, bird menace, pests or rodents,
greenhouse gas emissions, persistent organic pollutants
slope instability and erosion.

Sanitary waste Wastes comprising of used diapers, sanitary towels or

napkins, tampons, condoms, incontinence sheets and any
other similar waste.

Scavenging At a landfill or material recovery facility, scavenging is the

uncontrolled separation of recyclable and reusable
materials. Uncontrolled means that the operator does not
monitor the removal of materials, and in many cases
prohibits it. Material scavenging of recyclables may also
occur at the curb or at drop-off centres.

Scrap Discarded or rejected industrial waste material often

suitable for recycling.

Scrubber Common anti-pollution device that uses a liquid or slurry

spray to remove acid gases and particulates from municipal
waste combustion facility flue gases.

Secondary Collection of solid waste deposited at secondary waste

collection storage depots or bins for onward transportation of the
waste to the processing or disposal facility.

Secondary material A material that is used in place of a primary or raw material

in manufacturing a product.

Secondary storage The temporary containment of solid waste at a public place

in a covered bin or containers in a manner so as to prevent
littering, vectors, stray animals and foul odour.

Segregation Sorting and separate storage of various components of

solid waste namely biodegradable wastes or wet waste,
non biodegradable wastes or dry waste including
recyclable waste, combustible waste sanitary waste and
non recyclable inert waste, domestic hazardous wastes, E-
waste and construction and demolition wastes.

Service Provider An authority providing public utility services like water,

sewerage, electricity, telephone, roads, drainage etc.

GLOSSAR 545
Y
Settlement As refuse decomposes and/or becomes compacted by the
weight of overlaying layers, landfills experience a volume
decrease and compaction of individual layers of waste in
the landfill. Settlement refers to this volume decrease and
compaction of layers.

Shredder A mechanical device used to break waste materials into

smaller pieces by tearing and impact action. Shredding solid
waste is done to minimise its volume or make it more
readily combustible.

Sludge A semi-liquid residue remaining from the treatment of

municipal and industrial water and wastewater.

Sorting Separation of recyclables into various categories such as

paper, plastic, metal, glass, etc including further separation
of such material into varying grades as may be appropriate
to facilitate cost effective recycling;

Source reduction The design, manufacture, acquisition, and reuse of materials

so as to minimise the quantity and/or toxicity of waste
produced. Source reduction prevents waste either by
redesigning products or by otherwise changing societal
patterns of consumption, use, and waste generation. (See
also, “waste reduction”).

Source separation The segregation of specific materials at the point of

generation for separate collection. Residential generators
source separate recyclables as part of curbside recycling
programs.

Special waste Refers to items that require special or separate handling,

such as household hazardous wastes, bulky wastes, tires,
and used oil.

Stabilizing The biological decomposition of biodegradable wastes to

a stable state where it generates no leachate or offensive
odours and is fit for application to farm land ,soil erosion
control and soil remediation.

Stacking Arranging raw material in piles or heaps.

State Pollution The State Pollution Control Board or the Pollution Control
Control Board Committee, as the case may be, constituted under sub-
or Pollution section (1) of section 4 of the Water (Prevention and Control
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
Committee
Static pile A composting pile which is not turned for aeration. Instead,
air is passed through the windrows by using perforated
pipes and air blowers.

Storage The temporary containment of municipal solid waste in a

manner so as to prevent littering, attraction to vectors, stray
animals and excessive foul odour.

Street Vendor A person engaged in vending of articles, goods, wares, food

items or merchandise of everyday use or offering services
to the general public, in a street, lane, side walk, footpath,
pavement, public park or any other public place or private
area, from a temporary built up structure or by moving
from place to place and includes hawker, peddler, squatter
and all other synonymous terms which may be local or
region specific; and the words “street vending” with their
grammatical variations and cognate expressions, shall be
construed accordingly.

Thermophilic Heat-loving microorganisms that thrive in and generate

microorganisms temperatures above 105 degrees Fahrenheit.

Tipping fee A fee or support price determined by the urban local body
or any state agency authorised by the state government to
be paid to the concessionaire or operator for handling one
or more components of solid waste.

Tipping floor/pit Unloading area for vehicles that are delivering municipal solid
waste to a transfer station or municipal waste combustion
facility.

Transfer station A permanent facility where waste materials are taken from
smaller collection vehicles and placed in larger vehicles for
transport, including truck trailers, railroad cars, or barges.
Recycling and some processing may also take place at
transfer stations.

Transportation Conveyance of solid waste, either treated, partly treated

or untreated from a location to another location in an
environmentally sound manner through specially designed
and covered transport system so as to prevent the foul
odour, littering and unsightly conditions.

Treated Bio The wastes generated in hospitals and health care

medical wastes institutions which have been prescribed as treated in
accordance with the Bio-medical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rule 1998, as amended from time to time.

GLOSSAR 547
Y
Treatment The method, technique or process, designed to modify
physical, chemical or biological characteristics or
composition of any waste so as to reduce its potential to
cause harm.

Trommel An improved version of rotary screen, which is driven from

outside, preferably using hydraulic power packs to keep the
movement smooth, especially while starting after a power
cut. The screen is covered from outside to control dust.

Turning The material in a pile or windrow is moved in a manner that

the material in the core area comes out on the surface so
that the whole windrow gets exposed to air by turn.

Used batteries Used, damaged and old lead acid batteries or components
thereof.

Urban Local Body The purpose of these rules means and includes the municipal
corporation, nagar nigam, municipal council, nagar palika,
nagar palika parishad, municipal board, nagar panchyat,
town panchayat, notified area committee or any other
local body constituted under the relevant statutes where
management of solid waste is entrusted to such agency
including the body in notified industrial township, notified
area, villages declared outgrowth in urban agglomeration by
the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India
from time to time.

User fee A fee imposed through a bye-law by the urban local body on
the waste generator.

Vector An organism or insect which often carries diseases or

parasites from one animal or plant to another, e.g., fly,
mosquito etc.

Vermicast/ The excrement from earthworms, which is also called

vermicompost vermicompost.

Vermicomposting A process of conversion of bio-degradable waste into

compost using earthworms.

Viability Financial support determined by the urban local body or

Gap authorised State Government or Central Government agency
Funding to be paid to the concessionaire or operator of a solid waste
processing facility based on the output quantity of compost,
biogas produced or energy or power generated so as to
cover or
partly cover
the
difference
between
market price
of the output
and its
production
cost plus
reasonable
profit
margin
Vibro-screen A screening arrangement, in which flat screens vibrate in
a horizontal plane; less expensive than trommel but less
efficient.

Virgin plastic Plastic material which has not been subjected to use earlier
and has also not been blended with scrap or waste.

Waste generators Includes every person or group of persons or residential and

commercial establishments including Indian Railways and
Defense cantonments which generate solid waste.

Waste pickers A person or groups of persons engaged in collection of

reusable and recyclable solid waste from the source of
waste generation as well as picking up of wastes from the
streets, bins, processing and waste disposal facilities for sale
to recyclers directly or through intermediaries to earn their
livelihood.

Waste reduction Waste reduction is a broad term encompassing all waste

management methods—source reduction, recycling,
composting—that result in reduction of waste going to a
combustion facility or landfill.

Waste stream A term describing the total flow of solid waste from homes,
businesses, institutions and manufacturing plants that must
be recycled, burned, or disposed of in landfills; or any
segment thereof, such as the “residential waste stream” or
the “recyclable waste stream.”

Waste-to-Energy A method of converting MSW into a usable form of energy,

system (WTE) usually though combustion.

Water balance An equation that is used to model and predict the amounts
of water that will go to various destinations. Typical
destinations include evaporation, infiltration, and run-off.
The sum of the amounts to the destinations must be equal to
the source of the water (usually precipitation).

Water table The level below the earth’s surface at which the ground
becomes saturated with water. Landfills and composting
facilities are designed with respect to the water table in
order to minimise potential contamination.

Wet scrubber Anti-pollution device in which a lime slurry (dry lime mixed
with water) is injected into the flue gas stream to remove
acid gases and particulates.

GLOSSAR 549
Y
Wet/dry collection A collection system that allows wet organic materials to
systems be separated by generators from dry wastes. Wet organic
materials are suitable for composting, while dry materials
are non-organics that may include recyclables.

Windrow Long trapezoidal

heaps or piles. Long
composting heaps
are referred to as
‘windrow’. The base
is wider and the top
is narrower.
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 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

CLEANLINESS PLEDGE
Mahatma Gandhi dreamt of an India which was not only free but also clean and developed.
Mahatma Gandhi secured freedom for Mother India.
Now it is our duty to serve Mother India by keeping the country neat and clean.
I take this pledge that I will remain committed towards cleanliness and devote time for this.
I will devote 100 hours per year, that is two hours per week, to voluntarily work for
cleanliness. I will neither litter not let others litter.
I will initiate the quest for cleanliness with myself, my family, my locality, my village and my
work place.
I believe that the countries of the world that appear clean are so because their citizens don't
indulge in littering nor do they allow it to happen. With this firm belief, I will propagate the
message of Swachh Bharat Mission in villages and towns.
I will encourage 100 other persons to take this pledge which I am taking today.
I will endeavour to make them devote their 100 hours for cleanliness.
I am confident that every step I take towards cleanliness will help in making my country clean.

Do’s
• Start cleanliness from home Don’ts
• Keep surroundings clean and • Don’t litter and don’t let others litter
green • Don’t defecate and urinate in open
• Keep work place neat and clean • Don’t deface public properties
• Devote 2 hours a week on • Don’t spit in public places
sanitation • Don’t dump garbage in drains/water bodies
• Dispose garbage in designated
places.

Eligible Components Under Swachh Bharat Mission in Urban Local Bodies

Individual Household Toilets | Community Toilets | Public Toilets | Solid Waste Management

MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi 110 011,
564 Manual on Municipal Solid WaSte ManageMent
 India www.moud.gov.in
www.swachhbharaturban.gov.in