Reţele de calculatoare

Modelul Internet : o viziune globala

Victor Moraru
 Lista de literatură recomandată

Jim Kurose, Keith Ross "Computer Networking: A

Top Down Approach" , 6th edition, Addison-
Wesley, 2013
Andrew S. Tanenbaum "Computer Netwoks", 5th
edition, Prentice Hall, 2011
Larry L. Peterson, Bruce S. Davie, "Computer
Networks: A Systems Approach", Elsevier, 2011
Introducere

Computer
Networking: A
Top Down
Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith
Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012

Introduction 1-3
Capitolul 1: sumar
1.1 ce este Internet-ul?
1.2 frontiera retelei
 Sisteme terminale, retele de acces,
link-uri
1.3 nucleul retelei
 comutarea de pachete, comutarea de circuite,
structura retelei
1.4 intarzieri, pierderi, debituri in retele
1.5 straturi de protocoale, modele de
serviciu
1.6 istoria

Introduction 1-4
Capitolul 1: introducere
our goal: overview:
 get “feel” and  what’s the Internet?
terminology  what’s a protocol?
 more depth,
 network edge; hosts, access
net, physical media
detail later in  network core: packet/circuit
course switching, Internet structure
 approach:  performance: loss, delay,
 use Internet throughput
 security
as example  protocol layers, service
models
 history
Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
PC  millions mobile network
of connected
server computing devices:
 hosts = end systems global ISP
wireless
laptop  running network apps
smartphone
home
 communication links network
regional ISP
 fiber, copper,
wireless
links radio, satellite
wired  transmission
links
rate: bandwidth

 Packet switches:
forward packets
router (chunks of data) institutional
network
 routers and
switches Introduction 1-6
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
mobile network
 Internet: “network of
networks” global ISP
 Interconnected ISPs
 protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs home
network
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, regional ISP
802.11
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force

institutional
network

Introductio 1-7
n
What’s the Internet: a service view
mobile network
 Infrastructure that
provides services to global ISP
applications:
 Web, VoIP, email, games, e-
commerce, social nets, … home
network
 provides programming regional ISP
interface to apps
 hooks that allow sending
and receiving app
programs to “connect” to
Internet
 provides service options,
analogous to postal service
institutional
network

Introductio 1-8
n
What’s a protocol?

human protocols: network protocols:

 “what’s the time?”  machines rather
 “I have a question” than humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
governed by
… specific msgs sent protocols
… specific actions
taken when msgs protocols define format,
received, or other order of msgs sent and
events received among network
entities, and actions taken
on msg transmission,
receipt

Introduction 1-9
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

Introduction 1-10
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-11
A closer look at network
structure:
mobile network
 network edge:
 hosts: clients and global ISP
servers
 servers often in data
centers home
 access networks, network
regional ISP
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication
links
 network core:
 interconnected
routers institutional
network
 network of
networks Introduction 1-12
Access networks and physical
media
Q: How to connect
end systems to
edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?

Introduction 1-13
Access net: digital subscriber
line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

 data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
 voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps)
 < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 10 Mbps)

Introduction 1-14
Access net: cable network
cable headend
…

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing:

different channels transmitted
in different frequency bands Introduction 1-15
Access net: cable network
cable headend
…

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS
termination system

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission rate, 2
Mbps upstream transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
 homes share access network to cable headend
 unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central office

Introduction 1-16
 Access net: home network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Introduction 1-17
Enterprise access networks
(Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet
switch

Introduction 1-18
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet

Introduction 1-19
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
takes application message
breaks into smaller
two packets,
chunks, known as packets, L bits each
of length L bits
transmits packet into
access network at
transmission rate R 2 1
 link transmission rate,
R: link transmission rate
aka link capacity, aka host
link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
1-20
Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver
pairs twisted pair (TP)
 physical link: what lies  two insulated copper
between transmitter & wires
receiver  Category 5: 100
 guided media: Mbps, 1 Gpbs
Ethernet
 signals propagate in  Category 6: 10Gbps
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio

Introduction 1-21
Physical media: coax, fiber

coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:

 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 high-speed point-to-point
 broadband: transmission (e.g., 10’s-
 multiple channels on 100’s Gpbs transmission
cable rate)
 HFC  low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far
apart
 immune to
electromagnetic noise

Introduction 1-22
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps
 no physical “wire” channels
 bidirectional
 LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 propagation
environment effects:
 wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
 reflection
 obstruction by
 satellite
 Kbps to 45Mbps channel
objects (or multiple smaller
 interference channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Introduction 1-23
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-24
The network core

 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from
one router to the next,
across links on path
from source to
destination
 each packet transmitted
at full link capacity

Introduction 1-25
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to transmit

(push out) L-bit packet into link one-hop numerical
at R bps example:
 store and forward: entire  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet must arrive at router
 R = 1.5 Mbps
before it can be transmitted on
next link  one-hop transmission
delay = 5 sec
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming
zero propagation delay) more on delay shortly …
Introduction 1-26
Packet Switching: queueing delay,
loss
R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds
transmission rate of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on
link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory
(buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-27
Two key network-core functions
routing: determines forwarding: move
source-destination route packets from router’s
taken by packets input to appropriate
 routing algorithms router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
11
01

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Network Layer 4-28
Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated
to, reserved for “call”
between source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link
and 1st circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no
sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not used
by call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

Introduction 1-29
Circuit switching: FDM versus TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-30
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!
example:
 1 Mb/s link

 each user:

…..
N
• 100 kb/s when “active” users
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link

 circuit-switching:
 10 users
 packet switching:
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
 with 35 users,
probability > 10 active Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
at same time is less
than .0004 *

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples Introduction 1-31
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion
control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching)

versus on-demand allocation (packet-switching)?

Introduction 1-32
Internet structure: network of
networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to
each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and
national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe
current Internet structure
Internet structure: network of
networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit
ISP? Customer and provider ISPs have economic
agreement.access … access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors ….
access
…
access access
net net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors …. which must be interconnected
… access
net
access
access
net …
Internet exchange point
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect
access nets to ISPS
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google,
Microsoft, Akamai ) may run their own network, to
bring services,…
content
access close
net
access to end users
net …
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net
 Internet structure: network of
networks
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that
connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1,
Introduction 1-41
regional ISPs
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… … …
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-42
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-43
How do loss and delay occur?

packets queue in router buffers

 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds
output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-44
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 typically < msec  depends on congestion
level of router
Introduction 1-45
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission dprop: propagation delay:

delay:  d: length of physical link
 L: packet length (bits)  s: propagation speed in
 R: link bandwidth (bps) medium (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R  dprop = d/s
dtrans and dprop * Check out the Java applet for
very different an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay
Introduction 1-46
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing
 R: link bandwidth (bps)

delay
 L: packet length (bits)
 a: average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity La/R ~ 0

= La/R
 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small
 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay
infinite!
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss La/R -> 1
Introduction 1-47
“Real” Internet delays and routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-
end Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and
reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-48
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms link
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms
* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at www.traceroute.org
Introduction 1-49
Packet loss
 queue (buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka
lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-50
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which
bits transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server, with
server sends link capacity
pipe that can carry link capacity
pipe that can carry
file ofbits
F bits fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
fluid at rate
to(fluid)
send into
to client
pipe Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-51
Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput

Introduction 1-52
Throughput: Internet scenario

 per-connection
end-end Rs
throughput: Rs Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: Rc or
R
Rs is often
bottleneck Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-53
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-54
Protocol “layers”
Networks are
complex,
with many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
is there any hope of
 routers organizing structure of
 links of various network?
media
 applications …. or at least our
 protocols discussion of networks?
 hardware,
software

Introduction 1-55
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance,
updating of system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t
affect rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-56
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting
network applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
 transport: process-process
data transfer transport
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams network
from source to destination
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements physical
 Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-57
ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow
applications to interpret
meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, presentation
machine-specific conventions
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of transport
data exchange
 Internet stack “missing” network
these layers! link
 these services, if needed, must
be implemented in application physical
 needed?

Introduction 1-58
 source
message M application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-59
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-60
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock -  1972:
queueing theory  ARPAnet public demo
shows effectiveness  NCP (Network Control
of packet-switching
Protocol) first host-host
 1964: Baran - protocol
packet-switching in  first e-mail program
military nets
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
 1967: ARPAnet
conceived by
Advanced Research
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

Introduction 1-61
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s
 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internetworking
architecture for principles:
interconnecting networks  minimalism, autonomy - no
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC internal changes required
to interconnect networks
 late70’s: proprietary
 best effort service model
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
 stateless routers
XNA
 decentralized control
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM define today’s Internet
precursor) architecture
 1979: ARPAnet has 200
nodes

Introduction 1-62
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
 1983: deployment of  new national
TCP/IP networks: Csnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail BITnet, NSFnet,
protocol defined Minitel
 1983: DNS defined  100,000 hosts
for name-to-IP- connected to
address translation confederation of
 1985: ftp protocol networks
defined
 1988: TCP
congestion control

Introduction 1-63
Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web,
new apps
 early 1990’s: ARPAnet late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned  more killer apps:
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
instant messaging,
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995) P2P file sharing
 early 1990s: Web  network security to
 hypertext [Bush 1945, forefront
Nelson 1960’s]  est. 50 million host,
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee 100 million+ users
 1994: Mosaic, later  backbone links
Netscape running at Gbps
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the
Web

Introduction 1-64
Internet history
2005-present
 ~750 million hosts
 Smartphones and tablets
 Aggressive deployment of broadband access
 Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
 Emergence of online social networks:
 Facebook: soon one billion users
 Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their
own networks
 Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous”
access to search, emai, etc.
 E-commerce, universities, enterprises running
their services in “cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)

Introduction 1-65
Introduction: summary

covered a “ton” of you now have:

material!  context, overview,
 Internet overview “feel” of networking
 what’s a protocol?  more depth, detail
 network edge, core, to follow!
access network
 packet-switching
versus circuit-switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 layering, service models
 security
 history
Introduction 1-66