DIPLOMA IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

(D.El.Ed.)

Course-504
Learning Mathematics at
Elementary Level

Block -1
Importance of Learning Mathematics at the
Elementary Stage of Schooling

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OPEN SCHOOLING

A - 24/25, Institutional Area, Sector – 62,NOIDA
Gautam Buddha Nagar, UP – 201309
Website: www.nios.ac.in
 EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. Sitansu S. Jena Prof.C.S. Nagaraju Dr. Huma Masood
Chairman, NIOS, NOIDA Former Principal, Education Specialist, UNESCO,
Sh. B.K.Tripathi RIE (NCERT),Mysore New Delhi
IAS, Principal Secretary, HRD, Prof. K. Doraisami Prof. Pawan Sudhir
Govt. of Jharkhand, Ranchi Former Head, Department of Teacher Head, Deptt. of Art & Aesthtic
Prof. A.K. Sharma Education and Extension, NCERT, Education, NCERT,New Delhi
Former Director, NCERT, New Delhi New Delhi Sh. Binay Pattanayak
Prof. S.V.S. Chaudhary Prof.B. Phalachandra, Education Specialist, UNICEF, Ranchi
Former Vice Chairperson, NCTE, Former Head, Dept of Education & Dr. Kuldeep Agarwal
New Delhi Dean of Instruction, RIE Director(Academic), NIOS,NOIDA
Prof.C.B. Sharma (NCERT),Mysore Prof. S.C. Panda
School of Education, IGNOU, New Prof. K.K.Vashist Sr. Consultant(Academic),
Delhi Former Head, DEE, NCERT, NIOS, NOIDA
Prof. S.C. Agarkar New Delhi Dr. Kanchan Bala
Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre for Prof. Vasudha Kamat Executive Officer(Academic),
Science Education , Mumbai Vice Chancellor, NIOS,NOIDA
SNDT Women's University, Mumbai
COURSE COORDINATOR AND EDITOR
Dr. Mohit Mohan Mohanty, Former Director, SIEMAT, Odisha, Bhubneswar
LESSON WRITERS
Dr. Mohit Mohan Mohanty, Dr. Bamadev Tripathy, Sri Madan Mohan Mohanty,
Former Director ,SIEMAT, Odisha, Senior Teacher Educator, DIET, Former Mathematics Expert and
Bhubneswar Deogarh, Odisha Deputy Secretary, Board of Secondary
Sri Tapas Kumar Nayak, Dr. Rajendra Kumar Nayak, Education, Odisha, Cuttack
Senior Teacher Educator, Lecturer, Department of Education, Sri Sachidananda Mishra,
Directorate of Teacher Education and Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, Senior Teacher Educator, DIET, Cuttak,
SCERT, Odisha, Bhubaneswar Odisha Narasinghpur, Odisha

CONTENT EDITOR
Prof. G. Ravindra, Former Director, NCERT, New Delhi

LANGUAGE EDITOR
Dr. Anil Teotia Dr. Satyavir Singh Sh. Parmod
Senior Lecturer, DIET, SCERT, Principal, Shri Nehru Inter College, Kendriya Vidyalaya,
Delhi Pilana Baghpat, Kamla Nehru Nagar Gaziabad (UP)
U.P.
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. Kuldeep Agarwal Prof.S.C.Panda Dr. Kanchan Bala
Director(Academic), NIOS, Sr. Consultant (Teacher Education), Executive Officer (Teacher
NOIDA Academic Department, NIOS, Education), Academic Department,
NOIDA NIOS, NOIDA
COVER CONCEPTUALISATION TYPESETTING SECRETARIAL ASSISTANCE
& DESIGNING
Mr. D.N. Upreti M/S Shivam Graphics Ms. Sushma
Publication Officer, Printing, 431, Rishi Nagar, Delhi-34 Junior Assistant, Academic,
NIOS,NOIDA Department, NIOS, NOIDA
Mr. Dhramanand Joshi
Executive Assistant, Printing, NIOS
NOIDA
The Chairman's Message .....

Dear Learner
The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) is an autonomous organization under the
Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development(MHRD). It is the largest open
schooling system in the world with around 2.02 million learners currently on roll at the
secondary and senior secondary level. NIOS has national and international network with more
than 15 Regional Centres, 2 Sub-Centres and about 5,000 study centres for its Academic and
Vocational Programme within and outside the country.It provides access to learner centric
quality education, skill up-gradation and training through open and distance learning mode. The
delivery of its programmes is through printed material coupled with face to face tutoring
(Personal Contact Programmes), supplemented by use of Information and Communication
Technology- Audio/Video Cassettes, Radio Broadcast and Telecast etc.
NIOS has been vested with the authority to train the untrained teachers at Elementary Level. The
training package for D.El.Ed. Programme has been developed by the NIOS in collaboration with
other agencies working in field. The Institute offers a very innovative and challenging Two-year
Diploma in Elementary Education Programme for in-service untrained teachers in different
states according to RTE 2009.
I take the pleasure of welcoming you all to this Diploma Course in Elementary Education
Programme of National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). I appreciate your contribution in
elementary schooling of the children of your state. As per RTE Act 2009, it becomes essential
for all school teachers to be professionally trained. We understand that your experience as a
teacher has already given you requisite skills needed to be a good teacher. Since it is now
mandatory by law, you will have to complete this course. I am sure your knowledge and
experience, so far accumulated by you, will certainly help you in this Programme.
This D.El.Ed. Programme is through Open Distance Learning (ODL) mode and provides you
ample opportunity to be professionally trained without being disturbed from your regular
working as a teacher.
The self-instructional materials developed specifically for your use would be helpful in creating
understanding and help you in becoming a good teacher apart from becoming qualified for your
job.
Best of luck in this great endeavour!!
S.S. Jena
Chairman (NIOS)
 Credit points (4=3+1)
Block Unit Name of Unit Theory Study Practical Study
Hours
Content Activity
Block-1: U1 How children learn 3 2 Seminar on mathematics is
Importance of mathematics for all, mathematics phobia
Learning
Mathematics at U2 Mathematics and 4 2 -
the Elementary Mathematics Education -
Stage of Importance, Scope
Schooling and Relevance
U3 Goals and Vision of 4 2 Taking mathematics learning
Mathematics Education beyond classroom
Identification of problems in
mathematics education in
your class
U4 Learner and Learning – 5 3 Organizing mathematics club
centered in your school
methodologies
Block 2: U5 Numbers, Operations on 5 2 -
Enriching Numbers
Contents and Shapes and Spatial
U6 5 2 -
Methodology Relationships
U7 Measures and 4 2 -
Measurements
U8 Data Handling 4 3 Statistical analysis of data
U9 Algebra as generalized 4 2 -
Arithmetic
Block 3: Learner U10 Approaches to Assessment 3 2 Development of a lesson
Assessment in of Learning Mathematics plans and preparation of
Mathematics concept maps in
mathematics
U11 Tools and Techniques of 4 3 Development of exhibits for
Assessment mathematics laboratory
U12 Follow up of Assessment 3 2 Identification of problems
of Learning Mathematics and preparation of remedial
measures in learning
mathematics
Tutoring 15
Total 63 27 30
Grand Total 63+27+30=120 hrs.
 Block 1

Importance of Learning Mathematics

at the Elementary Stage of Schooling

Block Units
Unit 1 How children learn mathematics
Unit 2 Mathematics and Mathematics Education – Importance,
Scope and Relevance
Unit 3 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education
Unit 4 Learner and Learning – centered methodologies
BLOCK INTRODUCTION

You as a learner will study Block 1:

Importance of learning mathematics at the Elementary stage of Schooling. This Block consists
four units relating to importance of learning mathematics. Every units is divided into sections
and subsections.

UNIT-1 This unit will empower you to understand how children learn mathematics actually.
How does a child think and what are the Stages involved in cognitive development? There is a
close relationship between the growth of thinking and the development of mathematical
concepts. As a teacher, one should know how to deal with mathematics phobia which is present
in students and making mathematics learning more pleasurable.

UNIT-2 This unit will empower you to observe the nature of mathematics on the basis of which
mathematics education can be designed by teachers for learners. The importance of mathematics
education can also be realized in the context that how mathematics will help in real life
situations and develop attitude of Problem sowing?

UNIT-3 You will be acquainted with the aims of Mathematics Education. There will be can
acquaintance with the methods of imparting Mathematics education beyond classroom and
making it more Joyful so that Phobia for mathematics can be easily removed.

UNIT-4 This unit will empower you to understand the methods for teaching and learning
mathematics like inductive and deductive, Analysis and synthesis methods, Project and Problem
solving method. The rote learning not only makes understanding of mathematical concepts more
difficult but increase fear for mathematics which inhibits further learning of the subject, so there
is need of learning centered Approaches of Teaching mathematics like concept mapping,
Activity based approach. These approaches are followed to develop learner’s creative abilities
and there is proper focus on use of mathematics laboratory and library. There are Some
emerging trends in learning mathematics like cognitive, constructivist and experiential approach.
 CONTENTS

Sr.No. Unit Name Page No.

1. Unit 1 How children learn mathematics 1

2. Unit 2 Mathematics and Mathematics Education – 24
Importance, Scope and Relevance
3. Unit 3 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education 41
4. Unit 4 Learner and Learning – cantered methodologies 59
 How Children Learn Mathematics

UNIT 1 HOW CHILDREN LEARN

MATHEMATICS Notes

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 The Ways a Child Thinks
1.2.1 Stages of Cognitive Development
1.2.2 Development of Mathematical Concepts
1.3 Mathematics Learning during Early Childhood
1.3.1 Ways of Learning Mathematics
1.3.2 Mathematics Phobia
1.3.3 Making Mathematics Learning Pleasurable
1.4 Let Us Sum up
1.5 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
1.6 Suggested Readings and References
1.7 Unit-End Exercises

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Among all the school subjects, maximum emphasis is attached to learning mathematics.
You must have experienced, during your student days and also being a teacher, the
extent of pressure exerted on children to perform at a higher level in mathematics in
comparison with other subjects. Even the parents, irrespective of their educational
status, press their children very hard to perform well in mathematics and perhaps
maximum study time at home is spent on doing homework in mathematics than in any
other subject. In almost all cases, the condition of the learner for learning mathematics
is rarely taken into consideration. There is a general feeling that the child is a mini adult
and that he/she can acquire the mathematical skills effectively, either through developing
understanding or through rote memory, very often through latter. Driven by such belief,
the parents and teachers insist on rote memorization of a lot of mathematical concepts,
facts and tables. The result is that most of the children being subjected to mechanical
memorization without real understanding of principles and processes begin to develop
phobia for mathematics from the beginning of their school learning which may aggravate
and even continue throughout their life.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

You might have experienced that the mathematical concepts and processes at different
levels, especially at the primary level, are arranged from simpler to complex order.
Notes Have you ever thought that such arrangement has anything to do with the growth and
development of learner, particularly whether these are associated with the development
of their thinking abilities? Research has established a close relationship between the
growth of thinking and the development of mathematical concepts. As a teacher you
should be aware of such relationship so that you can develop understanding of the
strength and difficulties of every child in your class in their learning of mathematics
concepts and can take appropriate facilitating steps in that direction.
When the learners’ needs and interests are not properly understood and facilitated,
and on the other hand they are forced to learn mathematics literally as prescribed in
the textbooks, the learning of mathematics becomes a burden and problematic as is
being experienced in majority of children. They develop anxiety to perform which in
the long run creates phobia for mathematics, difficult to get rid of in a large number of
cases. If, as teachers, we have clear vision of how children learn mathematics in a
joyful manner, we can be able to properly facilitate their learning mathematics from the
beginning days of their school learning.
In this unit i.e., the first unit of this course on mathematics learning, we have tried to
discuss the ways the children love to learn mathematics by studying the development
of the mathematical concepts in accordance with the cognitive development of the
child. We have also tried to search for the typical problems of children in learning
mathematics which lead to the development of fear for mathematics and the ways to
make mathematics learning a pleasant experience for them.
For completing the study of this unit you will need approximately 06 (six) hours.

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to
recognise the developmental trends in learning mathematics concept during early
childhood.
explore the ways to facilitate children’s learning of mathematics at different stages
of development.
ascertain the difficulties faced by children in learning mathematics at the early
stage of learning and devise methods to make mathematics learning pleasurable
by overcoming those difficulties.

1.2 THE WAYS A CHILD THINKS

You come across large number of children every day, in your family, in the school, in
the market, on the road side and everywhere around you. You must be interacting with
them on innumerable occasions every day. In course of your interactions with a child,

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

what is your feeling about the child, the way he/she thinks and the way he/she learns?
Is he/she like any other adult person so far as the ways of thinking and learning are
concerned? Do you think the child begins to think and learn when he/she in the school? Notes
Here are some beliefs about the child and the ways a child thinks:
“A child’s mind is like a clean slate to be written upon.”
“A child’s mind is in totally dark which is to be illuminated by knowledge.”
“A child is like a lump of clay which can be given any shape as desired.”
“A child is like a green plant who should be nurtured.”
“A child’s mind is like an empty pot to be filled in by knowledge.”
Which of these statements do you believe to be appropriately describing the child’s
mind? It is difficult to know what type of thinking is there in the mind of any individual,
irrespective of his/her age. What we are interested from teaching-learning point of
view is not exactly what is in the mind of the child but how he/she is using the mind or
more specifically how he/she is thinking.
The base of thinking is perception, and perception comes from observing, experiencing
and interacting with objects in the environment. The young child’s first interactions
with his/her environment are based almost totally on the sense experiences: mostly by
seeing, and touching and sometimes by hearing and also by tasting. Many psychologists,
prominent among them are Piaget, and Bruner, believe that perceiving through
manipulation of ‘concrete’ objects forms the basis of human knowledge and thinking.
Piaget, the famous Swiss child psychologist, proposed that child’s thinking begins with
two processes: perception (the knowledge of objects resulting from direct contact
with them) and representation (mental imagery of the perceived objects). Of course,
for giving shape to the representation, language plays an important part.
As teachers, we have to keep in mind some principles of perception so as to facilitate
children’s thinking process without creating any hindrances. Some of the important
principles are as follows which emerged from the studies of Adelbert Ames Jrfar back
in1938 and are getting much attention in recent times:
We do not get our perceptions from the objects around us. Our perceptions
come from us. It is not to belittle the importance of the object but to highlight the
way in which each observer perceives the object. Numbers are quite fascinating
to many while these are dreaded figures for quite a large proportion of people
including adults and children.
What we perceive is largely a function of our previous experiences, our
assumptions and our purposes or needs.
We are unlikely to alter our perceptions until and unless we are frustrated in our
attempts to do something based on them. If suppose a child has observed her
mother combining two balls of dough into one and preparing a bread of it, she
perceives it as the addition to be 1+1=2. She is not likely to change her perception
until she has to add one solid object (like a marble) with another of the kind.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

Since our perceptions come from us and our past experiences, it is obvious that
each individual will perceive the same object in a unique way. Communication is
Notes possible only to the extent that two perceivers have similar purposes, assumptions
and experience.
The meaning of a perception is how it causes us to act. When it rains, some
people run for shelter and some enjoy dancing in the rain. Their perceptions of
what is happening are different as reflected in their actions.
Representation is the process of formation of images of the objects when the object is
not in the field of direct observation. In this situation, the child requires to describe the
object that is in his/her mind using language in some form or other. Therefore, language
is called the vehicle of thought.

ACTIVITY- 1

Give the name of any one object (say a pencil). Ask the students to tell
whatever that comes to mind immediately after hearing the name of the
object (each has to tell only one such). List down the responses of students
and observe the multifarious connotations given by the students.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

Piaget conceptualized the structure of the process of knowing or cognition which he

considered invariant in all situations and for all individuals. He stipulated that every
child has a mental structure which is activated when it comes across an object, a
process or an event. The child tries the twin processes of assimilation (interpreting
the perceived object, process or event with the existing mental structure) and
accommodation (modifying the existing structure to interpret the object, event or
process). When the child strikes a balance between the two processes while trying to
internalize the perceived object, adaptation (a relatively stable structure) takes place.
The process of striking a balance between accommodation and assimilation is called
equilibration which is very important in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Although, each individual’s thought process follows the invariant process of organisation
and adaptation as equilibration of assimilation and accommodation, yet everyone is
unique in his/her ways of thinking. That is because the individuals differ in their perception
and representation, in the ways of processing their experiences through equilibrating
their assimilation, accommodation and finally in organising the adapted bits of thinking.
In each of the processes and at each stage of thinking, each child has its own and
unique way.
Let us have a brief overview of the stages of cognitive development of children as
stated by Piaget which has been now accepted universally. This will provide us with

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

insight into the ways a child develops his/her thinking as he/she grows up. This will be
of particular interest for us teaching mathematics, because Piaget has elaborated the
stages with more experimentation in mathematical concepts. Notes

E1. What are the two basic processes of development of thinking? Explain each of
them by an example.
E2. The equilibration or maintaining a balance between which two processes constitute
the basic functioning of thinking?

1.2.1 Stages of Cognitive Development

Not only are children’s ways of thinking different than adults, you must have experienced
that children of different age groups demonstrate different patterns in their ways of
thinking. That is precisely the observations of Piaget while developing his stage theory
of cognitive development in children. Piaget observed his own three children very
minutely from their birth and grouped the children’s actions (more specifically
‘operations’) according to some similarities and came out with the stage or period
specific patterns of actions and demonstrated that children follow certain broad stages
or period of development of thinking or cognition.
Accordingly, the stages or periods of cognitive development have been categorised
by Piaget as:
Sensory-motor Period (from birth to 2 years),
Pre-operation Period (from 2 to 7 years),
Concrete Operation Period (7 to 11 years), and
Formal Operation Period (11-12 years to 14-15years).
Sensory-motor Period: The first stage, from birth to one-half or two years, is a pre-
verbal, pre-symbolic period categorised by direct actions like sucking, looking, grasping
etc which are at first un-coordinated and then gradually become coordinated. There is
a progression from spontaneous movements and reflexes to acquired habits and from
these to intelligent activities. As for example, one of the first actions the baby displays
is that of thumb sucking which is not a reflex action but a habit that the child discovers
and finds satisfactory. Such habits may grow out of child’s different reflex actions or
may be the results of conditioning imposed from outside.
At about one year of age, there is a new element in the child’s behaviour. He/she can
establish an objective or intention in his/her actions. In order to get a ball placed at a
distance on the rug be is lying that is out of reach, he can develop a procedure for
obtaining the ball. He may discover that moving the rug moves the ball, so he pulls the
rug (and the ball) towards himself. Such actions display the intentionality behind the
act and Piaget considered it as an intelligent act. The child is beginning to think with
some purpose or an end and then a search for appropriate means to that end.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

Further, towards the end of this period, the child begins to talk using mono-syllables
of the language used at home. This is indicative of onset of symbolic action, a component
Notes of intelligence.
Pre-operation Period: This period beginning from one-half or two years lasts until
seven years of age roughly coincides with preschool age. This is characterised as the
stage of representation or symbolism. Among symbolic functions are languages,
symbolic plays, the invention of fictions, and deferred imitations. During the sensory
motor period, there is no use of words or symbols to represent things, and imaginations.
But in pre- operation period, the girl child uses words to indicate objects or actions,
involves himself/herself in playing “let’s pretend” games which are symbolic in nature
involving imitation of real life characters. In deferred imitation, the child engages herself
in playing activities like cooking, dressing toys, modeling or drawing or in such other
activity which requires imitation of the model when it is no longer present. Through
such activities, representing formation is possible. Representation formation is the
transformation of actions into thoughts, thus internalising overt activity which facilitates
in expanding the dimensions of thought.
The preoperational thought period is devoid of reversible operations and concept of
conservation. Children of four to six years of age can pour liquid from a short wide
bottle into a taller thin one with the impression that they have more liquid in the taller
container. Even reversing the process does not satisfy them that quantity remains the
same despite the one bottle being taller than the other.
Concrete Operation Period: The third stage, from approximately seven to eleven
or twelve years of age, is that of concrete operations. It is particularly important for
you, because most of the time that children are in the elementary school they are in this
stage of development.
This stage marks the beginning of logico-mathematical thought and hence has
importance for learning mathematics which we shall be discussing in the subsequent
sections in greater detail. The child in this period begins to demonstrate actions (Piaget
terms these as ‘Operations’) indicative of the ability to think logically by physical
manipulation of concrete objects. The child is no longer dependent upon perceptions
or sensory cues. During this period, the child demonstrates the two major operations
of grouping and conservation which are very much associated with the development
of mathematical concepts as would be clear from the discussions of the next section.
Formal Operation Period: The fourth stage is the period of formal operations which
does not occur until eleven to twelve years of age. The child now in the post-primary
grades, reasons hypothetically using symbols or ideas and no more is in need of physical
objects as a basis for his/her thinking. The child has attained new mental structures.
These new structures include the propositional combinations of symbolic logic like
implications (if…then), disjunction (either-or, or both), exclusion (either – or), reciprocal
implication and so on.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

The child can now understand and carry out calculations involving proportions, which
allow him to make maps reduced or enlarged to a desired scale, to solve problems of
time and distance, problems of probability and geometrical problems involving similarity. Notes

In brief, the development of thinking or cognition proceeds from the perception and
sensory-motor experiences to thinking in terms of manipulating concrete objects and
proceeding to think hypothetically and combining several ways of thinking in abstract
terms in absence of concrete objects.
Understanding the characteristics of cognitive development will help you to develop
insights into the methods of teaching and facilitating learning of mathematics appropriate
to the stages of development.

1.2.2 Development of Mathematical Concepts

The three basic groups of mathematical concepts that are essential in all topics included
in the mathematics curriculum at the elementary school level are number and operations
on numbers, spatial thinking and measurement. The concepts relating to these areas
and other areas in elementary school mathematics will be dealt elaborately in the block
2 of this course. In this section, we have tried to point to the developmental aspects of
some of the selected concepts associated to the three areas which would provide you
to develop insight into the ways you should plan the teaching mathematical concepts to
the young children.
Development of Number Concepts: Usually counting is considered as the first step
of introducing number concepts. And in most of the children admitted to class I know
the number names, at least up to 10 mostly through rote methods. But, for effective
learning of number concepts, the children need to acquire some preliminary concepts
called the pre-number concepts.
Pre-number concepts: These concepts can be developed in children during the pre-
school years. i.e. before attaining 7 years of age(before the concrete operation stage).
Matching: Matching leads to understanding the concept of one-to-one
correspondence. When a child passes out cookies, each child in the room gets
one cookie. Maybe there is just the right amount of cookies or maybe there are
extra cookies.
Matching forms the basis for our number system. When a child can create “the
same”, it then becomes possible to match two sets. This becomes a pre requisite
skill for the more difficult tasks of conservation. When the child places a chocolate
for every toy he/she possesses and can emphatically expresses that he/she has a
chocolate for every toy or he/she has as many chocolates as the toys, he/she has
successfully matched the two groups of materials.
Sorting: Children need to look at the characteristics of different items and find
characteristics that are the same.Young children usually begin sorting by color
before sorting by other attributes.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

Comparing: Children look at items and compare by understanding difference

like big/little, hot/cold, smooth/rough, tall/short, heavy/light. Using comparison
Notes terms like these is important when children are looking for a relationship between
two or more quantities. To determine more/less/same comparisons, children initially
need to construct and compare sets of concrete objects.
At the preschool level children should make comparisons of more, less and same
by making visual comparisons.
Ordering: Ordering is foundational to our number system. Children have to be
able to put items in an order so they are counted once and only once. Putting
items in order is a prerequisite to ordering numbers. Seriation is ordering objects
by size, length, or height. When giving a child directions use ordinal words (first,
next, last)
Subitizing: Instant recognition of a number pattern without counting is subitizing.
The pattern can be reconstructed without knowing the amount. Subitizing helps
the children see small collections as one unit. This provides an early perceptual
basis for number, but it is not yet “number knowledge”.
Number Concepts: Counting, recognising and using numerals correctly, comparing
numbers and operations on numbers are considered as important milestones in the
development of number concepts.
Counting: The common use of numbers is counting. The process of counting
involves two steps – first assigning a number to a particular object which forms
one of a sequence of objects is known as ordinal aspect of number. Second and
final step of counting is of knowing that the number of objects in a collection
(‘manyness’, or ‘numerosity’) i.e. the cardinal aspect. Ordinality refers to the
order (what is the position?) of the objects in a collection whereas cardinality
refers to the size (How many objects?) of the collection. Ordinality develops
earlier at about 3 to 5years of age after the child is able to match the objects in
two collections using the method of one-to-one correspondence as discussed
earlier along with the knowledge of number names. The knowledge of names of
numbers from 1 to 9 develops around 2 to 3 years of age not as a matter of
numerical ability, but as words in course of language development.Associating
these words (one, two, three, four,….., nine) with the objects is the beginning of
the development of numerical skill. Establishing one-to-one correspondence
between the objects and the number names in a sequential order is the process of
ordinality. However, ordinality does not ensure knowing the size of the collection
of objects for two reasons – (i) child at the age of 2 to 4 years is yet to know the
quantity associated with number names, and (ii) he has not yet developed the
conservation of numbers.

For example, the child below 5 years of age would say that there are more
objects in the second line than in the first line (Fig.1.1). Here, the child lacks the

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

sense that a collection of objects when spread linearly without changing the number
remains invariant. When the child acquires this sense of invariance, he/she is said
to have acquired the conservation of numbers which comes around age 6. Notes

Fig. 1.1

Similarly, the child acquires the conservation of length, area, volume and mass in
later years during the concrete operation period (i.e. from age 7to 11 or 12).
Once the conservation of numbers is achieved around the age of 4 to 5, he/she
can group the objects and count to know the quantity of objects within the group.

Use of numerals: Numerals are the symbols used to represent numbers like 1,
2, 3,… are used for the numbers one, two, three, … and so on. While the
concept of numbers is learnt through manipulation of objects and interactions
with others, one has to introduce the child about the structure of numerals used
for different numbers. In the decimal system of numbers, once the child becomes
familiar with the numerals for the single digit numbers from 0 to 9, numerals for
other numbers can be constructed by the child. The child becomes ready to
understand and use the numerals by the age 7, but it is by the age 11 that he/she
can write large numbers stating the place value of each number.

In writing numerals for numbers ten and more than ten, the knowledge of place
value is essential which is developed around age 7 to 8 through process of counting
in groups which has been dealt in detail later in this course. Once the knowledge
of place value is developed, it becomes easier for the child to compare the numbers.

Operations on numbers: Addition and its reverse process subtraction are

observed to be performed by children at a very early age even before age 6.
Adding and taking away with concrete objects are quite familiar to those who
never visit the schools. But the real understanding of the structure and operations
comes around the age 9 to 11.

From a developmental standpoint, children are able to learn multiplication at the

same time that they are able to learn addition. But in schools it is delayed and
multiplication along with division is taught in grade III i.e. till the children attain
age 9. Again the structural properties of multiplication and division in natural
numbers are introduced in the later part of the concrete operation period around
age 11.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

Development of Measurement Concepts: The work of Piaget has made a significant

contribution to our understanding of the development of measurement concepts in the
Notes
child. Piaget identifies two processes i.e. conservation and transitivity upon which the
measurement process is dependent. We have already discussed the notion of
conservation previously in this unit.

The notion of transitivity is best illustrated by an example. Suppose a child is shown a

rectangular plot of land in the school garden and was asked to create another such
plot in the garden with equal measures of the sides of the given plot. Suppose the
length of the given plot is say A. Then the child measured the length to be B by using a
measuring stick. Then, the child carved out a plot the measure of which length was C.
If he has performed the process of measurement of length correctly, we have a situation
where he is displaying his grasp of the fact that if A = B and B = C, then A = C i.e. his
plot is of same length as the given one by virtue of the intermediary B (the measurement
on the stick) as a comparison. Whatever the measuring situation, the meaningful use of
an instrument of measure rests on the notion of transitivity.

Most of the research concerning the development of measurement concepts emanates

from Piagetian studies and relates mainly to the measurement of spatial entities such as
length.

Initially, the young child in the preschool i.e. below 6 years of age displays no grasp of
conservation of length. His judgments are based primarily on a single perceptual feature.
At this age a child judges the two lines (Fig.1.2) to be unequal because their end points
are not aligned.

Fig. 1.2

Area and volume judgments are usually based on the longest linear dimension (it is
bigger because it is longer) as visually perceived by the child.
Around 6 to 7 years of age, the child uses non-standard unit of measuring length like
his hand span or his own height to measure the length
The child begins to understand the conservation of volume of liquid at about 7 to 8
years of age when he/she realizes that the liquid poured from a wider vessel from a tall
thin vessel is of same amount.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

It is not until roughly around 8 to 10 years of age the average child can appreciate
measurement in terms of covering whatever is to be measured, with smaller units of
measure. Up to this stage, development of the measurement has been characterised Notes
by a trial and error approach. Now the child is able to proceed by means of a more
calculated approach. However, the measurements of area and volume in terms of
space occupied by a particular object lags behind.
The child reaches the final stage of development to measure area and volume by
calculation of linear dimensions (length, breadth, and height/thickness) by the age of
10 and 11 or a few years later.
Development of Spatial Thinking: The child’s first impression of space or world in
which that lives is a very disorganized one. Neither can she/he discriminate the figures
nor can he hold the image of the figure for long time. When the child has passed the
scribbling stage, around three and half years of age, he/she can distinguish between the
closed and open figures. But all simple closed figures such as squares, circles or triangles
are all the same for him/her and are drawn the same way.
Around 7 to 8 years of age the child becomes able to differentiate between similar
shapes such as squares, rectangles and rhombus correctly. But it is not until the child
reaches 10 years old, he/she is able to name the figures correctly and it is not until a
year or two older than this that he/she could distinguish the presentation of 3D objects
from those of the 2D figures.
There are more intricate aspects of development of spatial thinking which mostly unfold
during the later years of the concrete operation period and mostly during the formal
operation period.

E3. Which of the pre-number concepts are used for classification of objects?
E4. During which of the four stages of cognitive development, most of the mathematical
concepts are likely to develop?
E5. In which stage of cognitive development, abstract mathematical concepts are
likely to develop?
E6. What is meant by conservation of length?

1.3 MATHEMATICS LEARNING DURING EARLY

CHILDHOOD
From the above discussions on the development of mathematical concepts, you can
have a lot of ideas about how to facilitate children’s learning of mathematics concepts
at the early stage of their development and also at the early stage of schooling. We try
to present, in this section, the ways of learning mathematics, the forms and causes of
fear for mathematics and the ways to make mathematics learning more pleasurable.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

1.3.1 Ways of Learning Mathematics

Notes There is no single and definite way of learning mathematics even at the earliest stage of
learning. From the previous discussions in this unit, you might have formed some ideas
as to the nature of learning mathematics at the early days of schooling. In addition to
those, here are some points regarding the characteristics of nature of mathematics
learning as summarised by White Bread (Anghileri, 1995):
Mathematics starts from ‘home learning’ established in the child before he/she
comes to school.
Mathematics is based on understanding.
Mathematics puts great emphasis on the child’s own methods of calculating and
solving problems and rejects the previous practice of heavy emphasis on standard
written algorithms.
Mathematics is regarded as a powerful tool for interpreting the world and therefore
should be rooted in real experience across the whole curriculum.
Mathematics is brought out of the child’s everyday situations.
Mathematics with reason is rooted in action – learning through doing.
Mathematics with reason puts less emphasis on representing numbers on paper
as ‘sums’ and more emphasis on developing mental images in the child.
The main tool for child and teacher to employ in the mastery of mathematics
concepts is language, not pencil and paper exercises from textbooks. The child is
encouraged to talk about what he/she is doing.
Errors are accepted as essential part of the mathematics learning process. The
child, freed from the fear of criticism, will more readily experiment.
From the preceding discussions, we have tried to focus on some basic ways related to
the learning of mathematics during the early stages of school learning. These are the
ways of learning which you can facilitate in the classroom situations.
Manipulation of objects: As you have observed, it is through the manipulation of
concrete objects that the children acquire the mathematical skills at the early stage.
Acquisition of any mathematical skill at the early stage like comparison, categorization,
counting, fundamental four operations,cannot be possible without manipulation of
concrete objects. Provision of a variety of objects both familiar and novel, should be
made available to children in the classroom for their free handling, so that it would be
easier for you to facilitate their learning of desired mathematical concepts.
Placing tasks in meaningful contexts: In real situations, where the mathematics
serves real purposes, young children quickly and easily develop their own informal

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

and largely effective methods. The difficulties start when they enter the school and are
expected to operate in the abstract, to use formal ‘pencil and paper’ routines and
procedures and to do mathematics for no clear purpose. Evidence from research Notes
about the ways children learn seem to suggest that what we need to do is to start with
real problems, and work from them to abstract representations.
There are abundant opportunities in the everyday activities of young children to get
themselves involved in rear mathematics. Playing games, sharing sweets, groupings in
the class for performing different activities, finding out the number of days,it is to next
school holiday are just a few such examples.

With young children in particular, problems can be real yet essentially born out of
imagination. Problems arising through imaginative stories and plays can often be even
more vivid for young children than genuinely real life problems. Use of fairy tales,
adventure stories, comic strips are some of the exemplars of materials that can fire
imagination in children.

While young children may be helped to develop their mathematical abilities and
understandings by tackling real problems placed within contexts which are meaningful
to them, it is important that they learn to depend less upon the support on such contexts.
The same process or concept needs to be presented to them in a variety of meaningful
contexts. In this way, by natural processes of induction, children are able to sort out
the relevant from the irrelevant and they are ultimately able to abstract for themselves
the essential elements of the process or concept. All the while we must keep in mind
that mathematics gains its power from abstractness, and children need to be helped to
become confident with drawing abstractions from the real and concrete experiences.

Representation in multiple ways: Another important element which is required to

help children move towards abstract thinking in mathematics involves helping them to
develop their representational abilities. As has been stated earlier, mental representation
or simply representation is the mental imagery of the object, event or process as
perceived by the individual. It is now an established fact that children should be given
opportunities to make their own representations of mathematical problems, processes
and procedures before they are introduced to the conventional symbols. It is clear that
if children are to become able and confident in solving mathematics problems, they
must be able to represent mathematics to themselves and to others in language and in
mathematical symbols. Many mathematics educators now believe that it is important
that children express their mathematical thinking in language, through talk, before they
begin to represent it on paper and before they use mathematical symbols. James (1985)
reviewing the work of Bruner and others on the inter-relationship between language
and thought propounds a mathematics teaching procedure which he terms ‘do, talk
and record’. This involves children in doing mathematics practically, and then following
a five-step sequence of activities towards recording as follows:

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

The learners explain their thinking to others;

Notes They demonstrate their mental images either with objects or by sketches;
They record in writing the ‘storey’ of what their sketches show;
They make successive abbreviations of the process they used;
Finally, they can see the relevance of and adopt standard notations.
While forming representations of the mathematical processes and procedures are
important for correct concept formation and solving mathematics problems, sharing
one’s representation with others in the class, helps to explore different approaches for
elaborating the process or procedures and to develop multiple representations.
Developing alternative strategies: When the children can form representations,
they can also develop ways to calculate and solve mathematics problems other than
the prescribed ways given in the textbooks. That a child can evolve his/her own method
of calculation, stems from the observations of totally non-schooled children performing
calculations of various types required in their daily lives which are different from those
given in textbooks. This lack of a relationship between informal and formal methods is
a major cause of young children’s loss of confidence with school mathematics.
Developing new strategy may not be always possible for children. But, whenever any
child comes up with any new one, he/she needs to be reinforced. Searching for alternate
strategy need to be a regular feature in the classroom transaction. After the discussion
of any operation or procedure for solution of a problem, children may be encouraged
to think of any alternate strategy of the one discussed in the class either individually or
in groups.
Very often, the mathematics teacher is very rigid about the formal methods given in the
mathematics textbooks and does not allow any slight deviation from those. Such an
attitude does not help children to explore alternative strategies and loses interest in
meaningful learning in mathematics. You, as a teacher in mathematics, need to recognize
the ability of the children to build alternative strategies and encourage it as much as
possible.
Problem solving and problem posing: Solving mathematics problems and the
process of problem solving, although are different, have a lot of similarity in understanding
the problem, suggesting and trying out different possible procedures of solution and
solving the problem. Problem solving abilities can be developed when we encourage
children in solving the problems independently or in groups without providing any
direct support. Besides promoting problem solving abilities in children, they should be
encouraged to pose problems. Posing relevant problems indicates the level of
understanding of the concepts, processes and procedures of mathematics. You should
encourage such practices in the classroom as much and as frequently as possible.

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The processes of problem solving and problem posing have been discussed in greater
detail in the unit 4 of this paper.
Notes
E7. Can problem posing help in developing alternative ways for solving mathematics
problems? Justify your answer with examples.
E8. Give one example of development of number concept through manipulation of
objects.

1.3.2 Mathematics Phobia

Here are a few statements of students who are very serious about their mathematics
performance.
“When I look at a maths problem, my mind goes completely blank. I feel stupid, and
I can’t remember how to do even the simplest things.”
“In maths there’s always one right answer, and if you can’t find it you’ve failed. That
makes me crazy.”
“Maths exams terrify me. My palms get sweaty, I breathe too fast, and often I can’t
even make my eyes focus on the paper. It’s worse if I look around, because I’d see
everybody else working, and know that I’m the only one who can’t do it.”
“I’ve never been successful in any maths class I’ve ever taken. I never understand
what the teacher is saying, so my mind just wanders.”
“I’ve hated maths ever since I was nine years old, when my father grounded me for a
week because I couldn’t learn my multiplication tables.”
“When I was little, my father, who was a maths teacher, used to punish me by forcing
me to do math problems.”
“Maths mainly involves a lot of memorisation of facts, formulas and procedures.”
“Maths is not relevant to my life.”
“Maths is mainly arithmetic.”
“Maths is boring.”
You must have heard more of such statements of quite a large number of students who
are very much worried of their performance in mathematics and have developed fear
for the subject. Even some of your colleagues also might be finding the elementary
school mathematics too difficult for them to understand.
From time immemorial, mathematics is considered as the most difficult of all the school
subjects. What are possible reasons for it?

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

There are some four key features, inherent in the ways the school, mathematics has
been designed to be taught which create anxiety and fear among students:
Notes
First, it is commonly devoid of any real, meaningful or supporting context. In the
words of one, often quoted, famous mathematician, the trouble with mathematics
is that ‘it isn’t about anything’.
Second, school mathematics commonly involves the use of abstract symbolism
which puts the young learner in difficulty.
Third, school mathematics often requires children to use new ‘paper and pencil’
strategies which are not simply written versions of the mental strategies which
they have already developed for themselves.
Fourth, school mathematics is often taught as a set of prescribed procedures,
without helping children really understand numbers and the ways they behave.
There is often more emphasis placed on ‘getting the right answer’ than on
understanding the processes involved. And, above all, it is the precision (accuracy)
that makes mathematics more difficult.
From psychological point of view, the dominant model of human learning is of the child
as an information processor, attempting to derive meaning from experience by subjecting
it to several modes of processing like classification or categorisation of new information
and relating those to the existing experiences to derive meaning. There are three main
features of the human information processing system which have very direct
implications for introducing young children to the world of formal mathematics.
1. Learning by induction: As human beings we appear to be very able to engage
in the process of induction (inferring general rules or patterns from a range of
particular cases), but relatively less well-equipped for deductive reasoning (the
opposite process of inferring particular cases from general rule). Inductive
reasoning is the basic process whereby children can easily make sense of their
world by classifying and categorising experience into increasingly structured
conceptual structures and models. The overwhelming significance of inductive
process for children’s learning has long been recognised, and has long been a
strong element.
2. Limited ‘working memory’ capacity: While teaching mathematics we usually
are not aware that human being has a limited capacity of processing information.
For example, Miller has demonstrated from a whole range of evidence that we
hold only about seven separate pieces of information in our short-term or ‘working’
memory. This is why as adults, we can easily process in our heads a sum such as
17  9, but have much greater difficulty with 184  596.We know the procedures
we must go through to get the answer to the second sum, and we can carry out
each of the separate computations involved. What we cannot do is hold all the

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information in our head at once. While we are working out one part, the result of
the previous computation is very likely to be forgotten. This happens all the time
for children with much smaller numbers and less complicated procedures. Notes

3. Development of ‘meta-cognitive’ awareness and control: The third general

feature of the human processing system which we must consider is that it is a
system which not only learns but learns how to learn. When one is aware of his/
her ways of thinking or learning, what the American psychologist has termed
‘meta-cognition’; he/she acquires more ability to control over his/her actions and
learning. We tend to engage students more in solving mathematical problems
than encouraging them to elaborate the ways they can solve the problem. Solving
textual problems in the prescribed ways becomes monotonous, and burdensome.
But if we can explore the meta-cognitive abilities of the children, we can assign
them the problems appropriate to their ability levels which they can solve through
ways which they can justify.
Unaware of the information processing abilities of children, the teachers and parents
drive the children to perform better in mathematics by sheer memorising and repeating
the processes taught to them, predominantly deductive in nature, without developing
adequate understanding and interest in the problems given in mathematics textbooks
which have little relevance to their real life problems.
Besides the causes related to the information processing deficits, there are causes
related to the classroom and home environment associated with the creation of fear
towards mathematics learning. Some very common causes of mathematics phobia
are:
Prior negative experiences with mathematics. These may be related to one
or more of the following:
Unfavourable school climate: Schools where extremely rigid discipline is
maintained in coverage of the course with strict adherence to the textbooks
without allowing freedom to children to think and to choose alternative
ways to solve mathematical problems create more tension in students
towards mathematics.
Lack of encouragement from parents and/or teachers: When the child
does not get any support from home and encouragement from teachers in
the school in learning especially in learning mathematical concepts, anxiety
to perform well in the subject increases. Added to this continuous pressure
from parents and teachers for better and higher performance in mathematics
develops fear for mathematics in most cases.
Lack of positive role models: Sometimes a student in higher class or a
family member with exceptional mathematics abilities inspires the children

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

in lower grades in their mathematics learning. Such a role model is rare to

find and the child does not find adequate inspiration towards an abstract
Notes subject like mathematics.
Ethnic and/or gender stereotypes: There is a common feeling that girls
and children from disadvantaged social groups do not perform well in
mathematics. Such children are looked down in mathematics classes and
are subjected to humiliating remarks.
Mathematics problems being used as punishment in school: In some
schools teachers use mathematics problems as a disciplinary measure and
such a practice obviously generates fear for mathematics.
The pressure of taking timed tests: The emphasis of the examinations in the
school is so great that one feels as if the aim of all learning in schools is to perform
well in the examinations. There is heavy pressure on children from the family and
school to perform well in the tests on different occasions- weekly, fortnightly,
monthly, quarterly, half –yearly, annually. Gradually, in the context of the continuous
and comprehensive evaluation, the frequency of tests is more than before. Taking
so many tests at regular intervals and expectations to perform better in mathematics
than in any other subject are driving students to frustration.
The fear of looking or feeling “stupid” in front of others: Many students do
not clarify their doubts in mathematics for the fear of being regarded as “stupid”
by others. In this way they go on piling their doubts and in the long run they
become handicaps in mathematics learning.
Lack of preparedness: Most of the times, with increasing number of tests they
have to face, the students are not always well prepared for the class as well as for
the tests. This will cause anxiety in just about any situation.

1.3.3 Making Mathematics Learning Pleasurable

There is a feeling among large sections of adults including teachers that mathematics is
a serious subject and should be taught with all seriousness and there is no place of any
light hearted activity in teaching and learning process. But, for young learners at the
initial stage of schooling such a serious approach has invariably caused loss of interest
in mathematics, developing a fear complex towards the subject and ultimately resulted
in early drop out from schools.
Children can learn most of the basic concepts of mathematics being engaged in activities
that give them pleasure. Every child loves to play games with other children and these
games that may be the perfect medium for learning several mathematical concepts.
You can take any familiar game children love to play and with slight modification you
can integrate some mathematics concepts in it so that the children can acquire those

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concepts while enjoying the game. In addition to these efforts, you can devise interesting
activities specifically for the purpose. Here are some examples:
Notes
Number Race – Divide the students of class I into 4 or 5 groups and let them
elect a leader from among them to act as the leader. Each group stands in a row
facing the black board in their front. Keep a collection of pebbles in a place
about 2 meters in their front. When the leader shows a numeral card, say 5, the
first player in each team runs to the place where the collection of pebbles are
kept and picks up 5 pebbles from it and raises his/her hand immediately after the
collection. Whoever raises the hand first earns a point for his/her group after the
leader ascertains the correctness of the count. The players who have completed
their turn join the end of the row of their respective teams. The leader shows
another card and the second player in each team races to the collection and the
game continues. At the end, the team earning maximum points wins the game.
Place Value – Two teams or two players can play. Each team or player has a
slate or a drawing sheet with two adjacent boxes marked Tens and Ones. Numeral
cards from 0 to 9 are shuffled and put face down in a pile. The first player picks
a card and decides where to put the card, either in Tens place or Ones place.
The next person from the other team or the other player picks a card and puts the
card in the box as he/she decides to put. Next comes the turn of the first player to
pick a numeral card and this time he/she has to put it in the vacant box. The
player from the second group does the same. Each player has to tell the name of
the number so formed. The player or the team forming the larger number wins the
round.
Given the following figures :
, , , and

Using these figures, the students should be asked to draw the diagram of the
objects familiar to the students. The student who draws more variety of figures
within a fixed time span (say 5 to 10 minutes) wins the game.
Addition Game – It can be played between 2 or more players individually or in
teams (preferably class II students). You need a pack of playing cards without
the picture cards. The players sit in a semicircle. The cards are shuffled and
placed face down in the center before the players. Players/teams take turns to
reveal two cards, find the sum and record this as their score. Players/teams keep
a running total, checking each other’s calculations. When all the cards have been
used, the player/team with the greatest total is the winner.
Guessing Game - This game is played between two teams (Team A and B or any
other interesting names), preferably the students of higher grades forming the
teams. Team A decides a number between 0 to 100 and writes it in a slip of
paper and gives it to the teacher or the leader conducting the game without revealing
it to the other team. Team B has to guess the number by asking questions. In a

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

variation of this game, the team is allowed to ask definite number of questions
(say 10 questions) whose answer is either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. The score to be awarded
Notes to the team B depends on the number of questions they ask to reveal the number.
If through asking one question they guess the number correctly, they are awarded
10 marks and if two questions are used to reveal the number, then 9 marks are
awarded. The score goes on decreasing with increase in the number of questions.
Next it would be the turn of the team B to decide the number and the team A to
guess it through questioning. The game goes on in turns and after definite number
of rounds, the team aggregating higher score becomes the winner.

ACTIVITY - 2

Formulate activities that will facilitate learning of measurement concepts

in the primary classes.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

There are several other activities which are enjoyed by the children while learning
mathematics. Creating symmetrical ‘Rangolis’ on the paper using colours, introducing
the children to origami, the art of paper folding to create various shapes of 2D and
3D objects, and familiarising with tangrams for producing several 2D figures are a
few such activities.
Games can be a very powerful media for making mathematics learning enjoyable and
at the same time meaningful for children. You can think of any game and you can easily
realize that mathematical concepts can be introduced through it with imagination and
enormous good effect. Let us take a very common game of ‘Pithu’ the children like to
play in different parts of the country with different names. In this game pieces (usually
9 or 10 in number) of broken tiles or small stones, or small wooden cuboids are
heaped on each other in a column and placed inside a small circle. A player has to hit
it with a ball or a piece of stone to displace the pieces out of the circle. The number of
pieces the player displaces is the points he scores. After that another player performs
the same action and earns the points. This goes on for some rounds and at the end of
it the players add the points each has earned. The player who earns highest number of
points becomes the winner. You can see clearly that this game facilitates counting the
objects and adding the numbers.
You can introduce more mathematical concepts in this game by introducing some
variations. Here are two such variations in this game:
You can draw another concentric circle to the first one with radius nearly half a
meter more than that of the first or inner circle. When a player displaces pieces

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from the inner circle, for one that remains outside the first circle and within the
second, one point is awarded and the piece that falls outside the outer circle
earns 10 points. If a player dislodges three pieces out of which one falls in between Notes
the two circles and two fall outside the outer circle, then the player earns 21
points (2  10 and 1  1). The game goes on as before. This variation helps in
practicing the concept of place values and addition.
In another variation of the game, you can use pieces of different colours (pieces
of 3 coloures with 3 to 4 pieces from each colour) attaching different points to
coloured pieces (say 1 for each white piece, 2 for each blue piece and 3 for each
red piece). The game is played as before, but the calculation of points requires
multiplication and addition skills.
Besides, the activities and games, there are innumerable forms of joyful and challenging
acts for facilitating mathematics learning like participating in quizzes and competitions,
preparing mathematical models and charts, collecting riddles and puzzles and solving
those.

ACTIVITY - 3
Select any game the children in your locality love to play. Describe how
mathematics can be learnt through the game. State any two variations of
this game that you can introduce. Indicate the mathematical concepts that
can be learnt by making the variations.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

E9. What are the reasons for developing fear for mathematics in the classroom?
E10. State any four ways to reduce the mathematics phobia and make classroom
learning of mathematics pleasurable.

For making mathematics learning pleasurable, you need to create a learner friendly
environment in the classroom while teaching learning process is going on especially
when mathematics is being taught. This is essential in building a free and joyful interaction
between students and the teacher and among students in the classroom. Such a climate
of trust and equality would help in removing anxiety and fear and make mathematics
learning really pleasurable and more meaningful thus more effective.

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

1.4 LET US SUM UP

Notes
Child’s thinking begins with two processes: perception (the knowledge of objects
resulting from direct contact with them) and representation (mental imagery of
the perceived objects).
Piaget conceptualized the process of thinking as a process of organization of
adaptation in a new situation reached as after equilibration of the twin processes
of assimilation and accommodation.
The thinking develops in the child in four stages as conceptualized by Piaget
namely (i) Sensory-motor Period (from birth to 2 years),(ii) Pre-operation Period
(from 2 to 7 years), (iii) Concrete Operation Period (7 to 11 years), and (iv)
Formal Operation Period (11-12 years to 14-15years).
Development of mathematical concepts in children follows the trends of cognitive
development.
Pre-number concepts of matching, sorting, comparing ordering and subsidising
develop during pre-school years i.e. before the age of 6 years.
While the number concepts and most of the measurement concepts develop
completely during the concrete operation period i.e. before the age of 11, spatial
thinking requires one or two years more to develop.
The conservation and transitivity of numbers, length, mass and weight take place
before the onset of formal operation period whereas those of volume and area
take longer time.
Some basic ways related to the learning of mathematics during the early stages of
school learning are manipulation of objects, performing meaningful tasks in the
real life situations, representation in multiple ways, evolving and using alternative
strategies and problem solving and problem posing.
The anxiety and fear for mathematics are due to several factors associated with
the schooling practices, disturbing the nature of human information processing,
and classroom and home environments.
Mathematics learning can be pleasurable in adopting a variety of ways like
performing learner friendly activities, games, preparation of models and charts,
participation in quizzes and exhibitions, collecting and responding to puzzles and
riddles.

1.5 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
E1. Perception and representation.
E2. Assimilation and accommodation

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 How Children Learn Mathematics

E3. Matching and sorting.

E4. Concrete operation period.
Notes
E5. Formal operation period.
E6. Conservation of length is attained when the child realizes that the length of an
object remains unchanged irrespective of the position of the object.
E7. Yes. Give justification.

1.6 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Anghileri, Julia (ed.) (1995). Children’s mathematical thinking in primary years:
Perspectives on children’s learning. London: Cassell.
Copeland, Richard W. (1979). How children learn mathematics: Teaching
implications of Piaget’s research (3rdEdn.). New York: Macmillan Publishing
Co.
Dickson,Linda, Brown, Margaret, & Gibson, Olwen (1984). Children learn
mathematics. New York: Holt,Rinehart& Winston.

1.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. Describe the role of perceptions and representations in the development of pre-
number concepts during the pre-school years.
2. What are the characteristics of development of mathematics concepts
corresponding to those of the stages of cognitive development?
3. What are the basic ways of learning mathematical concepts and how can you
make them pleasurable for children?

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 Mathematics and Mathematics Education

UNIT 2 MATHEMATICS AND

Notes MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Nature of Mathematics
2.3 Importance of Mathematics Education
2.3.1 Mathematics in real life situation
2.3.2 Mathematics and other branches of knowledge
2.3.3 Mathematics and problem solving
2.3.4 Ability to think mathematically
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
2.6 Suggested Readings and References
2.7 Unit-End Exercises

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Mathematics pervades all aspects of our lives. Any person, he/she may be a farmer,
daily labourer, artisan, teacher or a scientist uses the principles of mathematics in his/
her day to day activities at different situations. Thus mathematics holds a key position
in our life. Therefore, mathematics has enjoyed a privileged or a sheltered position in
the school curriculum.
The position paper on mathematics for the National Curriculum Framework asserts
that “our vision of excellent mathematical education is based on the twin premises
that all students can learn mathematics and that all students need to learn
mathematics. It is therefore imperative that we offer mathematics education of
the very high quality to all children.” In order translate the vision; we have to
critically analyze the following issues:
What should be the aims of teaching mathematics at the school level?
How our teacher can develop interest towards mathematics among the learners?

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What kinds of knowledge and skill can be developed among the learners?
What should be the nature of mathematics learning? Notes
In this unit, you will find answer to some of the issues mentioned above. You will
definitely observe the nature of mathematics on the basis of which the mathematics
education can be designed by you for your learners. Further you will realize the
importance of mathematics education at elementary level.
This unit will take about 8 (eight) hours of study.

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
State the nature of mathematics with suitable examples.
Explain the utility of mathematics in day to day life.
Describe what mathematical thinking is
Describe the relationship of mathematics with other branches of knowledge

2.2 NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

As a teacher you have the experience of teaching mathematics to young children.
Sometimes you might have felt that mathematics, among all the school subjects, enjoys
a unique status. Do you think so?
If yes, then what are the causes?
To get the answer to the above question you have to understand the important
characteristics of mathematics for which it enjoys a special place in all spheres. The
nature of mathematics greatly influences the nature of teaching and learning process in
mathematics. So an elementary school teacher should know about the nature of
mathematics. The nature of mathematics makes the subject distinct from other subjects.
Let us now discuss in detail regarding the nature of mathematics.
Mathematics is logical: Mathematics is accepted as a branch of logic. According to
C. G. Hempel “It can be derived from logic in the following sense:
All concepts of mathematics i.e. arithmetic, algebra and analysis can be defined
in terms of concepts of logic.
All the theorems of mathematics can be deduced from these definitions by means
of the principles of logic.
Thus, it can be said that in mathematics truth can be established with logic. The proof
of mathematical statements consists of a series of logical arguments, applied to certain

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accepted rules, definitions and assumptions. Now observe the mathematical statement
given below:
Notes
S1: Two even numbers when added, it gives rise to another even number.
You cannot prove this statement (S1) just by mere experienced observations. If you
can take several examples and test them, then you can say that the statement could be
correct. If you understand what even number is and the concept of addition, then you
can prove the statement mathematically.
Any even number can be written as 2n, where n is any natural number. Now you can
take two even numbers, 2n1 and 2n2 (where n1 and n2 are natural numbers). The sum
of these two numbers is 2n1+ 2n2= 2(n1+ n2) = 2m, where m = n1+ n2 is a natural
number. Here 2m is a number which is divisible by 2 and hence is an even number.
Thus, the sum of two even numbers is an even number. This kind of logic, which uses
known results, definitions and rules of inference to prove something, is called deductive
logic.
Try to perform the following task for checking your progress:

E1. Using deductive logic prove that the sum of two odd numbers is an even number.

ACTIVITY - 1
Go through the elementary school mathematics text books used in your
school. Find out five cases where you have observed deductive logic is used.
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Another kind of logic used in mathematics is inductive logic. Now look at the example
given below:
2, 4, 6. 8, 10, 16, 36, 54, 68, and 102 are all even numbers. Now add any two of
these even number and find out whether the sum is an even number or an odd number.
We find, 2 + 4 = 6, 6 is an even number.
6 + 4 = 10, 10 is an even number.
10 + 8 = 18, 18 is an even number
54 + 22 = 76, 76 is an even number and so on.
You can ask your students to add any such two even numbers and in each case they
will get an even number. So studying numerous such cases we can conclude that any
two even numbers when added the sum would be an even number.

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This type of logic is known as inductive logic. In mathematics, we use logic of induction
in several cases to prove mathematical results. Let us see an example from geometry.
Notes
In a plane triangle, if the measure of the 1st angle is 80° and the measure of the 2nd
angle is 60°, then what is the measure of the 3rd angle? If you will draw such a triangle
with the given measures and measure the 3rd angle then you will see that it will be of
40°. Similarly, you can draw a number of different types of triangles and find out the
measures of the three angles of each triangle you have drawn. You will see that in each
case the sum of the measures of the three angles will be 180°. If the result is true for the
1st case, 2nd case, 3rd case, and several similar cases, then we can reasonably conclude
that if ABC is any plane triangle, then the sum of its three angles would be equal to
1800. This type of logical process of arriving at a generalized statement of relation
observing the relation in several cases in similar conditions is known as mathematical
induction. If one statement is true for n number of cases then it will be true for n+1
number of cases.

Check your progress

E 2. “Every prime number has two factors.”- What kind of logic is used for proving
this statement?

From the above discussion we realize that mathematics is a form of pure logic. The
deductive method perfected in mathematics is perhaps the strongest model of all type
of logic and is a model for other logical systems. All the deductions from axioms,
postulates are done by the rules of logic. Euclid’s geometry is an excellent example of
this and his method of breaking up the problem into ‘what is given?’, ‘what has to be
established?’, and the method of establishing is nothing but a logical procedure.
Mathematics is symbolic: Let us take two statements, “Two hundred when multiplied
by ten gives two thousand” or, “When the sum of any two natural numbers a and b is
squared, it gives the sum of squares of a and b added with twice the product of the
two numbers”. But when we express it using mathematical symbols, they become
200  10 = 2000
and (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2 ab
You can see for yourself how use of symbols make mathematical expressions brief
and clear provided you understand the notations. The symbols like those for numerals,
four basic operations (i.e. +, -,  , and  ) or figures representing line, angle, triangle,
quadrilateral, circles and the likes are so familiar with everybody that not only these
are easily understood but also widely used in our daily lives.
Expressing complicated and abstract ideas, the core concern of mathematics, in brief
symbolic forms using common notations makes them comparatively easier to understand

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and communicate to others. These systems of notations add power to mathematics

and allow us to easily visualize whether a mathematical statement is correct and valid
Notes or not.
Mathematics is precise: Precision is another important nature of mathematics. The
term precision means ‘accuracy’ and ‘exactness’. You can take any mathematical
concept. For example, you are familiar with the concept of a cone. The definition of
cone is clear and precise. ‘A cone is a 3-dimensional geometric shape that tapers
smoothly from a base (usually flat and circular) to a point called the apex or vertex’.
If an object is given to you, you can definitely say whether it is a cone or not.

ACTIVITY - 1

Take a conical solid and examine as to how many curved sides and plain
sides it has, and how many vertices it has.
– Draw the picture of the cone on your notebook.
– Collect the objects- dice, brick, a cricket ball, conical ice cream, match
box and separate those objects which are not conical in shape.
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After doing this activity, you might have realized that, the definition of cone helps you
to understand different attributes of a conical object which ultimately enables you to
classify the conical and non-conical objects. The concept of cone is defined so clearly
and precisely that anybody can be able to identify the conical objects in his immediate
environment. So precision is that nature of mathematics which deals with accuracy
and exactness and leaves no scope for doubt and ambiguity.
According to C. J. Keyser “The quality of mathematical thought, the certainty and
correctness, its conclusion are due to the characteristics of the concepts with which it
deals precision, sharpness and completeness. Such ideas admit of such precision,
others do not, and the mathematician is the one who deals with those that do.” As a
teacher you have to focus on development of such qualities among your learners while
teaching mathematics. Mathematics is characterized by its exactness and accuracy.
The exactness in mathematics refers to the correctness in all aspects. Mathematics
helps in developing the abilities of accurate reasoning, thinking and judgments among
the children.
If you will compare other subjects with mathematics, you will see that sometimes in
those subjects the answers can be written by speculating the facts or directly drawing

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them from experiences. Thus the subjectivity of the learner influences the answers. But
there is no place of subjectivity and personal opinion or experience in mathematics.
During the learning of mathematics the learners learn the values and appreciation of Notes
accuracy. He/she also learns to be accurate in approaching all the problems he/she
faces in life and also precision in defining and solving the problem becomes a habit
with him/her as a result of studying mathematics.
Mathematics is study of structures: The word structure means “arrangement,
composition, configuration, form, order or system”. Whether the mathematical concepts
have certain arrangements? Have you observed any configuration in mathematical
concepts? Is there any relationship between the concepts in mathematics?
If you will observe the nature of mathematics, you will see that mathematics is the
study of certain structures (arrangements in the general sets). During the elementary
stage, the child is going through the concept of natural numbers, whole numbers, integers,
fractional numbers rational numbers and real numbers.

ACTIVITY - 2

Go through the text books and note down the definitions of different
number systems with examples. Do you observe any relationship among
them? Can you represent them diagrammatically?
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Q = Set of Rational Numbers

Z = Set of Integers

W = Set of Whole
Numbers

N = set of Natural
Numbers

Fig. 2.1 The Hierarchy Structure of Number system

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Check your progress:

Notes E2. “Mathematics deals with precise and elegant structure”. Do you agree with the
statement? Give reasons for your response.

Mathematics aims at abstraction: Mahesh was teaching in grade-I. He conducted

an activity in the class as follows:
He made two set of people pieces, such as male and female. Some more pieces
were not used. He gave the remaining pieces to the children and asked them to
place these pieces in the set. The children did the activity. Then the teacher
asked them to tell why they placed these pieces as they did.
Try this activity with the students of your school, after completion of the activity now
tries to answer the following questions:
Whether the children are able to place the pieces in the appropriate set?
What make them to do the task correctly?
First the children observed the properties common with all the elements in a group and
on the basis of the common properties they compared the remaining pieces. If the
property of the remaining piece is fitting to a particular group, then that piece is put in
that group. This process is based on the principle of abstraction.
Mathematics deals with abstraction. For example, today a father’s age is twice the
age of his elder son. 30 years back his age was four times then the age of his elder son.
What is the age of the father?
If ‘x’ is the age of the father today, x/2 is the age of his you is the age of his elder son
today. Then 30 years back, (x-30) =4(x/2-30). Thus x=90. That is today father’s age
is 90 and son’s age is 45.
Once noted mathematician L, Bers said “The strength of mathematics is abstraction,
but the abstraction is useful only if covers a large number of special cases.”
Abstraction is essential in mathematics. It is one of the amazing features of mathematics.
This nature of mathematics gives rise to the development of new areas of mathematics
like algebra. Algebra, a branch of mathematics deals with abstraction (one concept
can be an abstraction in the sense that it is thought of as apart from material objects).
Abstraction is a means of encompassing wider range of applications of mathematics.

Check Your Progress:

E3. Give an example for developing the abstract concept of triangle among grade-III
children.

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2.3 IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Mathematics education deals with all issues at all level related to Teaching-Learning of Notes
mathematics in the socio-cultural-economic contexts and are concerned with the
development and of appropriate mathematics curricula. Its importance is both theoretical
(because it’s mixed with nature of its link with applications of maths in day today life
and interdisciplinary approach.
Keeping in view of the importance of mathematics in our daily life, the National
Curriculum Framework (2005) states that clarity of thought and pursuing assumptions
to logical conclusions is central to the mathematical enterprise. While there are many
ways of thinking, the kind of thinking one learns in mathematics is an ability to handle
abstractions and an approach to problem solving. In this section, you will learn about
the importance of mathematics education for the learners.

2.3.1 Mathematics in Real Life Situation

You might have observed children playing different types of games when the school is
over. The captain of a football team places the players in certain order such as 5+3+2
or 4+3+3. Similarly, if the captain of a cricket team places fielders in right position then
most of the work is over. So what does the field placement require? It requires making
accurate judgment of the game and of space. Games like kho-kho, kabaddi all need
awareness and utilisation of space.

Check Your Progress:

E4. Think of a game that you played during your school days. Write down the
mathematical principles involved in that game.

Let us consider the case of a farmer. The farmer normally starts planning for cultivation
taking into consideration of the area of land to be cultivated, amount of seeds, fertilizers
and pesticides required for cultivation, number of agriculture workers required for
farming, tentative amount of money required for this. Thus, a farmer uses mathematical
knowledge in his day to day activities.

ACTIVITY - 3

Observe any five people in your locality while doing any work. Write down
the work they were doing. Think of the mathematical principles associated
with each work. Share your views with your friends.
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Perhaps you are now convinced that mathematics spreads all the areas of your life.
Similarly the children have come across different type of activity. One of the activities
Notes is described below:
The children choose a time of day convenient for several weeks and are also a
time when the sun shines through the classroom window. They placed a 5cm
piece of masking tape on the window sill. They placed a 30 cm piece of tape on
the window sill, so that the shadow of the 5 cm tape on the window falls in the
centre of the 30 cm piece on the sill.
Each day thereafter, they recorded the exact time of day that the shadow of the
5 cm piece of tape lies exactly on the 30 cm piece. They plotted the time of day
on the graph. After some days the children without observing the shadow they
plotted the time when the shadow exactly falls on the 30cm piece.
Here are several questions come to the mind:
How did the children select the time?
Whether the shadow falls on the 30cm piece every day at the same time?
After some days of observation how the children plotted the graph?
To answer the above questions, you should have the sense of mathematics. To answer
the 1st question, the concept of time measurement is required. Similarly to answer the
3rd one, you need to use your experience. You have to carefully observe and record
the time everyday. On the basis of the data you have to predict the time alignment for
several days in advance. Here, you have to work on estimate, checks them and decide
to use the data or take up another set of estimates.
From the examples we may say that mathematics is not only confined to the classroom
only, rather we can see mathematics all around us. It is everything we do.

2.3.2 Mathematics and Other Branches of Knowledge

Mathematics, along with language, is considered basic and essential for human learning
and civilization. There is no sphere of human knowledge which has remained unaffected
by the influence of mathematics. Apart from the use of numbers, mathematical figures,
formulars and processes, mathematics has influenced the ways of presentation and
communication of all areas of knowledge marked by coherence and mathematical
precision. In this section, we shall confine our discussion on the influence of mathematics
on different branches of knowledge which are included in the elementary school
curriculum. We must keep in mind that in higher levels of education, the influence of
mathematics on different disciplines and subject areas is more pronounced.
Mathematics and Literature: Many consider language and literature are just the
opposite in nature to that of mathematics. They feel that language is the vehicle of

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feelings, emotions and passion while mathematics is exact, objective and mathematical
logic are devoid of any emotion and passion and have little place in literature.
Notes
But, remember Shakespeare’s words, “Brevity is the soul of wit”. To be brief and
precise in expression is considered a sign of wit. With less number of words, if you can
express more, you are more restrained and have the ability to communicate in a focused
and meaningful way. That is exactly what mathematical logic is.
At the initial stage of language learning, children are given freedom to express themselves
in as many words as they can use. But at each grade you need to ensure their vocabulary
acquisition and it is stipulated that towards the end of primary level they should acquire
around 5000 words. To have regular assessment of vocabulary acquisition, you need
to use objective methods. In the upper primary grades, the children are encouraged to
express within stipulated number of words i.e. they are encouraged to be precise, and
comprehensive in their expression. Therefore they are trained in précis writing and
paragraph writing within specific number of words and in specific length of sentences.
Again in writing poems the length or meter of lines used in the poem is also carefully
chosen and meticulously adhered to throughout the poem. This helps in maintaining
poetic rhythm, feeling and above all expressing the meaning. In all these, the
mathematical sense prevails and controls the overall structure and sense of the literature.
Mathematics and Science: Perhaps mathematics and science share closest
relationship. There is no branch of science which does not use mathematics. Take the
concepts of physical science. Most of the concepts have evolved from experimentation
or observation but have been established as scientific theories by use of mathematical
interpretations. For example, the finding that ‘water boils at 1000C’ is a scientific fact
emerged from experiments. But, other experiments linked this to the air pressure i.e.
with the increase in air pressure the boiling point of water also increases and vice
versa.
To have a clear understanding of this physical phenomenon, a relationship is required
involving air pressure and boiling point so that it would provide the boiling point of
water at a particular atmospheric pressure. This is possible only with the help of
mathematical processes. In every field of physical science, like mechanics, light, sound,
chemical reactions, mathematics plays vital role in explaining these phenomena.
Ascertaining the rate of growth of various species of plants and animals, the arrangement
of leaves in different plants and trees, the rate of heart beat, and measuring blood
pressure etc. are a few examples of use of mathematics in biological science.
It is difficult to enlist all the areas of science where mathematical knowledge is required
to understand the concepts.Infact, there is hardly any area in all branches of science
where mathematics is not needed.

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ACTIVITY - 4
Notes
Take any two topics (one from physical science and one from biological
science) from the science curriculum of upper primary classes and list the
mathematical knowledge required for understanding the concepts included
in the topics.
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Mathematics and Environment Study: In the curriculum of EVS at the primary

grades, there are several topics which require quantitative descriptions and analysis
based on these quantitative data. Some such examples are, planning a school campus
including school garden requires the concepts of measurement of length, area to be
utilized. So also in beautifying a clean classroom environment you need the mathematical
concepts of symmetry along with the measurement skills. You need to use the knowledge
of ratio and proportions in approximating biodegradable wastes and other types of
garbage produced in the school or in its near vicinity so that provisions for appropriate
waste disposal system can be developed by the students.
For a balanced and nutritious diet, the proportion of the different components of food
is calculated mathematically depending on the requirement of the individual. If a child
is underweight and prone to infection, then proportion of proteinous food materials
along with vitamins are increased based on the calculation of the degree of deficiency
of these materials. Similarly an obese (over fat) child needs less carbohydrate and fat
materials in food which are calculated by the dieticians.
In studying the occupational pattern of the communities in the habitations around the
school, you need to employ the knowledge of proportion, percentage, and different
modes of graphical presentations to describe the pattern.
Mathematics and Geography: Geography, like science, requires the knowledge of
mathematics at every step to explain and clarify the geographical concepts and
phenomena. For example, in studying land forms, you need to have clear idea of
measuring larger heights and variations in temperature at different heights. In calculating
the temperature, humidity and rainfall in a place, drawing graphs of their indicators and
in determining their interrelationships, knowledge of corresponding mathematical
concepts is essential. Trigonometry helps in finding the height of a mountain.
Similarly, in determining the longitude and latitude of a place and in preparing maps,
the knowledge of plane and solid co-ordinate geometry is of absolute necessity.
Mathematics and History: History is the study of events and trend of events within
a specific period of time. Therefore, you should develop a sense of time and be able to

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conceive the temporal gap between important events so as to be able to effectively

speculate the validity of occurrence of such events. Further, to study the relevance of
past events for the present, you are required to ascertain the gap of time by drawing a Notes
time line. In all these activities which are fundamental in understanding history requires
thorough understanding of measurement of instant and interval of time.
Again, drawing and understanding historical maps of different regions for different
periods, and graphical presentations of socio-historical phenomena, you need to have
adequate knowledge of spatial relations learnt in geometry classes.
Mathematics and Art Education: In both visual and performing arts, mathematics
has crucial roles to play. In visual arts like drawing, painting and sculptures, proportion
within and among the figures drawn or sculpted has to be perfectly maintained. For
example, while drawing or making a human or an animal figure, the relative proportion
between head, trunk, hands and feet are to be perfectly maintained otherwise the art
would look disproportionate and hence lose its artistic quality. Therefore, every artist
or sculptor, before actually going to paint or sculpt, prepares a sketch of the art ensuring
the right proportion of the parts of the figure he/she is going to develop in the final art.
If you are encouraging your students to learnt draw, paint or preparing clay models,
you need to make them aware and practice to draw the sketch first ensuring correct
proportion of the different parts of the figure.
In performing arts, be it singing, playing an instrument or dancing, the knowledge of
beats or rhythm is the key to all such performances. For each raga one sings or plays
in instrument (say flute or sitar), there is definite scale of taal associated with it. Changing
the slightest beat in the scale may disturb the tune and may lose its musical value. The
music scale, in written form using musical notations, looks like a pictorial graph with
notations arranged in a specific order and specific distances among the notes indicating
the definite time gap needed between producing the consecutive notes.At the beginning
stage, the learners are habituated with the variations in tones and rhythms through
counting the beats. Similar rhythm is maintained in different dance forms and styles
through performing according taal produced by oral counting and then by the beating
of drums or some percussion instruments. One needs to differentiate the tonal variations
and the differences in taals through the rhythmic variations in counting. The perfect
relationship between the nature of performing arts and the mathematical principles
associated with each has to be clearly understood by everyone desirous of becoming
a successful performer.
Mathematics and Physical Education: Wherever you desire to maintain some
form of order, you need numbers and physical education provide the brightest example
of it. Whether it is mass drill, or individual yoga or performing aerobic exercises, you
find wide use of numbers. Recording exact time for each event while performing in
sports, building strategies for different games and athletics need mathematical expertise
which is now being included in the training of the coaches and trainers.

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2.3.3 Mathematics and Problem Solving

Notes According to N. J. Fine, ‘a problem that is posed represents an outpost to be taken,
a simple engagement in our conquest of the unknown.’ The Hilbert’s Thesis on
Mathematics quotes, ‘mathematics is forward looking, being more connected with
solving outstanding problems and creating powerful new concepts and methods than
with merely contemplating knowledge that has already been won’.
Thus, learning mathematics is and developing problem solving abilities among the learners
are nearly synonymous. Mathematical problem solving is used in most of the literatures,
is far more than solving the word problems. George Polya, in his book Mathematical
Discovery, defines problem solving as the conscious search for some action appropriate
to attain some clearly conceived, but not immediately attainable aim.
The problem solving ability of the learner is dependant on the acquisition of mathematical
knowledge. Problem solving is far more useful as a guide to preparing children to be
effective problem solvers in every day life. Let us consider an example:
A typical verbal problem is as follows:
Mohan sold 8 boxes of candy and Gouri sold 3. How many boxes must Gouri sell
in order to sell as many as Mohan?
Such type of problem can be solved by using mathematical knowledge. If the child is
well acquainted with the language used in this problem and corresponding mathematical
operation, then he can solve this particular problem as well as similar types of other
problems. Let us discuss how to develop the problem solving processes.
If appropriate experiences are provided to the learner, then young children can learn
basic problem solving processes.
First, the problem should have few abstract concepts and the child must be able
to make connection among the data given in the problem.
Second, the problem requires several steps to arrive at a solution. This causes
the children to organize, reflect and record intermediate solutions.
Third, the ideal problem has multiple answers rather than one correct answer.
The children should be allowed to search those multiple answers.
Fourth, problem requires analysis and synthesis of information. Complex problems
help the children to solve life related problems.
The processes like observing, inferring, comparing, copying patterns with objects,
using trial and error, classification of objects and data and using appropriate strategies
are involved in problem solving. These processes can be well developed through
learning of mathematics. Thus, mathematics learning is important to not only solve the
mathematical problems but also the problems we confront in our day to day situations.

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2.3.4 Ability to Think Mathematically

To understand the learner’s ability to think mathematically, let us observe a problem, Notes
for example, to find out the relationship between HCF and LCM of any two natural
numbers.
The problem here is to find out the relationship between the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of any
two natural numbers. How are you going to solve it? Are you going to focus on a few
pairs of natural numbers and study the nature of HCF and LCM of such pairs of
numbers? If you are doing so, then you are specializing.

Number Pair HCF LCM Remarks

(4,6) 2 12
(3,8) 1 24
(6,6) 6 6
(3,7) 1 21

Do you observing any pattern? Does it make you conjecture (or making a reasonable
guess) a rule? What is the general rule?
Is the LCM is always greater than HCF? Is the HCF of any two numbers is less or
equal to each number in the pair?
You need to check if your generalization is right. This means that you need to prove
your conjecture (guess). You have to start from certain assumption, and arrive at the
result by a series of steps.
By observing the chart, you may arrive at the general rule as follows:
The HCF of any two numbers is either less than both the numbers or equal with
them, but it should not greater than each of the numbers.
The HCF of two prime numbers is always 1 and the LCM of them is the product
of the numbers.
The product of the two numbers is equal to the product of the HCF and LCM.
Can you derive any other general rules from the chart?
Now you may be curious to know whether these general rules are applicable to three
different numbers. Are these rules applicable to numbers more than 10,000? In this
case, you are posing a problem. Once you pose a problem you will definitely test
your conjecture, and prove it. In case it cannot be proved, you may go back and
make modifications in your conjecture and generalizations and try to prove it again or

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otherwise reject it. So during the process of problem posing and problem solving the
mathematical thinking goes in this line:
Notes

Fig. 2.2 Thinking Mathematically

To define mathematical thinking, the renowned mathematician H. Weyl stated “By the
mathematical thinking, I mean first that form of reasoning through which mathematics
penetrates into the sciences of the external world and even into our every day thoughts
about human affairs.”
Thus, mental abilities like thinking precisely, articulating clearly, think logically
and systematically and generalizing from patterns helps us immensely in our real
life situations. Those are the process of mathematical thinking.
Learning mathematics serves both as a means and an end. It is a means to develop
logical and quantitative thinking abilities. At the early grades, children’s learning of
mathematics should be a natural outgrowth from children themselves. Such experiences
must be interesting and should challenge their imagination, so that while observing any
natural phenomena they can think mathematically.
Intuitive thinking and reflective thinking develop mathematical thinking among the
learners. Intuitive thinking means learning by experimenting with concrete materials,
through experiencing ideas in various concrete ways, and by visualizing ideas relying
on analytical thought processes. But reflective thinking comes later. Reflecting thinking
means being able to reason with ideas without needing concrete material. The processes
of reflective thinking include reflecting, inventing, imagining, and playing (dealing) with
ideas, problem solving, theory building and generalizing.

Check Your Progress:

E5. Give examples from intuitive thinking and reflective thinking. How they help in
thinking mathematically?

2.4 LET US SUM UP

The proof of mathematical statements consists of a series of logical arguments,
applied to certain accepted rules.

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 Mathematics and Mathematics Education

Precision is that nature of mathematics which deals with accuracy and leaves no
scope for doubt and ambiguity. Give a precise statement, it is either true or false.
Notes
The mathematical structures are elegant and precise. Mathematics enables the
learners to make precise statement. The habit of expressing oneself clearly and
accurately can be cultivated by learning mathematics.
Correctness in the procedure to solve any mathematical problem, correctness in
the method and result is one of the natures of mathematics.
Mathematics learning aims at abstraction. Abstracting is the ability to look at the
set of objects thus classified and identify the scheme by which the classification
was accomplished.
Every human activity involves some mathematical principles and mathematics is
useful in all spheres of life.
To verify a mathematical statement, you need to prove it for all cases. If it is not
true for even a single case, then it is not true at all.
Mathematical thinking consists of solving problem and posing problems.
Mathematical thinking requires the skills of precise thinking and logical reasoning.
Mathematical knowledge enables us to solve daily life problems. The processes
like observing, inferring, comparing, copying patterns with objects, using trial
and error, classification of objects and data and using appropriate strategies can
be developed through learning of mathematics.

2.5 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
E1. Deductive logic
E2. Yes, the habit of clarity, brevity, accuracy and certainty precision in a written or
spoken expression are formed and strengthened by the study of mathematics.
Mathematical concepts and symbolism (use of symbols) provide a means of
concise expression which is elegant in its simplicity and exactness.
E3. Give the child a large number of triangles made of drawing sheet. Ask the child to
explain each model. The child may be helped to derive the common characteristics
of a triangle on the basis of its shape, number of sides, number of angles and
number of vertices. Then withdraw the models from the child. Ask him to draw a
picture of a triangle and describe it.
E4. The answer can be written as per the example given in the text.
E5. Suppose the child was asked to add 18 and 17. The child took18 numbers of
sticks and make them a bundle of 10 and eight single pieces. Then he took 17

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 Mathematics and Mathematics Education

sticks and converted those into a bundle of 10 and seven sticks remains as single
pieces. He got two bundles and 18 no. of single sticks. Again the child handles
Notes the 15 numbers of single sticks and makes them a bundle of 10 sticks. So all total
he had 3 bundles and 5 single sticks give 35 as the result. The thinking involved in
this process is intuitive thinking. On the other side, when the child adds the two
numbers without taking the help on concrete material but with an algorithm then
he uses the reflective thinking process. At the initial stage of learning a particular
concept intuitive thinking is very useful. But, when the child gets acquainted with
the process, then the process of reflective thinking starts.

2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

NCERT(2008). Source book on assessment for classes I – V: Mathematics. New
Delhi:NCERT.
NCERT (2005). National curriculum framework 2005. New Delhi: NCERT.
Cruikshank.D.E., Fitzgerald, D.L., Jensen. L.R.(1941). Young children learning
mathematics. Boston:
CBSE(2010). Continuous and comprehensive evaluation: Manual for teachers
of classes VI to VII. New Delhi: CBSE.
IGNOU(1997). Teaching of primary school mathematics: Block I -Aspects of
teaching mathematics. New Delhi: IGNOU.

2.7 UNIT END EXERCISES

1. ‘Mathematics is logical’ - how will you use this nature of mathematics during
teaching of mathematics at elementary grades (?)
2. Mathematics is the study of structures, how?
3. Mathematics education is important for developing mathematical thinking skills-
give examples.

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UNIT 3 GOALS AND VISION OF

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION Notes

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Aims of Mathematics Education
3.2.1 Broader and narrower aims
3.2.2 Specific Aims
3.3 Visions for School Mathematics
3.3.1 Children and Mathematics Education
3.3.2 Mathematics Education beyond Class room
3.3.3 Making Mathematics Learning Joyful
3.3.4 Creating Conducive Learning Environment for Mathematisation
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.6 Suggested Readings and References
3.7 Unit-End Exercises

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Mathematics occupies an important place in all civilizations, past and present, throughout
the world. As has been discussed in earlier units, Mathematics pervades all branches
of knowledge and all walks of life. The development and innovations in science and
technology, which are the main driving force of unprecedented change happening across
the world, are based on the application of mathematics. The whole world seems to be
mathematically designed so much so that Sir James Jeans, the famous British astronomer,
once told, “God is a supreme mathematician who created this well ordered and
systematic Universe”.
In spite of its pervasive use, mathematics is perceived as a difficult subject to master
because of its abstractness. Most of us believe that mathematics is a difficult subject,
beyond the understanding of common man. Most of the pupils as well as quite a
significant number of teachers are literally afraid of mathematics and it is no wonder
that they develop mathematics phobia. You have already learnt about mathematics
anxiety and mathematics phobia discussed in the first unit of this course. Some teachers
who have difficulties in understanding mathematical concepts and processes pass on
their confusion to their students.

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

There are a quite a large number of questions that come to our mind particularly when
we are teaching mathematics to young children- ‘why should one learn a difficult subject
Notes like mathematics?’, ‘How a highly abstract subject like mathematics with its symbols,
operations and logics can help in our daily life?’. ‘What are the immediate returns of
learning mathematics?’. ‘Can mathematics teaching and learning be a fun?’Answer to
these and such other questions would help us develop a clear vision of mathematics
learning and help us to demystify our awe and phobia of mathematics.
In this unit we have tried to develop a proper vision of mathematics through the
discussion of the broader and specific aims and objectives of teaching and learning
mathematics at the elementary level of schooling.
For completing this unit, you shall require about 07 (Seven) hours of study.

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to
State broader and narrower aims of teaching and learning mathematics education
Identify the indicators of effective mathematics education.
Create conducive learning environment in the school for Mathematization.

3.2 AIMS OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Mathematics education has its own aims. According to David Wheeler, it is “more
useful to know how to Mathematize than to know a lot of mathematics”. It is echoed
in the National Curriculum Framework 2005, “Developing children’s abilities for
mathematization is the main goal of mathematics education.” According to George
Polya, there are two kinds of aims in mathematics for school education such as broader
and narrower aims.

3.2.1 Broader and Narrower Aims

Before going to discuss the broader and narrower aims of mathematics education,
let’s do the following activities:

ACTIVITY - 1

Write down the areas and works where mathematics holds a key position.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
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ACTIVITY - 2
Notes
Why do you think that children should learn Mathematics?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

As stated above, development of abilities for mathematisation is the ultimate goal of

mathematics education. But, what is ‘mathematisation’? Literal meaning of the verb
‘mathematize’ is ‘to reduce to or as if to mathematical formulas.’ In general, the
term “mathematization” refers to the application of concepts, procedures and methods
developed in mathematics to the objects of other disciplines or at least of other fields
of knowledge. One is said to have acquired the ability to mathematize when he/she is
able to demonstrate orderly and systematic ways of expression and behaviour with
mathematical precision in all his/her activities. Mathematics education from the earliest
level should aim at such higher aims besides mastering the usually practiced computations
and constructions.
Developing the ability of mathematization which is regarded as constituting the higher
aims of mathematics, includes developing such abilities as problem solving, use of
heuristics, estimation and approximation, optimisation, use of patterns, visualization,
representation, reasoning and proof, making connections, mathematical communication
including developing aesthetic feeling. Such a higher aim in mathematics “is to develop
the child’s inner resources, to think and reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions
to their logical conclusion and to handle abstraction. It includes a way of doing things,
and the ability and the attitude to formulate and solve problems” (NCERT, p.46),
Problem solving: Problem solving is an important life skill which suggests a shift from
memorization to understanding of concepts and ability to apply those in both familiar
and unfamiliar situations, whether in daily life problems or in problems given in the
textbooks. The problem solving skills include skills of observation, experimentation,
estimation, reasoning and verification. Abstraction, quantification, analogy, case analysis,
reduction to simpler situations, even guesses and verification are useful in many problem
contexts. How can you measure the length of a house? Students may utilise their
experience of measuring a table and can use fingers, foot, hand, stick, rope, scale,
measuring tape etc. After some trials students may use measuring tape when they are
asked to measure a long space. When children learn a variety of approaches their
toolkit gets richer and they also learn which approach is best for the problem they are
facing.
The emphasis in this approach is more on the process involved and not just on the
product. Good problem solving functions on the assumption that real life problems are

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

open ended and have more than one solution and hence require the use of reasoning,
analysis etc. for taking appropriate decisions. Problem solving activities also help to
Notes connect mathematics to the real world.
Use of heuristics: It is generally believed that mathematics is considered to be ‘exact’
where one uses ‘the appropriate formula’. But one can use alternative processes and
interactive methods to solve a problem. As we have already seen that a problem can
be solved in more than one way. When one solves a problem in a way different from
the one given in the textbooks thought to be the only way, he/she feels a sense of
discovering the alternative. This encourages the learner to try different hunches for
solving the problems. One who uses such heuristics becomes, in the long run efficient
in solving real life problems. Most scientists, engineers and mathematicians use a big
bag of heuristics- a fact carefully hidden by our school textbooks.
Estimation and approximation: Estimating quantities and approximate solutions when
exact ones are not available are considered essential skills required for scientific
investigations. When we estimate the total expenditure in organising a cultural function,
or approximate time for completing a task, we may not get the right answer but surely
gain advantage of reaching nearer to the solution. In many cases students use this skill
to employ these approximations in solving more complex problems. School
mathematics, therefore, can play a significant role in developing and refining such useful
skills which is not found in the textbooks and in our classroom transactions.
Optimization: Optimization means utilization of available conditions and resources to
the fullest extent which is never included in the school mathematics curriculum. The
skill of optimization helps to examine whether the conditions provided for the solution
of a problem are sufficient and whether all the conditions provided can be utilized in
solving the problem. Let us consider two simple problems in Arithmetic:
1. Ajay’s annual income is Rs.3.5lakhs. He wants to purchase a house worth Rs.
15 lakhs. After how many years he can purchase it if he does not like to incur any
loan for it?
2. Milli wanted to purchase small gifts for five young cousins(sayA, B, C, D and E)
in her relations and she had Rs.100 with her. Each child shall get Rs. 5 more than
the immediate younger cousin. How should she distribute so that the amount is
fully utilized (i.e there would be neither surplus nor any deficit)?
In the first problem, there are several conditions wanting to find out a solution. The
two given conditions ( the annual income and the total cost of the house) are not
sufficient for determining the time period for the purchase, without knowing the exact
annual savings and other impending expenditures or escalation and depreciation in the
value of the house over the years.
The second problem presents a situation where optimization of available funds is
possible under the given conditions.

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Considerations for optimization may not be always easy, but intelligent choice based
on best use of available information is a mathematical skill that can be taught even at
primary school stage. Notes

Through several problems in all sections of school mathematics, like proofs of geometric
deductions, constructions of geometric figures, algebraic equations or identities, or
solving any arithmetic problem, skills of optimization can be developed which have
immense relevance for solving the real life problems.
Use of patterns: Study of patterns requires students to recognize, describe, and
generalize patterns to arrive at rules and formulae. If children are made to identify
regularities in events, shapes, designs, sets of numbers they will realize that regularity is
the essence of mathematics. It provides the basis for inductive learning too. Exploring
patterns is both fascinating and interesting and can be made also a fun activity for
children.
Representation: Modeling situations using quantities, shapes and forms is the best
use of mathematics. Such representations aid visualization, clarify essentials, help us
discard irrelevant information. Again, what we need are illustrations that show a
multiplicity of representations so that the relative advantages can be understood. For
example a fraction can be well understood through an object and its cut pieces but can
also be visualized as a point on the number line. Both representations are useful and
appropriate in different context. Learning this about fractions is far more useful than
arithmetic of fractions.
Reasoning & proof: Mathematics is based on reasoning and proof. Two persons
may have same answer to a particular question, in different ways. This can be observed
in the following example:
What is the next to 3, 15, 35, 63, 99, …. .?
A, provided the result through the following pattern 22 – 1, 42 – 1, 62 – 1, 82 – 1,
102 – 1, 122 – 1 = 143
B presented it as 3, 3 + 12, 15 + 12 + 8, 35 + 12 + 8 + 8, 63 + 12 + 8 + 8 + 8,
99 + 12 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 143.
The process of reasoning and proof is important in mathematics. So school mathematics
should encourage proof as a systematic way of argumentation. The aim should be to
develop arguments, evaluate arguments, make and investigate conjectures, and
understand that there are various methods of reasoning.
Making connection: Mathematics has been making connection within mathematics
and between mathematics and other subjects of study. Children learn to draw graphs
in mathematics class, but fail to think of drawing such a graphs in their project work ,
or in solving problems in physics and in other subject areas. Mathematical symbols

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

and logic have wide implications in solving problems in science and presenting facts
effectively. The skill of connecting mathematical knowledge with other areas of
Notes curriculum and with the problems of real life needs to be initiated from very early stage
of mathematics learning.
Mathematical communication: Precise expression and unambiguous use of language
are important characteristics of mathematics education. Using mathematical symbols,
language, operations etc. makes mathematics more meaningful and systematic. X is
two times and 52 more than Y, and if Y is 75 what is X? Can precisely express as X =
2Y + 52 = 2x75 + 52 = 202. It helps the persons to communicate their experience
and views in a precise manner.
These broader aims of learning mathematics have been grossly neglected in our school
curricular and co-curricular activities. We mostly focus on acquisition on some
fundamental content areas. NCF-2005 is explicit in stating that “the narrow aim of
school mathematics is to develop ‘useful’ capabilities, particularly those relating to
numeracy- numbers, number operations, measurements, decimals and percentages”
(p.42). While the acquisition of basic content knowledge is necessary, learning content
for content sake only encourages rote learning without developing proper understanding
and skill in using to achieve the broader aims of mathematics education. The curriculum
as well as classroom transactions need to synchronize the two aspects.
Considering the broader and narrower aims of mathematics education, the followings
are some of the major aims of mathematics education:
To develop the powers of thinking and reasoning.
To solve mathematical problems of daily life.
To understand and acquainted with the environment and culture
To prepare the child for various technical and general future professions.
To prepare the child for higher study.
To develop in the child the power for invention.

E-1 State any five aims for teaching and learning mathematics concept.

3.2.2 Specific Aims

The specific aims of mathematics education helps to design suitable methods for planning
effective classroom learning process, curriculum, guide to prepare TLMs, prepare
evaluation procedures etc. Thus it is desirable to write the specific aims in action
verbs, pin pointed, short, achievable etc. The following are some of the specific aims
of mathematics education:

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To ensure a good start to the students in learning mathematics.

To give clarity on fundamental concepts and processes of the subject.
Notes
To create love, faith and interest for learning mathematics.
To develop in them a taste and confidence in mathematics.
To develop appreciation for accuracy.
To acquaint them with the relation of mathematics with their present as well as
future life.
To see aesthetics in mathematics.
To develop in them the habits like regularity, practice, patience, self reliance and
hard work.
To apply mathematics in other subjects.
To acquaint them with mathematical language and symbolism.
To prepare them for the learning of mathematics of higher classes.
To prepare them for mathematical exhibitions.

Instructional objectives for teaching of Even and Odd numbers?

The students will able:
To divide a collection of objects into two equal parts,
To identify even and odd numbers of three digit numbers,
To differentiate between even and odd numbers,
To give example of even and odd numbers,
To give examples of real life situations where even and odd numbers are
used.

E-2 State any two reasons for stating specific aims for teaching and learning
mathematics concept.
E-3 Which of the following are instructional objectives of mathematics?
i) To develop in the child the power of thinking and reasoning.
ii) To develop in child a scientific and realistic attitude towards life.
iii) To apply addition of two digits numbers in solving problems of daily life.
iv) To understand and acquainted with different coins.
v) To perform computations with speed and accuracy.
vi) To use appropriate symbols for “Fifteen is five more than ten”.

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

vii) To make reasonably good approximations and estimate measurements.

Notes viii) To apply formula of direct variable to solve simple problems of day to day
life.
ix) To recognize order and pattern.
x) To indentify even and odd numbers of three digit numbers.

ACTIVITY -3

Write the instructional objectives for teaching learning:-

i) Place value of three digit numbers
ii) Simple interest
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

3.3 VISIONS FOR SCHOOL MATHEMATICS

As teachers in mathematics, we are to facilitate children to develop love for learning
mathematics. But our activities in the classroom, our teaching style and our interactions
with children depend on our beliefs and expectations about mathematics education.
How do we view mathematics? ‘Do we view it as an abstract, dry and complex
subject?’ Is rote memorization the only method of learning mathematical concepts?’
‘Is mathematics education only meant for a few capable children? Or ‘do we view it
as an interesting and meaningful subject which can be learnt by everyone?’ We can
ask ourselves such other questions. In short, what is our vision of mathematics education?
Visioning is associated with the ideal that we aspire to achieve. A higher and lofty
vision makes us to strive for higher quality of education. This is equally applicable for
mathematics education. Let us see what has been the National vision of mathematics
education at the school stage as reflected in different National reports and documents.
National Policy on Education, 1968, which shared the dream of all round development
in every field through technological and scientific advancements of the National
Commission on Education 1964-66,remarked that “advent of automation and
cybernetics in this century marks the beginning of the new scientific industrial revolution
and makes it all the more imperative to devote special attention to the study of
mathematics”.

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The National Policy on Education 1986 proposed that “Mathematics should be

visualized as the vehicle to train a child, to think, reason, analyze and to articulate
logically. Apart from being a specific subject, it should be treated as a concomitant to Notes
any subject involving analysis and reasoning”. The shift in treating mathematics education
as an instrument for the National development to the development of child’s abilities is
perceptible. This has been carried forward further in the National Curricular Framework
2005 wherein it is envisaged child’s active engagement in mathematics learning involving
“enquiry, exploration, questioning, debates, application and reflection leading to theory
building and creation ideas/positions in mathematics”.
Visions for School Mathematics: Keeping the above stated higher objectives of
mathematics education in view, the NCF 2005 have spelt out the vision for school
mathematics :
Children learn to enjoy mathematics: This is important goal, based on the
premise that mathematics can be both used and enjoyed life-long, and school is
best place to create such a taste for mathematics. On the other hand, creating (or
not removing) a fear of mathematics can deprive children of an important faculty
for life.
Children learn important mathematics: Equating mathematics with formulas
and mechanical procedures does great harm. Understanding when and how a
mathematical technique is to be used is always more important than recalling the
technique from memory (which may easily be done using books or browsing
appropriate websites), and the school needs to create such understanding.
Children see mathematics as something to talk about, to communicate, to
discuss among them-selves, to work together on. Making mathematics a part
of children’s life experience is the best mathematics education possible.
Children pose and solve meaningful problems: In school, mathematics is the
domain which formally addresses problem solving as a skill. Considering that this
is an ability of use in all of one’s life, techniques and approaches learnt in school
have great value. Not only confining to development of problem solving skills,
mathematics also provides an opportunity to make up interesting problems, and
create new dialogues thereby. Posing problems reflects the levels and quality of
learning besides developing the ability of creative inquiry in the children.
Children use abstractions to perceive relation-ships, to see structures, to reason
about things, to argue the truth or falsity of statements. Logical thinking is a
great gift of mathematics can offer us, inculcation, such habits of thought and
communication in children is a principal goal of teaching mathematics.
Children understand the basic structure of mathematics: Arithmetic, algebra,
geometry and trigonometry, the basic content areas of school mathematics, all

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

offer a methodology for abstraction, structuration and generalization. Appreciating

the scope and power of mathematics refines our instincts in a unique manner.
Notes
Teachers engage every child in class with conviction that everyone can learn
mathematics. Settling for anything less can only act towards systematic exclusion,
in the long run. Adequately challenging the talented even while ensuring the
participation of all children is a challenge, and offering teachers means and
resources to do this is essential for the health of the system.

3.3.1 Children and Mathematics Education

Imagine that we are in an elementary school where a teacher teaching mathematics in
a class. What we are going to see? We may see that a teacher is standing at the black
board, chalk in hand, explaining something, writing solution on black board, asking
students to copy the answers from black board/books, practice the exercise in the
text book, sometimes students were answering teacher’s questions or repeating the
teacher’s words, teacher is active and students are passive listener.
Problems in teaching and learning of mathematics:
Fear and Failure: Most of the students, peers, teachers, parents etc. have given
priority to teaching and learning mathematics at the elementary level although most of
them thought that it is a difficult subject. Lack of awareness of objectives is also
another cause of fear and failure. Failure to recognize place value leads to failure in
four operations in mathematics.
Disappointing Curriculum: Unattractive and Loaded mathematics curriculum
created disappointment among the students. Most of the mathematics curriculum
emphasizes on procedure, formulas, mathematical facts and memorization of concepts.
The textbook and syllabi on mathematics are rigidly prescribed. The mathematics
curriculum is far away from the real life.
Inadequate Learning Materials: For majority of children in elementary schools
textbook in mathematics is the only resource material available to them. Further, most
of the textbooks, mathematics textbooks as well, are mostly content loaded and
prescriptive. The student find very little scope for pleasure and fun in learning
mathematics from the texrbooks. There is hardly any other materials available to the
children especially those who are in rural and remote areas.
Crude Assessment: Most of our mathematics curriculum emphasized on memorization
of formulas. Our class room teaching process is also examination oriented. In our
school, different tests are designed to assess student’s knowledge of procedure and
memory of formulas and facts. Questions are set not to expose student’s experience
but to get a fixed answer. For example students free to answer — + — = 8 than
2 + 6 = —? More over similar types of assessment procedure are applied in formative

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

assessment as well as summative assessment. This type of crude methods of assessment

encourages perception of mathematics as mechanical computation.
Notes
Inadequate teacher preparation: Teaching and learning of mathematics in elementary
level is purely depends on preparation of teachers, her own understanding, preparation
of teacher on pedagogic techniques and student’s preparedness. As there is acute
dearth of mathematics teachers, it forced other teachers to teach mathematics in the
classes in compulsion. They are mostly depending on the text books. Most of the
teachers also assume that they know all the mathematics required for the elementary
level. So there is a lack of teacher preparation in teaching of mathematics.

Teaching learning process: Teaching learning process in mathematics at the

elementary level are not attractive because i) Bookish knowledge in the class creates
dissatisfaction, ii) School mathematics learning becomes charmless, dull, uninteresting,
and stereotype, iii) Emphasis on rote learning, iv) Emphasis on teaching, not on learning,
v) Development of Understanding, Application and skill are ignored

Lack of interest: Most of the school children find learning of mathematics difficult
and lose their confidence in mathematics. The teaching learning process in mathematics
is not joyful and attractive. Even the students don’t know what benefit they will get
after learning mathematics. So students lack their interest and attitude towards
mathematics.

3.3.2 Mathematics Education Beyond Classroom

In our elementary schools, the textbooks are considered to be the only sources of
learning. In most of the cases, the children are discouraged to refer any other books
besides the textbooks. Because the examination question papers are set on the basis
of the prescribed textbook. Some questions arise to the mind: Is the textbook the be-
all and end-all of the all knowledge?Are the writers having sufficient knowledge about
child psychology? Is child’s environment taken into consideration? We do not have
satisfactory answers to theses and such other questions but we accept the textbook as
the prime source of teaching learning process.

Children learn not only from the teacher, but also from interaction with other children,
environment around them. Children learn through their senses such as, smell, touch,
taste, hearing and vision. Activities involving more than one sense will help children
learn better. Children learn easily if the teaching learning process is interesting, activity
based, allows for active participation and thinking at their level, joyful and relevant to
the child’s immediate environment. More over children learn at all time, every- where,
in class and out- side the class i.e. home, play ground, market etc. So our aim is to
make learning in school a happy experience breaking the boundary between learning
within classrooms and learning outside the classroom.

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

Look at the following situations:

Notes
Situation 1: There are seven toys in a basket. Three of the toys are broken.
Children are asked to tell the number of toys in the basket.

Ranbir : There are seven toys in the basket.

Yash : There are four toys in the basket.

Ratana : There are ten toys in the basket.

Ashish : I cannot say as the number may vary from person to person.

Soumya : The question needs some corrections.

Whose statement is right? And why?

Explanation of the statements:

Ranbir : The toys are broken but all the broken toys are in the basket .

Yash : 7 – 3 = 4

Ratana : Three toys are broken, so there are six broken toys. So, 7-3+6=10
Ashish : I cannot say as the number may vary from person to person as a toy
can broken into 2/3/4………pieces.

Soumya : The question needs some corrections i.e. Now how many good
toys are there in the basket? Then the answer will be 7-3=4.
After going through the “Explanation of the statements” check your opinion
about the statements whether it is right/wrong? One may give full mark to
Yash, as it the most common right statement. But, think of the others
statements.
Look at the following questions:

What is the main objective of this question?

Has Yash achieved the objective?

Have Ratana , Ayush, Ashish and Soumya achieved the objective?

Yash’s statement is just recall of the answer in the class room. Ranbir, Ayush,
Ashish and Soumya look the question in a different way. They have taken
their experience, life situations, thinking etc. into consideration. They have
gone beyond the class room situations.

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Situation 2: The teacher asked the students to solve the problem 18  12 =?

without using writing materials.
Notes
Papali : 18  10 + 18  2 = 216
Jiban : 12  10 + 12  8 = 216
Rahul : 18  12 = 216
Akash : 20  12 – 2  12 = 216
Analyze the answer of the above four students and explain who have
connected knowledge to life outside the school, and how? If we allow children
to solve mathematical problems by their own methods, we would find and
amazing variety of thought processes.

Scope of connecting knowledge to life outside the school:

Market: Most of the students might have gone to a market with their parents. They
must have observed and participated in the way of buying and selling of goods and
also the approach of the buyer and seller. You should take the advantage of real
situations and utilized the experience of the students in calculation of profit & loss,
preparation of bills, process of weighting, counting of money, amount and price etc.
Garden: Students prepare plots in home, schools and also in playing with peers.
During that time they may not know counting, measurement, construction of angles,
different types of geometrical figures, areas, different lines, average etc. but they may
do it using their perception. How can one prepare a plot of two meters each side? You
may share the experience of the students in these acivities and it will be amazing to find
out that they have already acquired a lot of mathematical concepts which requires
slight refinement for acquiring formal knowledge and understanding of the concepts.
Real life: A frog climbs 30 meters on a pole in a day and slides back 20 meters in a
night. If the pole is 70 meters high, then how many days the frog will take to climb to
the top of the pole? Most of our students of upper primary classes may calculate the
answer as 7. One student told the answer is 5 as the frog climbs 40 meters in 4 days
and in the fifth day it reached on the top i.e. 70 meters. Students get opportunities to
work in a natural setting, they work according to their own perceptions. So their real
life experience must take into consideration.
Making designs: Students covered their note books, paint pictures, decorate their
houses, plants trees in garden, design their playing kits etc. At that time, are they using
mathematics? How many match sticks are required to design your name? Teacher
must observe the process of making design and utilized it in class room.
Festival: We celebrate many festivals in our homes as well as in our schools. Students
heartily involved on the Independence day, Republic day, Teacher’s day, Children’s

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

day, Saraswatipuja, Ganeshpuja, Id, Christmas etc. They involve themselves in different
activities to make these special occasions memorable. They go to market to buy various
Notes materials, decorate the school, distribute sweets, calculate expenditure etc. at that
time they also learn mathematics.
Play ground: Students are playing Kabaddi, football, cricket, volley ball, basket ball
and also many indoor games. They frame their rules of their own. Prepare play ground
in a group. Students construct Circles, Rectangles, Squares, triangles etc.In their play
ground without knowing the rules of construction. They count individual and group
scores through their own strategies. Ramesh scored two fours, two twos and a single
in a cricket match. How can he calculate his total score without knowing multiplication?

E4. How can you go beyond the text book for teaching and learning mathematics
concepts.

3.3.3 Making Mathematics Learning Joyful

The mathematics learning in school is very often dull, un- interesting, difficult and boring.
One of the most important reasons is “joyless experience” of the teachers and students.
The Learning Without Burden Report rightly said “joyless learning a situation where a
lot is taught but little is learnt or understood”. So, while planning for mathematics
learning it is important to know, what students really enjoy to do while learning
mathematics. What are their needs and interests? How students actually learn? etc.

ACTIVITY - 5

List the areas of interest of your students and identify which of these areas
are suitable for learning mathematics.
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How mathematics learning can be joyful?

Each child’s learning experience must be taken into consideration.
Establish linkage between concrete objects and abstract concepts in mathematics
learning.
Use Mathematical games, puzzles and stories to create curiosity among the students.
Developing Mathematics magic makes the mathematics learning interesting.
Use diverse materials like flash cards, stones, sticks, objects, pictures, cutouts,
charts, calendars, playing cards, cartons etc.

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

Organize mathematical quiz, debate, seminar etc.

Collections of photographs of great mathematicians.
Ensure opportunities for learning by discovery. Notes

Reduce wide gaps between mathematical theory and practice.

Linking mathematics with life situation.
Asked the students to collect local games, songs, dramas etc. and convert it to
mathematics learning.
Take students to outside the classroom to observe the nature.
Allow the child to take independent decision .
Children will learn more mathematics if the mathematics learning is joyful.
Do not impose adult’s views on the students as it restricts the child’s creative
expression.
Example: How many right angles are there in the picture?

Example: Use an identical digit for three times to make 30.

E-5 Give an example of joyful mathematics learning.

3.3.4 Creating Conducive Learning Environment For

Mathematization
Most of the elementary school students do not show their enthusiasm for learning
when mathematics is taught in the class. A majority of children have a sense of fear and
failure regarding mathematics, so they give up difficult mathematical problems. Most
of the teachers are guided by their own level of understanding and not of their pupils.
Teachers also lack confidence in the teaching learning process. In most of the elementary
schools the environment is not fit for teaching and learning of mathematics.

ACTIVITY - 6

Is environment of your school/ school of your village suitable for learning

mathematics? Explain.
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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

Suggestions for learner friendly environment :

Notes Knowing the children: Knowing the children not only important in mathematics
learning but also important in total education system. In learning of mathematics teacher
should i) Know every individual child in the class, ii) Praise children when they attempt
to the mathematical problems, iii) do not except children to do tasks which we ourselves
do not do, iv) know merits and demerits of every child in solving the problems in
mathematics, v) give sufficient time to solve the mathematical problems etc.
Teaching learning programmes: Most of the students thought, mathematics is a
borrowing subject. Teacher should adopt interesting teaching learning programmes ,
which will create positive attitude among the students towards learning mathematics.
The mathematics teacher should i) greet the children every day with a mathematical
joke, story, and puzzle etc. ii) go beyond the mathematics textbooks, iii) not to devote
excessively long time on practice of exercises on mathematics, iv) use flash cards,
pictures, diagrams, flow charts, graphs, objects etc. for better understanding of
mathematics concepts.
Teaching learning equipments: Teacher should collect mathematics text books,
mathematics reference books, magazines, mathematics magic, story and puzzle books,
project books, books related to history of mathematics and mathematicians etc. Teacher
should talk to the students, parents and community members to collect/ prepare
mathematical equipments.
School environment: The environment of school plays a vital role in mathematics
learning. The environment should develop in such a way that the child may be motivated
to learn mathematics. Walls of the class rooms and schools should be designed with
mathematical concepts. Innovative ideas on mathematics might be written on the walls.
In prayer class also we may read the history of some mathematicians. It is necessary
to bright classrooms with display of children’s work and other interesting materials.
Learning corner: Basic facilities such as: flash cards, stones, sticks, objects, pictures,
cutouts, charts, calendars, playing cards, cartons etc must be available in the class
room. Teacher should be prepared/ collected different activities on mathematics and
kept these in the learning corner. Teacher should use the learning corner when and
where necessary.
Recreational Activities: The recreational activities which are almost ignored in our
schools should be given importance as it motivate the students and develop positive
attitude among the students. Recreational activities are: organization of mathematics
club, mathematics quiz, competition on mental arithmetic etc. Development of question
bank (oral, written and performance),activity bank with competencies, answer to
Olympiad questions, enrichment and remedial materials.
Assessment: Learners must have opportunities to evaluate their own achievement in
practice sessions. When children wrongly answer the questions, do not put them to

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

shame. Master the required competencies before proceed to next competency. Practice
sessions definitely must not destroy interest in learning. It is important that pupils enjoy
practice sessions devoted to mathematics so that positive attitudes are developed. Notes
Avoid physical punishment and the school should be “Punishment free zone”.

3.4 LET US SUM UP

Development of abilities for mathematization is the broader aim of mathematics
education which includes abilities like problem solving, use of heuristics, estimation
and approximation, optimization, use of patterns, visualization, representation,
reasoning and proof, making connections, mathematical communication.
The higher aim is to develop the child’s resources to think and reason
mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their logical conclusion and to handle
abstraction. It includes a way of doing things, and the ability and the attitude to
formulate and solve problems.
The narrow aim of school mathematics is to develop so called ‘useful’ capabilities,
particularly those relating to numeracy- numbers, number operations,
measurements, decimals and percentages.
The specific aims of mathematics education in the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains help to design suitable methods, curriculum, guide to
prepare TLMs, prepare evaluation questions etc. Thus it is desirable to write the
specific aims in action verbs, pin pointed, short, and in achievable terms.
The vision of school mathematics has been built in the NCF- 2005 expecting
every child to learn mathematic with joy perceiving its abstractness, basic structure,
the interrelationships, and ways of communication.
Children learn not only from the teacher, but also from interaction with other
children, environment around them, nature, materials and things both through
action and through language.
The aim is to make learning in school a happy experience breaking the boundary
between learning within classrooms and learning outside the classroom using a
variety of materials.
Reduce wide gaps between mathematical theory and practice by linking
mathematics with life situations.

3.5 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
E-1 To develop the habits of concentration, self–reliance, power of expression and
discovery. To develop thinking and reasoning abilities to solve mathematical
problems of daily life.

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 Goals and Vision of Mathematics Education

– To understand and acquainted with the environment and culture.

– To prepare the child for various technical and general future professions.
Notes
– To develop in the child the power for invention.
E-2 The specific aims of mathematics education help to design suitable methods,
curriculum, guide to prepare TLMs, prepare evaluation questions etc.
E-3 iii ,iv, vi, vii and xi are instructional objectives of mathematics.
E-4 Field trips, mathematical games, puzzles and stories, mathematics magic, linking
mathematics with life situation, analysis, representation and interpretation of data,
identifying, expressing and explaining patterns, estimation and approximation in
solving problems .
E-5 Write 100 with five identical digits: 5x5x5-5x5=100.

3.6 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Ediger, Marlow and Rao, D.B. (2004). Teaching mathematics in elementary schools.
New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
Gagne R.M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. New
York: CBS College Publishing.
Joyce, Bruce and Weil, Marsha (1996). Models of teaching. Needham Heights,
MA: Simon and Schuster.
NCERT (1997). The primary years: A curriculum framework(Part II), New Delhi:
NCERT.
NCERT (2005). National curriculum framework 2005. New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT (2008). Sourcebook for learning assessment in mathematics for primary
schools. New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT(1995). Self instructional package for special orientation programme
for primary school teachers, New Delhi: NCERT.
NCTE (1999). Exemplar modules in mathematics. New Delhi: NCTE.
Sidhu, Kulbir Singh (1989). The teaching of mathematics, New Delhi: Sterling.

3.7 UNIT- END EXERCISES

1. What difficulties one will face if he does not know A.B.C. of mathematics?
2. Distinguish between educational objectives and teaching objectives.
3. Discuss the aims of teaching mathematics at the elementary level.
4. State the vision of elementary school mathematics.
5. Select ten examples from your surroundings that can be used in your class for
teaching mathematics.

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 Learner and Learning-Centred Methodologies at Elementary Level

UNIT 4 LEARNER AND LEARNING-

CENTRED METHODOLOGIES AT Notes

ELEMENTARY LEVEL

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Methods for Teaching and Learning Mathematics
4.2.1 Inductive and Deductive
4.2.2 Analysis and Synthesis Methods
4.2.3 Project Method
4.2.4 Problem Solving and Problem Posing
4.3 Learning- centred Approaches of Teaching Mathematics
4.3.1 5E’s Learning Model
4.3.2 Interpretation construction (ICON) design model
4.3.3 Concept Mapping
4.3.4 Activity Based
4.4 Making Mathematics Learning more Challenging and Satisfying
4.4.1 Development of Learners’ creative abilities
4.4.2 Use of Mathematics Laboratory and Library
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Model Answers to Check your Progress
4.7 Suggested Readings and References
4.8 Unit-End Exercises

4.0 INTRODUCTION
You have a lot of experiences in teaching mathematics at the elementary level. You
might have realised by now that teaching mathematics to young learners at the elementary
school learner is not an easy job. It is quite challenging particularly in making mathematics
learning more meaningful for the learners. Very often, guided by popular sense that
mathematics is a difficult subject, we transfer that feeling to our students. Further,
stressing more on textbooks for teaching mathematics, we stress more on rote learning

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 Learner and Learning-Centred Methodologies at Elementary Level

without properly considering their prior knowledge of mathematics, their interest in

learning mathematics, learning needs and their learning styles. Such rote learning not
Notes only makes understanding of mathematical concepts more difficult but increases fear
for mathematics which inhibits further learning of the subject.
Of all school subjects, mathematics has the most systematic and highly organised
structure. In addition to this characteristic, the concepts included in the elementary
level mathematics are intimately associated with the concrete real life experiences of
the learner. If we know how to associate the learning of mathematical concepts using
the daily life , experience in the context of the learner thereby activating his/her
capabilities to reason, analyse, draw conclusions, then the mathematics learning would
be more meaningful, relevant and interesting for the learner. To attain this ability, a
teacher needs to be acquainted with the various methods and approaches available
for teaching and learning mathematics especially at the elementary level.
This unit focuses on the discussion of learner centred and learning centred methods
and approaches of learning and teaching mathematics at the elementary school level.
Besides, we have also tried to acquaint you with the traditional methods of teaching
mathematics and their continuing relevance.
For the study of this unit and understanding the concepts embedded in it, you
need at least 7 (seven) study hours.

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Identify the different methods and approaches of teaching and learning mathematics
at the elementary level.
Adopt learning centred approaches and methods of mathematics in your
classrooms.
Organise different activities in the school for making mathematics learning more
meaningful, challenging and satisfying.

4.2 METHODS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

MATHEMATICS
Think for a while regarding what you exactly do in your mathematics class - at the
beginning you introduce the concept for drawing attention of the learners towards the
topic; then you try to explain that concept through demonstrating different materials,
performing activities, or doing such other activities to clarify the concepts making the
students to praticipate; and lastly you ask some questions for assessing whether the
learners have learnt the concepts as you desired. You follow a proper sequence in
your teaching which is usually called a method of teaching. Methods are the style of
presentation of content in the classroom so that all students would learn the concepts.

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Your style of teaching and the way you present the lesson is always the same. It
depends on the nature of the content, the learning style of the students and also depends
on the availability of the resources in your classroom. Depending on these factors, you Notes
follow different methods for teaching different concepts in mathematics at different
times. Here we discuss the methods typically used to teach mathematics in our
classrooms.

4.2.1 Inductive-deductive Method

It is perhaps the oldest and the most basic method of teaching as well as learning
mathematics. All other methods in mathematics utilise this method in different degrees.
This is a combination of two methods of induction and deduction.
Inductive Method: Induction is the form of reasoning in which a general law or
principle is derived from a study of particular objects or specific processes.
Induction is based on the logic that if something is true for a particular case and is
further true for a reasonable adequate number of cases, then it is true for all such
cases. Students observe the relationship among such cases, which lead them to
guess a common pattern. Thus a formula or the generalisation is arrived at through
a process of inductive reasoning. Let us study some examples:
Example 1:
(a) 12 = 1, 32 = 9, 52 = 25, 72 = 49, ………………. where 1,3,5,and 7…. are
odd numbers and so also their respective squared numbers 1, 9, 25, 49, …..
(b) 22 = 4, 42 = 16, 62 = 36, 82 = 64 ……………….. where 2, 4, 6, 8,…. are
even numbers and so also their respective squared numbers 4, 16, 36, 64,…….
From (a) we get, ‘square of an odd number is odd’.
And from (b) we get, ‘square of an even number is even’.
Example 2:
1 + 1 = 2; 1 + 3 = 4; 1 + 5 = 6; 3 + 5 = 8; …..where 1, 3, 5, are odd numbers and
the result of their addition i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8, ….. are even numbers.
From these additions we can conclude that addition of two odd numbers is an even
number.

ACTIVITY - 1

Examine whether this generalization is true for (1) addition of three odd
numbers, and (2) addition of odd/even number of odd numbers.
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 Learner and Learning-Centred Methodologies at Elementary Level

Example 3

Notes 1. a2 × a3 = (a × a) × (a × a × a) = a5 = a 2+3
2. a3 × a4 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a) = a7 = a 3+4
3. a3 × a6 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a × a × a) = a9 = a3+6 so on.
From these instances we can conclude that
am × an = (a × a × ….m times) × (a × a × … n times)
= a × a × … (m + n) times
= a m+n
 am × an = am+n

E1. From the Table 4.1 above, what can you conclude about the measures of two
adjacent angles?
E2. With appropriate examples, draw inductive conclusions regarding the square of
the addition of two real numbers.

Deductive method: Here the learner proceeds from general to particular, abstract to
concrete and formula to examples. A preconstructed formula or principles be told to
students and they are asked to solve the different relevant problems with the help of
the earlier formula. So in this method first you give the relevant formula, principles and
ideas to students and explain further its application of the formula to problems. The
students in your class come to understand how the formula can be used or applied.
For example – when you are going to teach about profit and loss, directly you announced
the formula of interest i.e. I = PTR/100 and solve different related problems by using
this formula. The students just observe your method of solving and than they memorise
this formula for further use.
Deductive approach proceeds from:-
General rule to specific instances
Abstract rules to concrete instances
Deductive approach of teaching follows the steps given below for effective teaching
Clear recognition of the problem
Search for a tentative hypothesis
Formulating of a tentative hypothesis/Choosing the relevant formula for solution.
Solving the problem.
Verification of the result

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Example 1: Find a2  a10 =?

From the law of indices, it is known that am  an = am+n Notes
Hence, a2  a10 = a2+10 = a12 (here m = 2 and n = 10)
Example 2: Find (102)2 = ?
We know that (a + b) 2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
(100+2) 2 = 1002 + 22 + (2  100  2) (in this case a = 100 and b = 2)
= 10000 + 4 + 400 = 10404
We can also multiply 102 with itself to get the same result (for verification of the
correctness of the earlier result)
Inductive and deductive method is the combination of two approaches of teaching
mathematics at the elementary level. In essence, the inductive method begins with
presentation of specific examples and ends with the formation of generalised principles.
In contrast, the deductive approach begins with presentation of generalised principles
ends with the generalisation of specific examples.
Inductive method helps the learner in developing the ability to reason by observing
common elements in the similar instances and arriving at the generalised statement or
rule. Deductive method is all about applying the established rules and formulae in
solving various mathematical problems. Almost all the problems in mathematics
textbooks can be solved through the application of deductive method.

E3. The method based on the principle of generalisation or establishment of formula/

laws/principle from the observation of concrete examples is the ..........method.
E4. Which method focused on application or use of formula directly on problem?

4.2.2 Analytic and Synthetic Method

You have a lot of experiences about different concept in geometry and algebra, where
the students proceeds in the logical sequence like- given A is true, therefore B is true,
hence C is true. Here A is known to be true and the status of C is unknown and
required to be ascertained as true. Proceeding from A to C is Synthetic. But the other
way, sometimes student proceeds from unknown to known, i.e. C is true, if B is true;
B is true, if A is true. The way of proceeding from unknown C to known A is called
Analytic method.
In Analytic method we break up the unknown problem into simpler parts and then
see how these can be recombined to find the solution. So we start with what is to be
found out and then think of further steps or possibilities that may connect the unknown
built the known and find out the desired result. The nature of the analytic method is that

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 Learner and Learning-Centred Methodologies at Elementary Level

It leads from conclusion to hypothesis.

Notes It proceeds from unknown to known.

a c ac  2b 2 c 2  2bd
Example. If  , prove that 
b d b d

Following analytic method, we start with what is to be proved and proceeded as

follows:

ac  2b 2 c 2  2bd
If  is true (we are not sure) then it follows from it that.
b d

d(ac – b2) = b(c2 – 2bd) which implies (by simplification of both the sides) that:
acd – 2 b2d = bc2 – 2b2d  would be true, and in turn implies that
acd = bc2 would be true, which again implies that
ad = bc would be true. From this relationship it is implied that

a c
 would be true, which is the given condition.
b d

Using the mathematical symbol ‘’ to read “implies ”, we can write the above analytic
proof in a more concise manner as follows:

ac  2b 2 c 2  2bd
 d(ac – 2b2) = b(c2 – 2bd) (by cross multiplication)
b d
 cd – 2 b2 d = bc2 – 2b2 d  (multiplying and simplifying)
 acd = bc2 (by cancelling the equal term ‘-2 b2d’ from both the sides)
 ad = bc (dividing both sides by ‘c’ supposed to be a non-zero term)

a c
  , (dividing both the sides by ‘bd’ )
b d

ac  2b 2 c 2  2bd
Since, this condition is given to be valid, then  is also valid as
b d
per the above analysis .
Analytic statements are not considered as the statements of proofs for the problem.
Rather analysis is considered as the means of discovering the proof. Synthetic method
provides the proof of the problem.

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In Synthetic method, we proceed from what is given to proving what is required. To

synthesizes means to place together things that are apart. It starts with the data available
or known and connects the same with the conclusion. It is the process of putting Notes
together known bits of information to reach the point where unknown information
becomes obvious and true.
a c
Let us consider the example given above i.e. if  , prove that
b d
ac  2b 2 c 2  2bd

b d
The synthetic proof of this problem runs as follows:

a c
Given   ad = bc (by cross multiplication)
b d

acd = bc2 (by multiplying a non-zero quantity ‘c’ to both the sides)
acd – 2b2d  = bc2 – 2b2d  (adding ‘– 2b2d’  to both the sides)
d (ac – 2b2) = b(c2 – 2bd) (taking common elements from both the sides)

ac  2b 2 c 2  2bd
  (dividing both the sides by ‘bd’)
b d

This is the type of proof we come across in nearly all mathematics textbooks and
literatures. This is precise, logically arranged in proper sequence and easy for reading
and communicating.
Analytical proofs look somewhat disorderly which they actually are not. Many are of
the opinion that through synthetic method we get the proof, while analytic method
provides the way to discover the proof. In that sense, methods of analysis and synthesis
in mathematics are complementary to each other.
Method of analysis and synthesis is applied for such problems in mathematics where
‘if – then’ type of logic is needed (If a triangle is isosceles, then prove that the measures
of the angles opposite to the sides of equal length are equal). In such problems, some
conditions (hypotheses) are given and under those conditions some relationships have
to be proved. In proving geometric relationships, and algebraic identities and in solving
algebraic problems this method can be effectively used.

4.2.3 Project Method

There are number of students in your classroom who are good in solving the problems
from the mathematics textbook. You will find most of them are unable to solve the real
life problems where the solution remains similar. Take an example, students are familiar

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 Learner and Learning-Centred Methodologies at Elementary Level

to solve the problems on profit and loss from the text book, but they fail to apply the
same knowledge during marketing. The reason is the way of teaching mathematics in
Notes the classroom. Students are made to spend many hours of the day in learning and
repeating subjects from textbooks without understanding their value in daily life. In
reality, learning mathematics prepares a child for life by making him live in reality and
provide him opportunities where he/she can exercise his/her ability of thinking and
skills of doing. Therefore, learning through project is an important aspect for getting
real experiences.
The project based learning is a learner-centred method in which the students are
challenged to do something by themselves outside the realm of normal class work.
Project-based learning is an individual or group activity that goes on over a period of
time, resulting in a product, presentation, or performance. A project of mathematics
contains rich activities, active participation, freedom to students and correlation with
other subjects. In the project based learning, as a teacher the first task is you have
identified the area of the project. Then you have to distribute each areas to different
groups accordingly the interest of the group. The project based learning followed the
following steps.
a. Providing the situations
b. Choosing and purposing
c. Planning for the project
d. Executing the project
e. Judging the project
f. Recording the project
For the grade-VIII students you may assign the project like – running of co-operative
bank in your school, laying out a school garden, planning and estimating the construction
of a house. For further elaboration of this method you can refer to the Unit 14 in the
Paper 3rd of this course.

E5. Identify the basic characteristics of the project in mathematics.

E6. In which method the proof of a geometric theorem proceeds just the reverse way
of the proof given in the textbooks?

4.2.4 Problem Solving and Problem Posing

You know solving problems in mathematics is an important skill expected of the learner.
It is not always possible to reach the solution of the problem by simple applying the
ready made formula. In order to solve these problems, there is need to identify the
nature of the problems, collection of information from different sources, analyse and

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interpret the information to arrive at a solution of the problems. Therefore problem-

solving method is a process that involves collection, organise, analysis and interpret
skills of information for arriving at the solution. You might have experienced that the Notes
solution of a problem in mathematics, at least the problems at the elementary school
level is considered to be unique, but there are more than one way to reach at the
solution. This you can observe in a simple example of addition:
Suppose the students of class II in a school are given to find the results of 75+29 in as
many ways as possible. Let us see how many ways it can be done:
I. By direct method: 75 + 29 = 104
II. 75 + 29 = 75 + (30 – 1) = (75 +30) – 1 = 105 – 1 = 104
III. 75 + 29 = 74 + 1 + 29 = 74 + 30 = 104
IV. 75 + 29 = 75 + 25 + 4 = 100 + 4 = 104, so on.
All these processes are correct. Therefore, while we are teaching to solve any
mathematics problem, we need to recognise the ways it can be solved. Each student
should be made aware of the fact that each mathematics problem can be solved in
several ways and they should be encouraged to look for alternative methods for solving
any problem. Searching for alternative solutions requires reflective and creative thinking
abilities on the part of the learners. The main objective of problem-solving method is,
therefore, to stimulate the reflective and creative thinking of the learners. In order to
solve a problem in mathematics, a learner needs to proceed along the following steps:
a. Identifying the problem: The students should be able to identify the problem
before they attempt to solve it.
b. Defining the problem: sometimes restarting a problem in the student’s own words;
help him to understand the problem in terms of what is given what are to find out
in a problem?
c. Collections of relevant information: Here the students will collect related
information that is needed to solve the problem. Recall of previous learned
knowledge, facts, skills, theorems, and processes etc, the students may learn to
ask what I know that is related to this problem. For an example, in height and
distance problem, one needs to recollect the trigonometric ratio.
d. Formulating tentative hypothesis: The focus of this stage is on hypothesising-
searching for a tentative solution to the problem. For example, when students are
going to find out the total surface area of cone, they may formulate the hypothesis
as total surface area is the sum of the curved surface and the base area of the
cone.
e. Testing the hypothesis: Appropriate methods should be selected to test the
validity of the tentative hypothesis as a solution to the problem. If it is not proved

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to be the solution, the students are asked to formulate alternative hypothesis and
proceed.
Notes
f. Construct physical models: Some problems need physical model for finding the
solution. For example, how many 1  1 squares are there in 8  8 chess board?
Children may be provided with chess board for finding the solution of the above
question.
g. Verification of the result: At last the students are asked to determine their results
and substantiate the expected solution. The students should be able to make
generalisation and apply it to their daily life.
The details of problem solving method have been discussed in the Unit 3 of the Paper
3 of this course.
Problem posing is closely associated with the problem solving method. Problem
posing involves generating new problems and questions to explore about a given
situation, as well as reformulating a problem during the course of solving the problem
related to it. Teachers can help to developing this habit by understanding the children’s
thinking processes and developing these processes using generative questions. The
problem posing method involves developing problem posing as an instructional
intervention to improve problem solving skills and to improve disposition towards
solving. Problem posing is an indicator of learning that takes place.
When we encourage children to be problem posers, we are inviting them to do what
mathematicians do — that is, to look closely, seek patterns, offer conjectures, and set
out on paths that are not clearly marked. In the process of their investigations,
mathematicians also develop attitudes about learning, such as perseverance, willingness
to revise their thinking, and appreciation for the value of risk taking.
Let us, as an example, consider the statement 4  5 = 20.
The first step of problem posing is to look closely or observe the statement critically.
In the above statement following are some of the observations we can make.
There are two multipliers.
The two multipliers are two consecutive natural numbers.
One of the multipliers is even and other is odd.
One is a multiple of 2 and other is multiple of 5.
The product is 4 more than a square number (16) and 5 less than another square
number (25).
The multipliers are consecutive counting numbers.
The difference between the multipliers is 1.

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After making the observation on the statement 4  5 = 20, what possible problems
can be posed? Some problems posed here as exemplars:
Notes
1. Do we always get an even product when multiplying an odd number by an even
number?
2. What do we find if we multiply an odd number by an odd number? An even
number by an even number? What if we multiplied three odd numbers or three
even numbers?
3. What if we continued to multiply by multiples of 2 and multiples of 5? What
patterns might we see?
4. What if we tried using multipliers that are the same to make 20? Is this result
possible? What products are possible using multipliers that are the same?
5. What if we tried adding two numbers to equal 20? How many ways could we
do so? What do we notice about odd and even numbers when adding to make
20?
6. Why, when we add an odd and an even number, do we get an odd number, but
when we multiply an odd number by an even number we get an even number?
What are the benefits of problem posing for learning?
It develops the spirit of inquiry. The more we observe, the more we want to find
out.
It leads the learner into unknown territory.
It requires and promotes reflective thinking especially during posing the problems.
It supports learners in asking the perennial question that mathematicians pose: Is
this always true? That is, did this relationship occur fortuitously, or does a pattern
lurk behind these numbers?
The other benefit is that problem posing involves searching for patterns.
Uncovering patterns is certainly joyful, but even more rewarding is discovering
why those patterns are occurring. Let’s see what we notice about our original
problem: 4× 5 = 20.We see that 20 is 4 away from the nearest smaller square,
16, and is 5 away from the nearest larger square, 25. Why? We notice that 4 ×
5 is 4 x (4+1) or (5-1) x 5.

E7. Pose some problems relating to the geometric theorem “Sum of the lengths of
any two sides of a plane triangle is greater than that of the third side” along with
the points of observation.

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4.3 LEARNING- CENTRED APPROACHES OF

Notes TEACHING MATHEMATICS
In your mathematics class, what do you usually do? Since, mathematics is considered
as a difficult yet an important subject, you spend most of the time in the classroom
explaining the concepts, formulae, diagrams, solving difficult problems, asking and
answering questions etc. In brief you are extremely busy in instructing and directing
students who are comparatively less active. Your students listen carefully your teaching
and take down notes of the relevant points. In this type of learning environment, where
the teacher is more engaged in explaining, students have limited opportunity to ask
questions or may be uncomfortable asking a single question in the classroom. There is
very little scope for the students to be involved in the classroom discussion. The methods
of teaching mathematics that we discussed in the previous section are mostly teacher
centered. On the other hand in the learning- centred approaches the focus is how
students will construct their own knowledge on basis of their prior experiences where
the teacher is truly a facilitator of learning. In this section, we shall be discussing three
such methods or approaches.

4.3.1 5E’s Learning Model

In this model of learning, students learn in five sequential phases i.e. Engagement-
Exploration-Explanation-Elaboration-Evaluation.
I. Engagement phase: In the Engagement Phase, students are engaged in the
classroom through different learning tasks. This learning task may be an activity,
showing any surprising event, peculiar examples etc, where students will get an
opportunity to relate their previous knowledge with the existing ideas. Your job in
this phase is to identify the earlier knowledge of students and their misconceptions/
alternative conceptions related to the concepts they are going to learn. The
engagement component in the 5E’S learning model is intended to capture
students’ attention, get students thinking about the subject matter, raise questions
in students’minds, stimulate thinking, and access prior knowledge. As for example,
suppose you are going to teach the concept of fraction to Grade- VI students.
You might engage your students in an activity, as suggested below, which involves
their prior experience related to learn fraction.
Tasks I: Distribute a few pieces of paper (circular, rectangular shape) and thread
to all students and ask them to divide it into two parts. The students may divide
the paper/ thread either in equal or unequal parts.
Task II: Make a presentation with paper sheets of same and different colour
with geometrical figures of circle and rectangle.
One part of each figure (Two equal and unequal parts) is coloured (Fig.4.1)

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Notes

Fig. 4.1 Fraction of single figure

One sheet showing equal division of objects and another showing unequal
partition of a collection of objects (Fig. 4.2)

(A) (B)

Fig. 4.2 Fraction of collection of figures

While demonstrating the figures, you can ask the students to clarify the concepts
associated with ‘equal parts of a single object or collection of objects’ to ascertain
their previous experiences.
Such conversation in the engagement phase will enable the learners to construct
their knowledge on fraction rather than directly receiving from the teacher.
II. Exploration Phase: In the Exploration phase the students have an opportunity
to get directly involved with the phenomena and materials. Involving themselves
in these activities they develop a grounding of experiences with the phenomenon.
One of important characteristics of this phase is students’ collaboration (i.e. group
work). As they work together in teams, students build a base of common
experience which assists them in the process of sharing and communicating. You
will act as facilitator, providing materials and guiding the students to focus. The
student’s inquiry process drives the learning during an exploration. From the above
tasks in the engagement phase students will explore individually and after they
work in group, they come to the conclusion that, fraction is a part of the whole.
When the whole is divided into two equal parts, then each part is called one half
of the whole. This is expressed /written as one by two (1/2) or one upon two.
III. Explanation Phase: The third stage, Explanation is the point at which the
learner begins to put the abstract experience and clarify their mis-conception

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through discussion in the classroom. You will explain the concept only after students
have got the common experiences through collaboration. In this phase your role
Notes is to explain, that does not mean you will not involve the students in the discussion
process. The degree of explanation depends on the understanding and
misunderstanding of the students.
IV. Elaboration Phase: The Elaboration phase of this learning cycle provides an
opportunity for students to apply their knowledge to new situations, which may
include raising new questions and hypotheses to explore. The students expand
and apply on the concepts they have learned from the earlier three phases, and
make connections to other related concepts, and apply their understanding to
real world around them.
V. Evaluation Phase: Evaluation, the fifth ‘E’, is an on-going diagnostic process
that allows you to determine, whether the learner has attained understanding of
concepts and knowledge. You may use different techniques of assessment in the
classroom like portfolio, assignment, observation, concept mapping, peer
assessment etc.

E8. In which phase of 5E’S learning model, students get chance to reflect on their
knowledge.

4.3.2 Interpretation Construction (Icon) Design Model

Learning in this model comprises of seven steps and start from the learner’s observation.
1. Observation is the key aspects of this model, where learners are made to observe
the elements and situation related to the problem before proceeding to evolve a
solution.
2. Contextualization: After observing the situation learners try to contextualise
the situation. That is the learners relate the observed situation and elements of the
problem to be solved to their previous ideas/ experiences/knowledge.
3. Cognitive apprenticeship: Learners are encouraged to exercise their minds
though different brainstorming activities by the teacher. As a teacher, you need to
guide them how to analyse and interpret the problem at this stage. You will find
your students are having several alternative conceptions or misconceptions.
4. Collaboration: Learners form group to work on the task. In the collaboration
stage, learners discuss freely about their alternative conceptions/misconceptions
and are able to communicate with their peers. As a teacher, your work is to guide
each group and at the same time you also act as a co-learner of each group.
5. Interpretation & Construction: The learners analyze their constructed
knowledge through argumentation, discussion and validation and generate their
own interpretation.

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6. Multiple interpretations: As learners have a lot of flexibility during the learning

process, they are able to interpret the knowledge in different ways and different
manner and form several possible interpretations of the problem situation as well Notes
as problem solution.
7. Multiple manifestations: The learners try to apply various interpretations one
by one for the problem solution and thus acquire multiple solutions to the problem.
Further they also gain multiple manifestation of the same interpretation.
You can realise your role, as a teacher, in such a method which require total involvement
of the learners along with you in a pursuit of innovation. Your major role is to facilitate
the group interaction and keep the participants focussed on the problem. This requires
a lot of imagination and patience on your part to mobilize the learners’ capabilities,
their willingness and enthusiasm and over all their pool of previous knowledge enabling
them for multiple interpretation of the problem and going for multiple manifestations.
This method when applied in mathematics teaching – learning processes in the classroom
situation, helps both the learners and the teacher in successfully formulating multiple
ways of solving a problem which was thought to be possessing only one correct method
of solution.

4.3.3 Concept Mapping

Students have learnt different concepts in mathematics, but many times you will find
they treat the concepts they have learnt as disjointed and isolated facts and they are
unable to interlink the relationships between these concepts. You also know that no
concept in mathematics is isolated; a particular concept of mathematics is interlinked
with different branches of mathematics and with other subject like science and social
science in different ways and different manners. As for example, a concept map on
quadrilateral is given below:

Fig. 4.3 Concept map of quadrilaterals

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There are different ways/ types of concept maps can be formed on a particular concept.
The above concept can be developed in different maps, depending upon the number
Notes of sub-concept and linking words you want to include. Therefore, the number of
connections and depth of understanding can be assessed by the number of linking lines
and used by the student’s concept map. Hence a concept map provides a concrete
record of the connections perceived by the students, and thus it indicates how the
student’s knowledge is organised and interconnected. More specifically, concept
mapping can furnish valuable insight into the depth of students’ understanding because
it reflects the accuracy and strength of their connections. Even Venn Diagram of some
concepts can play a role of concept mapping

E9. In which step of ICON design model, students relate their previous knowledge.
E10. Why arrow mark is used in concept map?

4.3.4 Activity Based

You might have observed in your classroom, that students have shown interest when
you are performing or they themselves are performing any activity/activities in the
classroom. The reason behind is that a young child loves to use his/her different sense
organs during learning. Activity based learning focuses use of these sense organs and
learning should be based on doing some hands-on experiments and activities. The
idea of activity-based learning is rooted in the common notion that children are active
learners rather than passive recipients of information. If child is provided the opportunity
to explore his/her own and provided an optimum learning environment then the learning
becomes joyful and long-lasting. The key feature of the activity approach is that it uses
child-friendly educational aids to foster self-learning and allows a child to study according
to his/her aptitude and skill. At school level in mathematics the activity/activities may
be in the form of game, puzzle, worksheet, paper folding/paper cutting, concept mapping
of mathematical modelling etc.
Suppose you are going to teach the algebraic identity: (a+b) 2 =a2+2ab+b2. You may
prove it numerically on the black board, but when we talk about to learn the same
algebraic identity using activity, students may prepare a model using thermocol sheet,
adhesive, thermocol cutter, glaze paper and sketch pen, during their preparation you
may guide them and you demonstrate it and prove this identity.

Fig. 4.4 Model for (a + b)2

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Consider another example. Suppose you are going to teach the properties of triangle
to grade VI students. You may demonstrate an activity, by taking three sticks and
prove the properties like sum of any two sides of any triangle is greater than the third Notes
side. By using the paper folding and paper cutting activity you may also prove the
other properties like sum of angles of any triangle is equal to 180 degree. If you will be
followed such activity based learning in your classroom, you will find how students are
curious and enjoying the activities. In unit 4 of the paper3 of this course, you might
have already discussed the details of activity-based approaches of teaching and learning
which can be equally applicable for mathematics.
Experiential Learning is an approach to learning in which participants engage in an
activity, reflect on the activity critically, and obtain useful insight and learning. Learning
which is developed experientially is “owned” by the learner and becomes an effective
and integral aspect of behavioral change. Skill development occurs through Experiential
Learning.

Fig. 4.5 Experiential Learning Cycle

The Experiential Learning Cycle includes five sequential steps, or stages. The steps
are as follows:
Experiencing: (This is the initial stage of the cycle): Almost any activity that
involves self-assessment or interpersonal interaction may be used as the “doing”
part of experiential learning.
Publishing: After participants have experienced an activity, they are ready to
share or publish what they observed and how they felt during that experience.
Processing: (This is the pivotal step in the experiential learning cycle). This step,
referred to as the group dynamics stage, includes systematic examination of shared
experiences by the members of the group.
Generalizing: In this stage, the members of the group begin to focus on their
awareness of situations in their personal or work lives that are similar to those
they experienced in the group.

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Applying: In this final stage, the facilitator helps participants apply generalizations
to actual situations in which they are involved.
Notes
Suppose you are going to teach the concept of rate of interest in mathematics. Student
needs to get some experience, really how interest increases time to time. Therefore to
learn such concepts, you may assign the students to observe the passbook of your
parents of any bank. Students will understand and better way to apply the idea of
interest and rate of interest in different situations if they learn it through experience.

4.4 MAKING MATHEMATICS LEARNING MORE

CHALLENGING AND SATISFYING
One of key objectives of teaching mathematics is to make learning more challenging
and satisfying. That means, learning mathematics have to create curiosity among students
and place them in a challenging situation, where they can achieve their level of
satisfaction. At the same time, learning mathematics must have to give the pleasure
during the leisure period of learners, and also it should reduce the anxiety and stress to
learn mathematics. You might have observed that students are failing in mathematics as
they develop fear before they start to learn. Therefore it is your duty to make
mathematics learning more challenging and satisfying, so that learners will be enhance
their creative abilities and show the positive attitude to learn mathematics. Let us discuss
how learning mathematics helps to develop learners’ creative abilities and the use of
mathematics laboratory and library.

4.4.1 Development of Learners’ Creative Abilities

You might have observed in your classroom that some of the students’ performance is
different from others. Their ways of solving a mathematical problem or developing any
kind of activities in mathematics are unique and innovative. These abilities of the learners
called as creativity or creative abilities. The important task of teaching mathematics is
how to develop such abilities among the learners. The development of learners’ creative
abilities more or less depends on the nature of learning task and the approaches followed
by the teacher in the classroom. Let us identify the nature of the learning task that
impacts on students’ creativity
Activity based: Tasks would be designed in such a manner that the students are
attracted to it and participate in it spontaneously.
Challenging: The task should neither be too easy nor too difficult but must be
mentally challenging for the learner so that he/she attends to it employing his/her
full potential and solving the task is mentally satisfying.
Divergent solutions: Unlike most of the mathematical problems each of which
has only correct answer, tasks encouraging creativity need to have several possible
solutions. This encourages learners to search for innovative solutions.,

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Logical and problem oriented: Unlike problems in other areas, mathematical

problems have a distinct logical structure and all mathematical tasks are problem
oriented. Once the learner becomes familiar with the logical structure, he/she Notes
tries to decipher the logic and in the process tries to employ several innovative
processes to solve the problem consistent with the logical structure. The problem
orientation of the tasks poses challenging situations for the learner to evolve new
approaches for solution.
Pictorial/graphic representation: Representing mathematical data and relations
in various pictorial and graphic forms encourages creative talents.
Similarly the approaches of learning must have to address the following for the
development of creativity among the learners
Recognition of alternative ideas/methods of solutions proposed by students.
Collaboration- Both students and teachers search for alternatives.
More scope for brainstorming and reflective thinking.
Encouragement for divergent thinking.
More scope for problem posing and problem solving.
Freedom to students for questioning and expressing ideas.
More scope and freedom for fluent expression and elaboration of ideas.
Motivation and accepting views/suggestions.
Active Learning and process based assessment.

4.4.2 USe of Mathematics Laboratory and Library

In your classroom, suppose, while teaching the area of the circle to grade-VII students,
you just give the formula of the area of circle and solve the numbers of problem on
black-board in a routine way. This way of teaching is product based on product,
focuses on computational skill among the learners. Students may not come to know
why and how the formula of circle is ? r2. Therefore process of learning mathematics
is vital for the construction of knowledge and use of mathematics laboratory and library
facilitate the process based learning. Learning mathematics is both a creative and
explorative process, and at the school level use of child resources in the process is
more important. Every student of mathematics needs to learn the mathematics process.
The best way to learn the process is to practice it. However, in the classroom students
are given little chance to experience the full process of creating and exploring
mathematics. Instead, they are taught merely about the products of the process.
Therefore the best way to learn mathematics is to use mathematics laboratory as it can
act like a concomitant between teacher and students and provides an opportunity to
understand and discover the beauty, importance and relevance of mathematics as a

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discipline. It can be expected to enhance the pupil's understanding of the subject as

taught at the school and can also provide a pleasure to learn mathematics.
Notes
A Mathematics Laboratory is a place where some of the mathematical activities are
carried out and the students get hands-on experience for new innovations. Further
Mathematics Laboratory can foster mathematical awareness, skill building, positive
attitude and learning by doing in different branches of mathematics. It is the place
where students can learn certain concepts using concrete objects and verify many
mathematical facts and properties using models, measurements and other activities.
Maths Lab also popularizes mathematics.
In your school, you might have on maximum students are familiar with their text book
and they think that text book is the ultimate resources to learn mathematics. Besides
the text book , now different journals in mathematics, magazines, reference books,
CDs are regularly available and they contain the innovative ideas, experimentations,
critical use of formula and life story of different mathematicians. Students are needed
to learn these materials regularly to get different ideas in the world of mathematics.
Therefore use of mathematics library is an important aspect in the process based
learning. As a teacher you also used the library and motivated your students to learn
from mathematics library.
Mathematics Library is an important place of resources for collection, dissemination
of mathematical concepts, themes, story, references, articles puzzles and games.

4.5 LET US SUM UP

Methods are the ways/styles of the transaction of content in the classroom for
effective learning.
Inductive method based on the principle of generalisation from concrete instances,
in which students are encourages to establish the facts/laws/principle/formula from
their observation.
Deductive method based on the principle of the application of facts/law of
inferences/principle/formula in solving different problems.
Problem solving and problem posing are close to each other. Problem-solving is
a process to arrive at the solution, whereas problem posing involves generating
new problems and questions to explore about a given situation, as well as
reformulating a problem during the course of solving the problem related to it.
Project is a learner-centred method in which the students are challenged to do
something by themselves out side the realm of normal class work.
In the learning- centred approaches the focus is how students construct their own
knowledge on the basis of their prior experience.

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In 5E’s model of learning, students learn five different phases i.e. Engagement-
Exploration-Explanation-Elaboration-Evaluation.
Notes
A concept map provides a concrete record of the connections perceived by he
students, and thus it indicate how the student’s knowledge is organised and
interconnected.
Activity based learning focuses use of these sense organs and learning should be
based on doing some hands-on experiments and activities.
Experiential Learning is an approach to learning in which participants engage in
an activity, reflect on the activity critically, and obtain useful insight and learning.
A Mathematics Laboratory is a place where some of the mathematical activities
are carried out and the students get hands-on experience for new innovations.
Mathematics Library is an important place of resources for collection, dissemination
of mathematical concepts, themes, story, references, articles puzzles and games.

4.6 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
E1. The sum of two adjacent angles of the two intersecting lines is 1800.
E2. Give exemplars of different types of real numbers for induction. Conclusion would
be “The sum of two real numbers is a real number”.
E3. Inductive.
E4. Deductive method
E5. Project should contain rich experiences, activities, need collaboration
E6. Analytic method
E7. Transformation of number and sign, simplification etc.
E8. Elaboration
E9. Contextualisation
E10.For linking the concepts

4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L. & Cocking, R.R. (2000). How People Learn.
Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Wood, T., Cobb, P. & Yackel, E. (1995). Reflections on Learning and Teaching
Mathematics in

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Elementary School. In L. P. Steffe & J. Gale (Eds), Constructivism in Education.

Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Notes

4.8 UNIT- END EXERCISES

1. Select three concepts in geometry at the elementary level describe how you can
teach those using inductive method.
2. Select one topic from elementary class mathematics; develop a plan to teach
such topic by using both the inductive and deductive method.
3. Identify different tasks on properties of triangle through which you will engage
your students in activity- based learning.
4. Prepare a lesson plan on any topic from grade-VII mathematics using 5E’S
learning model.

80 Diploma in Elementary Education (D.El.Ed)