A.

Starting points for the understanding of Culture,

Society, and Politics

1. Sharing of social and cultural backgrounds of students as

acting subjects or social actors, agents, persons

 What is Human Cultural Variation

Human Cultural Variation refers to the differences in social behaviors

that different cultures exhibit around the world. Music, language, dance,
cuisine and art all change from one culture to the next, but so do gender
roles, economic systems, and social hierarchy among any number of other
humanly organized behaviors. What may be considered good etiquette in
one culture may be considered bad etiquette in another.

Cultural Variation Between Cultures

If human Culture modify the natural environment, it is also true that
the natural environment initially shaped, and still shapes to some extent,
the culture of society

 Variation within Culture

1. Subculture- A segment of society which shares a distinctive pattern

of mores, folkways, and values which differ from the pattern of larger
society. It is a culture within a culture.

2. Counter Culture- is a group whole values and norms place it at odds

with mainstream society or a group that actively rejects dominant
cultural values and norms.

More recently, paramilitary groups, militias and survivalist groups constitute

countercultures as they reject the social changes that come out of the
1960s and become part of the mainstream.

Paramilitary - is a semi-militarized force whose organizational

structure tactics, training, subculture, and function are similar, to
those of a professional military; and which is not included as part of a
sister formal armed forces.

Militia- a military force that engages in rebel or terrorist activities,

typically in opposition to a regular army.

High Culture/ Popular Culture

High Culture- is a term now used in a number of different ways in

academic discourse, whose most common meaning is the set of
cultural products, mainly in the arts, held in the highest esteem by a
culture and consist of activities patrionized by elite audiences,
composed of members of the upper-middle and upper classes.

Example:
Classical Music, Opera, Ballet, live theather

Popular Culture- culture based on the taste of ordinary people rather

than an educated elite.
Consists of activities, products, and services that are assumed to
appeal to members of the middle and working classes.

Example:
Rock concerts, Spectator Sports, Movies, Soap operas, Situation
Comedies

Ideal Culture Vs. Real Culture

Ideal Culture- is the way people describe the standard of behaviour,

the blueprint which provides the directions and guidelines in relating
with others or doing things.

Real Culture- refers to how one behaves in an actual situation within

the context of what may be regarded as acceptable by the other
members of society.
  Social Difference

These social differences are mostly based on accident of birth. Normally

we don’t choose to belong to our community. But all kinds of social
differences are not based on accident of birth. Some of the differences are
based on our choices.

 Social Change

Social change is the alteration of mechanisms within the social structure,

characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behaviour, social
organizations, or value systems.

 Political Identities

Identity politics are broadly defined, but they typically involve an

individual who bases his identity on social categories and divisions.
 Quiz # 1

Direction: Identify the following.

_____________1. It refers to the differences in social behaviors that
different cultures exhibit around the world.
_____________2. It is refers to how one behaves in an actual situation
within the context of what may be regarded as acceptable by the other
members of society.
_____________3. It is a group of whole values and norms place it at odds
with mainstream society or a group that actively rejects dominant cultural
values and norms.
_____________4. This is a military force that engages in rebel or terrorist
activities, typically in opposition to a regular army.
_____________5. This is a segment of society which shares a distinctive
pattern of mores, folkways, and values which differ from the pattern of
larger society. It is a culture within a culture.
Direction: JUMBLE WORDS: Answer the question by arranging the
following words
1. ISACMR- a poor treatment of or violence against people because of
their race.
2. MSSXIES- This is the unfair treatment of people because of their
sex, especially; unfair treatment of women
3. IOOOPHMBA- This is the irrational fear of, aversion to, or
discrimination against homosexuality or homosexuals.
4. GIHH UULTRCE- This is a term now used in number of different

ways inproducts.
cultural academic discourse and common meaning is the set of
5. AEIDL UULTRCE- This is the way people describe the standard of
behaviour, the blueprint which provides the directions and guidelines
in relating with others or doing things.
 2. OBSERVATIONS ABOUT SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND
CULTURAL BEHAVIOR AND PHENOMENA
Introduction

There are times that we find ourselves in a situation unlike other

situations. We personally encounter different ways of doing things,
behaving, and making sense of events. Observing them, we cannot help
but ask: Why do people do such a thing? What makes it normal and
acceptable to some people in some places and unacceptable to others in
other places?

These questions are triggered by our habit of looking at other

people’s worlds as we look at our own. In order to explore the issue further,
consider the following situations in the table below.

Situation Behavior and Phenomena

1. Gary graduated a year ago. istambay
Despite being blessed with
several job offers, he chose to
remain jobless and hang
around with his barkada.
Together they love to istambay
in the town plaza especially at
night.
2. As a businessman, Mang Leo lagay
is used to giving “padulas” (or
lagay) to his main suppliers in
order to expedite his business
transactions with them.
3. Members of the Seventh-Day Food taboos
Adventist Church are strongly
prohibited from eating pork
and food with blood, as well as
from smoking and drinking
alcoholic beverages.
4. Darius is openly gay. He lives Same-sex partnership
with his partner Garner. He
and Garner are both college
professors in the local city
 college.
5. If grades were to be the basis Use of a go-between/padrino
of Rusty’s standing in his
economics class, he would
surely fail the course.
However, he was given a
passing grade by his
economics teacher, who
happened to be a childhood
friend of his mother.

3. Observation on Social, Political, and Cultural Change

Scenario Phenomenon
1. Taking “selfies” is Alyssa’s preoccupation. It selfieing
became a habit when her parents gave her a
phone on her birthday.
2. Kapitan Tim is the incumbent mayor of the City Political dynasty
of Amin-Amin. His son, Timmy Jr. is currently
running for the congressional seat of the district,
a position occupied by his mother Cong.
Valencia for about three consecutive terms.
3. Amina, a college student, is living alone in Transnational
Manila. Both of her parents are OFWs working families
in the Middle East. She visits them every
summer break.
4. As a youth volunteer, Verna finds the rainy Youth volunteerism
seasons a busy season due to the frequency of
typhoon-related disasters. Sometimes she even
spends her own money to buy relief goods for
typhoon victims.
5. Michael almost missed the chance to finish high Video gaming
school because he had been absent most of the
time playing Clash of Clans (COC)
 KINDS OF CULTURE

Culture is composed of material and non-material elements. Material

culture consists of tangible things whereas nonmaterial elements consist of
intangible things.

Material Culture Non- material Culture

Technological Tools Ideas

Architectural Structures Language and Symbols

Fashion and Accessories Religion

Food Behavior, gesture and Habits

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

 Symbol-A symbol is anything that is used to stand for something

else. People who share a culture often attach a specific meaning to an
object, gesture, sound, or image.

 Norms- are culturally defined expectations of behaviour. They

guidelines we use to determine how we should behave in any given
situation and what would be considered inappropriate behaviour.

2 TYPES OF NORMS
 Formal Norms- also called Mores and Laws refers to the standards
of behaviour considered the most important in any society.

 Informal Norms- also called Folkways and Customs refers to

standards of behaviour that are considered less important but still influence
how we behave.
 Social Norms- These are established expectations of society as to
how a person is supposed to act depending on the requirements of the
time, place, or situation.

 Values-culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable.

 Artifacts-material objects that constitute a society’s material culture.

 Knowledge- It refers to any information received and perceived to be

true.

 Beliefs- The perception of accepted reality.

 Attitude- is a mental position with regard to a fact or state or a

feeling or emotion toward a fact or state.

 Quiz # 4

Direction: Write the word True if the statement is correct and False if it is
not.
_____1. Society is a group of people sharing a common culture with a

defined territorial boundaries.

_____2. Folkways is a composite or multifarious areas that comprise
beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols,
knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member
of society.
_____3. Non-material culture is consists of tangible things used by a man
in his everyday life.
_____4. Culture is the patterns of repetitive behavior which becomes
habitual and conventional part of living.
_____5. Mores is the set of ethical standards and moral obligations as
dictates of reason that distinguishes human acts as right or wrong or good
from bad,

Essay: Explain your answer.

Why culture is important in our society? (5points)

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
 2. Aspect of Culture

E.B. Taylor, an English anthropologist, was the first to coin the term
‘culture’ in the eighteenth century. The study of society is incomplete
without proper understanding of the culture of that society because culture

and society go together.

1. Dynamic, flexible, and adaptive

2. Shared and contested
3. Learned through, socialization or enculturation
4. Patterned social interactions
5. Integrated and at times unstable
6. Transmitted through socialization
7. Requires language and other forms of communication

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1. Culture is social because itis the product of behavior.

2. Culture varies from society to society.
3. Culture is shared.
4. Culture is learned.
5. Culture is transmitted amongmembers of society.
6. Culture is continuous and cumulative
7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE

1. Culture defines situations

2. Culture defines attitudes, values and goals.
3. Culture defines myths, legends, and the supernatural.
4. Culture provides behavior patterns.
 3. Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

 What is Ethnocentrism?
The word ethno comes from the Greeks and it refers to a people, nation, or
cultural grouping. Centric, on the other hand, comes from Latin and refers
to the “center.” The term ethnocentrism then refers to the tendency to each
society to place its own culture patterns at the center of things.
Ethnocentrism is the practice of comparing other cultural practices with
those of one’s own and automatically finding those cultural practices to be
inferior.

Functions of Ethnocentrism
The functions of ethnocentrism in maintaining order are more apparent
than those which promote social change.
1. Ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of a group.
2. Ethnocentrism hinders the understanding or the cooperation between
groups.
3. Conflict of course often leads to social change.

 What is Cultural Relativism?

Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are
dependent on their cultural context and should be treated as such.

Xenocentrism and Xenophobia

Xenocentrism- refers to a preference for the foreign.

Xenophobia- is the fear of what is perceived as foreign or strange.

 Reconstituted Families - is a family unit where one or both parents
have children from a previous relationship, but they have combined to form
a new family. The parents may or may not then have children with each
other.

e. Politics of kinship
 Political dynasty - generally refer to families whose members are
involved in politics.
 Politic al A lliance- referred to as political coalition or political bloc, is
an agreement for cooperation between different political parties on
common political agenda, often for purpose of contesting an election.
 Quiz # 11

Direction: Choose the answer from the answer from the terms inside the
box below and write it in the space provided.

__________1. It allows or permits a man to take only one spouse at a time.

__________2. It is the rule of residence happens when the couples live
with the wife’s relatives or near the wife’s kin.

__________3. It is an institution consisting of a cluster of mores and

folkways, of attitudes, ideas, and ideals of social definitions and legal
restrictions. Marriage is an important element of family institution.
__________4. It is a descent of an individual is reckoned either from the
mother’s or the father’s line of descent.
__________5. It is the basic social institution and the primary group in
society.
__________6.it is refers to the families whose members are involved in
politics.
__________7. It is a marriage custom where an individual is required by
society’s norms and rules to marry outside of their own group, community,
or social classes.
__________8. It refers to a marriage which is the type of relations
developed when a marriage occurs.
__________9. This is a family unit where one or both parents have children
from a previous relationship, but they have combined to form a new family.

__________10. It is the rule of residence occurs when married couples

stay in the house of the husband’s relatives or near the husband’s kin.

Biolocal Political dynasty Monogamy

Marriage Exogamy Unilineal

Affinal Kinships Patrilocal

Matrilocal Reconstituted Families Family

 2. Political and Leadership Structures

Introduction
Human beings are considered social animals. Being such, they
have a natural tendency to join groups. However, considering that

individuals have different interest, the tendency towards conflict is as

natural as the tendency to join social groups.

a. Political Organization
The government or the political institution is another institution that is
universal. Political institution is defined as the system of norms, values, and
roles responsible for maintaining social order in the society. The following
are the aspects in maintain social order.

1. Creating formal norms- it is the political institution that has created

formal norms or laws that guide our behavior. There are three types of laws
depending on their srcins, namely:
a. Constitutional laws- These are formalized norms that emerge in the
constitution, the written plan of any government. The constitution describes
the broad duties of the government as well as the right and responsibilities
of every citizen.
b. Statutory laws- these are laws that have been enacted by a
legislative body of the government like Congress and City Councils. A
curfew hour for minor is an example.
c. Common laws-these are unwritten laws built over a centuries on
local custom and precedent, and further developed by judicial decisions.
The law srcinated from judicial branch of government but not from the
legislative branch. Common laws become “common” or part of the tradition
of a country, They are not permanent; they change depending on the new
judicial interpretations.
2. Applying sanctions-It is the responsibility of a political institution to
apply sanction to those who fail to follow or obey certain norms.
3. Settling disputes among individuals- it is also one of the duties of
political institution.
4. Settling disputes between nations- Political institution tries to
resolve disputes between nations as well.

i. Bands
A band is usually a very small, oftentimes nomadic group that is connected

by family ties and

of is
politically
bands independent.
are most oftenMoving
from place to place,
usually in search food, made up of hunter-gathers.
ii. Tribes
A tribe is a somewhat more complex than a band. As the population size
increases with a shift in subsistence pattern from foraging to horticulture or
pastoralism, kinship ties and friendship are no longer sufficient to hold
society together.
iii. Chiefdoms
Chiefdoms are similar to bands and tribes in being mostly classless
societies. However, chiefdoms differ in having a more or less permanent,
fulltime leader with real authority to make major decisions for their
societies.

Chiefdoms can either be simple or complex

S imple chiefdom is characterized by a central village or community ruled
by a single family.
Complex chiefdom is composed of several simple chiefdoms ruled by a
single paramount chief residing in a single paramount center.
iv. States and Nations
States is a political unit consisting of a government that has sovereignty
presiding over a group of people and a well-defined territory and is thus the
highest form of political organization.
Nation
Being historically constituted and having a common sense of identification
among its members, as well as the consciousness of having the potential to
be autonomous, nevertheless do not possess political sovereignty.
 Quiz # 12

1. Discuss the differentiate band, tribe, and chiefdom. (8points)

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
b. Authority and Legitimacy

Authority Types
i. Traditional authority- is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The
ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity.

ii. Charismatic
vision inspire authority-
is based
found in a leader whose mission and
others. It is upon the perceived extraordinary
characteristics of an individual.
iii. Legal-rational authority- is empowered by a formalistic belief in the
content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality).

Legitimization
Legitimacy is the popular acceptance of an authority, usually a governing
law or a regime. Whereas “authority” denotes a specific position in an
established government, the term “legitimacy” denotes a system of
government. Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for
governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock (s)
and collapse.

Types of Legitimacy
Legitimacy is a “value whereby something or someone is recognized and
accepted as right and proper”.
Traditional Legitimacy- derives from societal customs and habits that
emphasized the history of the authority of tradition.
Charismatic Legitimacy- derives from the ideas and personal charisma of
the leader, a person whose authoritative persona charms and
psychologically dominates the people of the society to agreement with the
government’s regime and rule.
Rational-legal legitimacy- derives from a system of institutional
procedure, where government institutions establish and enforce law and
order in the public interest.
 Quiz # 12

A list of the Powerful

Direction: Identify somebody in your community that possesses the
following types of authority. Try to offer an explanation for each case.

Traditional authority Charismatic Authority Rational Legal Authority

Description of the person Description of the person Description of the person
 i. Productive citizenry
Productive citizenry refers to the idea that a citizen by him/herself must
create the environment and opportunities to become productive. It is based
on the logic that a productive citizen contributes to the overall betterment of
the community.

ii. Self-actualization
Self-actualization refers to the desire for self-fulfilment, namely, to the
tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially.

Maslow listed several characteristics of a self-actualized people:

 Acceptance and Realism.
 Problem-centering
 Spontaneity
 Autonomy and Solitude
 Continued Freshness of Appreciation.

iii. Primary education as a human right

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the
right to education. Education has to be free and compulsory at least in the
primary leve, whereas higher education should be made available on the
basis of merit. Technical and vocational education should also be generally
available.

Statement of UNESCO:

Education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all
other human rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and
yields important development benefits. Yet millions and children and adults
remain deprived of educational opportunities, many as a result of poverty.

Normative instruments of the United Nations and UNESCO lay down

international legal obligations for the right to education. These instruments
promote and develop the right of every person to enjoy access to education
of good quality, without discrimination or exclusion. These instruments bear
witness to the great importance that Member States and the international
community attach to normative action for realizing the right to education. It
is for governments to fulfil their obligations both legal and political in regard
to providing education for all of good quality and to implement and monitor
more effectively education strategies.

Education is a powerful tool by which economically and socially

marginalized adults and children can lift themselves out of poverty and
participate fully as citizens.
 Quiz # 15

1. Being a student how can you become a productive citizenry? (8

points)

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
 1. Religion and Belief Systems
Religion is a social institution that answers questions and explains the
seemingly, inexplicable. Religion provides explanations for why things
happen and demystifies the ideas of birth and death. Religions based on
the belief in a single deity are monotheistic. Those that encompass may
deities are polytheistic.

a. Animism
A nimis m refers to the belief in innumerable spiritual beings concerned with
human affairs and capable of helping or harming human interests.
Animistic beliefs were first competently surveyed by Sir Edward Burnet
Tylor in his work Primitive Culture (1871), to whom is owned the continued
currency of the term. While none of the major world religions is animistic
(though they may contain animistic elements), most other religions-e.g.,
those of tribal peoples-are. For this reason, an ethnographic understanding
of animism, based on field studies of tribal peoples, is no less important
than a theoretical one, concerned with the nature or srcin of religion. The
belief that all objects have spirits is animistic.

b. Polytheism
Polytheism is belief in, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. The word
comes from the Greek words poly+theoi, literally “many gods.” Most
ancient religions were polytheistic, holding to pantheons of traditional
deities, often accumulated over centuries of cultural interchange and
experience. Present-day polytheistic religions include Hinduism, Shinto,
some forms of Wicca, Vodun, and Asatru.

c. Monotheism
Monotheis m refers to the belief in the existence of one god, or in the
oneness of God; a such , it is distinguished from polytheism, the belief in
the existence of many gods, and from atheism, the belief that there is no
god. Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam, and elements of the belief are discernible in numerous other
religions.
care practices that are not part of that country’s own tradition and are not
integrated into the dominant health care system.
2. Herbal medicines
Herbal medicines include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and
finished herbal products that contain as active ingredients parts of plants,

or other plant materials, or combinations of plantflowers,

materials.
Herbs are crude plant materials such as leaves, fruit, seed , stems,
wood, bark, roots, rhizomes or other plant parts, which may be entire,
fragmented or powdered.
3. Traditional use of herbal medicines
Traditional use of herbal medicines refers to the long historical use of these
medicines. Their use is well established and widely acknowledged to be
safe and effective and may be accepted by national authorities.
4. Therapeutic activity
Therapeutic activity refers to the successful prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of physical and mental illnesses; improvement of symptoms of
illnesses; as well as beneficial alternation or regulation of the physical and
mental status of the body.
5. Active ingredient
Active ingredient refers to ingredients of herbal medicines with therapeutic
activity. In herbal medicines where the active ingredients have been
identified, the preparation of these medicines should be standardized to
contain a defined amount of the active ingredients, if adequate analytical
methods are available. In cases where it is not possible to identify the
active ingredients, the whole herbal medicine maybe considered as one
active ingredient.

c. Health as a human Right

All individuals have the right to health. This right implies an economic,
social, and cultural right to a universal minimum standard of health. The
right to health is cited in international agreements which includes the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on the Rights of

Persons with Disabilities

 The human right to health care means that hospitals, clinics, medicines,
and doctors’ services must be accessible, available, acceptable, and of
good quality for everyone, on an equitable basis, where and when needed.
The design of a health care system must be guided by the following key
human rights standards:

Universal Access: Access to health care must be universal, guaranteed

for all on an equitable basis. Health care must be affordable and
comprehensive for everyone, and physically accessible where and when
needed.
Availability: Adequate health care infrastructure like hospitals, community
health facilities, trained health care professionals; goods like drugs and
equipment; and services like primary care and mental health must be
available in all geographical areas and to all communities.
Acceptability and Dignity: Health care institutions and providers must
respect dignity, provide culturally appropriate care, be responsive to needs
based on gender, age, culture, language, and different ways of life and
abilities. They must respect medical ethics and protect confidentiality.
Quality: All health care must be medically appropriate and of good, quality,
guided by quality standards and control mechanisms, and provided in a
timely, safe, and patient-centered manner.

The human right to health also entails the following procedural principles,
which apply to all human rights:

Non-Discrimination. Health care must be accessible and provided without

discrimination (in intent or effect) based on health status, race, ethnicity,
age, sex, sexuality, disability, language, religion, national srcin, income, or
social status.
Transparency. Health information must be easily accessible for everyone,
enabling people to protect their health and claim quality health services.
Institutions that organize, finance or deliver health care must operate in a
transparent way. The health care system must be open with regard to
information, decision-making, and management.
Participation. Individuals and communities must be able to take an active
role in decision that affect their health, including in the organization and
implementation of health care services. The health care system must
enable meaningful public participation in all decisions affecting people’s
right to health.

Accountability.
accountable for Private
companies
the right and
public care
agencies mustenforceable
be held
protecting to health through
standards, regulations, and independent compliance monitoring. The health
care system must be accountable to the people it serves.
Healthcare. Is a human right campaign in several U.S States, inspired by
the example of Vermont, which in 2011 became the first state to pass a law
for a universal, publicly financed health care system. All of these
campaigns have translated the human rights standards listed above into
clear human rights principles that guide their actions and policy positions:

Universality : Everyone must have access to equal high—quality and

comprehensive health care.
Equity: Resources and services must be distributed and accessed
according to people’s needs. We get what we need and give what we can.
 Quiz # 17

Fill in the Blanks

Direction: Enumerate several illnesses diseases and place them under the

appropriate type of healer.

Illness/Disease Traditional Medical
 G. Social and Political Stratification

Introduction
Take a walk around and observe your neighborhood. You would
possibly become aware of the differences among the people. People vary

in the clothes they wear, the cars

thethey
drive,do.
theThey
houses
alsothey
varylive
in, the
friends they associate with, and job they in wealth,
prestige, popularity, and many others.

a. Social Desirables
Any rational individual in a human community will always aspire for
things that bestow wealth, power, and prestige.
Differentiation is the method of relating people in terms of certain social
characteristics and then classifying them into social categories based on
these characteristics.

The layering of these social categories into higher and lower position of
prestige or respect is called social stratification

Social stratification is a society’s categorization of people into

socioeconomic strata, based on their occupation and income, wealth and
social status, or derived power (social and political).

Social stratification is distinguished as three social classes:

1. The upper class- consists of the elite families who are the most prolific
and successful in their respective areas. These are the groups of people
who are stockholders, investor, and who live in an exclusive neighborhood.

2. The middle class- these are mostly professional people like lawyers,
doctors, managers, owners of small businesses, executives etc.

3. The lower class- these are the office and clerical workers, skilled and
unskilled craftsman, farm employees, underemployed and indigent
families.
Status
The individual’s position in the social structure is calledstatus. The higher
or lower position that come about through social stratification are called
statuses.

Ascribed andorAchieved
A s cribed. Which are assigned given by Statuses
the society or group on the
basis of some fixed category, without regard to a person’s abilities or
performance.
A chieved status es . Are earned by the individual.

Prestige and Esteem

Prestige - refers to the evaluation of status.
Esteem - refers to the assessment of our role behavior.

Causes of Social Stratification

S ocial Clas s is generally referred to as a number of people who are
grouped collectively because they have similar professional/ occupation
statuses, amount of prestige, or lifestyle.

b. Social Mobility System/ Structure

The act of moving from one social status to another is called Social
Mobility. Social Mobility makes the inequality of social class reasonable
and, in the point of view of some, even justifiable.

 Open clas s s ys tem- means that individuals can change their social
class position in the society. The degree of downward individual mobility is
one of the test of an open class society.

 Through caste” and closed-class system ” are approximately the

“ “

same things, the concept of open and closed classes is more useful than
the concept of caste, because it can be used as a measure of the amount
of mobility in different societies.
 Types of Social Mobility
People may change their social class position either of two ways.
1. They can move from one position to another either of two ways.
2. They can move into another class.

Horizontal
level. mobility is the movement of a person within a social class
Vertical Mobility is the movement of the person between social class
levels. The movement may be upward or downward. In other words the
person may either rise or fall in the social class structure.

c. Social Inequality
The existence of uneven opportunities and rewards for a diverse social
position or statuses within a group or society is referred to associal
inequality. Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are
distributed unevenly, generally through norms of allocation, that bring about
specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons.

i. Access to social, political, and symbolic capital

1. S ocial capital-refers to the ability of a collective to act together to
pursue a common goal.
2. Political capital - refers to the trust, goodwill, and influence
possessed by a political actor, such as a politician, to mobilize
support toward a preferred policy outcome.
3. S ymbolic capital-refers to the resources that one possesses which
is a function of honor, prestige or recognition, or any other trait that
one values within culture.

ii. Gender inequality

Gender inequality is the idea that women and men are not equal. Gender
inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals wholly or
partly due to their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed
gender roles.
S ex and G ender -based prejudice and discrimination, called sexism, are
major contributing factors to social inequality. Almost all societies have
some sexual division of labor.
R aci al and E thnic I nequality
Racial or ethnic inequality is the consequence of hierarchical social

distinctions between racialonand ethnic categories

such within
a society and other
are
often recognized based characteristics as skin color and
physical characteristics or an individual’s place of srcin or culture.

Minorities in the Social S tructure

Members that have more power than other people in a society are called
the dominant members. Dominant members set the standards and
establish the values and norms of the society.
Di s cri mination and Prejudice
Minorities are being deprived of equal treatment and are kept in a lower
status by the dominant members of the society and the resistance of
equality is called discrimination. Discrimination is a damaging act, which
can take many forms.
S tereotypi ng
More often than not, prejudice involves stereotyping; which refers to our
propensity to picture all members of a particular category as having the
same qualities. Usually stereotyping is the result of overgeneralization.
Ethnocentrism
The belief that our own nation, race, or group is the best is called
ethnocentrism. The consequence is we suppose that other groups or
societies are inferior to our own.
S capeg oating
This is a situation when people encounter problems that they do not know
how to solve. Often they feel frustrated.
Racism
It is the thinking that one’s own race is superior and has the right to control
or direct others.
 impacts of life” values and
industrialization- increased
“effluents of appreciation for
affluence” natural amenties
Environmentalism of The Biocentric indigenous
Survival “environmentalism of religions
the poor”-Defense of
livelihoods and
communal access to
natural resources
threatened by the
state or the market.
Reaction against
environmental
degradation caused
by unequal exchange,
poverty, and
population growth
Feminism is a social movement that addresses the situation of women in
society. It is distinguished by their analyses of the “logic of domination.”
Li beral femini s ts believe that all humans possess the same nature and
that any unequal treatment of women denies this moral equality and is
therefore unjust.
S ocialis t feminis ts believe that a complex web of social relationships
underlies the oppression of women.
 Quiz # 21

Essay: Explain your answer.

1. Aside from women, who are the other members ofthe community that have

been denied of their rights and privileges as citizen of a country? (5 points)

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. What do you imagine will happen in the futurewith these new media
around? (5 points)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________