Digital Electronics/Second Class Second Subject

University of Technology

Computer Engineering Department

Second Class 2018 /2019

Ass. Lecturer Suhad Haddad

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Digital Electronics/Second Class Second Subject

Operational Amplifier
References:-
1- Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory /Robert Boylestad/ 7th edition.
2- Digital Fundamentals / ( 9th edition ) / Thomas L. Floyd

Introduction:-
- An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential
amplifier with high input impedance and low output impedance.
- Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage
amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter
circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits.
- An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to
achieve a very high voltage gain.
- Figure (1) shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one output as
would result using a differential amplifier input stage.
- Each input results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or phase)
output, depending on whether the signal is applied to the plus (+) or
the minus (-) input.

Figure (1):- Basic Op-amp.

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Figure (2) :- Op-amp symbols and packages

The Ideal and Practical Op-Amp:-

The ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain and infinite bandwidth; also
it has infinite input impedance (open) so that it does not load the driving
source.
Characteristics of a practical op-amp are very high voltage gain, very
high impedance, very low output impedance, and wide bandwidth .figure
(3) shows ideal and practical op-amp

Figure ( 3 ) :- Basic op-amp representations

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Internal Block Diagram of Op-Amp:-

A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuits. A
differential amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier, as
shown in figure below

Figure (4):- Basic internal arrangement of an op-amp

A differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp .it provides
amplification of the difference voltage between the two inputs. The second
stage is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional gain. Push-pull
class B amplifier is used for the output stage

Op - Amp Input modes and Parameters:-

1- Single ended input:
Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected
to one input with the other input connected to ground. Figure (6) shows
the signals connected for this operation. In Fig. (6-a), the input is applied
to the plus input (with minus input at ground), which results in an output
having the same polarity as the applied input signal. Figure (6-b) shows
an input signal applied to the minus input, the output then being opposite
in phase to the applied signal.

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Figure (6-a-b):- Single-ended operation

2- Double-Ended (Differential) Input

In the differential mode, two opposite –polarity ( out-of-phase) signals are
applied to the inputs, as shown in figure ( 7) .this type of operation is also
referred to as double-ended .The amplified difference between the two inputs
appears on the output.

Figure (3-a-b):- Double-ended (differential) operation

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Figure (8):- Differential input mode

3- Common-Mode Operation


When the same input signals (in the same phase) are applied to both
inputs, two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude are
applied to both inputs, they cancel. Resulting in a zero output voltage.
Common-mode operation results, as shown in Fig. (9). ideally, the two
inputs are equally amplified, and since they result in opposite polarity signals
at the output, these signals cancel, resulting in 0-V output. Practically, a
small output signal will result.

Figure (9):- Common-mode operation



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


Differential and Common Mode Operation:-

Since amplification of the opposite input signals is much greater than that
of the common input signals, the circuit provides a common mode rejection
as described by a numerical value called the common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR).

1- Differential Inputs:-
When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference
signal is the difference between the two inputs.

Vd = Vi1 – Vi2 ……….(1)

2- Common Inputs:-
When both input signals are the same, a common signal element due to the
two inputs can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.

1
Vc = (Vi1 +Vi2) ……….(2)
2

3- Output Voltage:-
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and
out-of- phase components, the resulting output can be expressed as:-

Vo =Ad Vd + Ac Vc ………. (3)

Where

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Vd = difference voltage given by Eq. (1)

Vc = common voltage given by Eq. (2)
Ad = differential gain of the amplifier
Ac = common-mode gain of the amplifier

4-Common-Mode Rejection Ratio:-

Having obtained Ad and Ac (as in the measurement procedure discussed
above), we now calculate a value for the common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR), which is defined by the following equation:

𝐴d
CMRR = 𝐴𝑐 ……….(4)

The value of CMRR can also be expressed in logarithmic terms as :-

𝐴𝑑
CMRR (log) = 20 log10 (dB) …… (5)
𝐴𝑐
Example (1):-

Calculate the CMRR for the circuit measurements shown in figure below:

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Solution:-

From the measurement shown in fig (a), using the procedure in step 1 above,
we obtain

𝑉𝑜 8𝑉
Ad = 𝑉𝑑 = 1𝑚𝑉 = 8000
The measurement shown in fig (b), using the procedure in step 2 above,
gives us
𝑉𝑜 12𝑚𝑉
Ac = 𝑉𝑐 = = 12
1𝑚𝑉

Using Eq. (4) the value of CMRR is

𝐴𝑑 8000
CMRR = = = 666.7
𝐴𝑐 12

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This can also be expressed as

𝐴𝑑
CMRR= 20 log 10 = 20 log 10 666.7 = 56.48
𝐴𝑐

It should be clear that the desired operation will have Ad very large with
Ac very small. That is, the signal components of opposite polarity will appear
greatly amplified at the output, whereas the signal components that are in
phase will mostly cancel out so that the common-mode gain, Ac, is very
small. Ideally, the value of the CMRR is infinite. Practically, the larger
the value of CMRR, the better the circuit will operate.
We can express the output voltage in terms of the value of CMRR as
follows:
𝐴𝑐𝑉𝑐
From Eq. (3) Vo =Ad Vd + Ac Vc = Ad Vd ( 1+ )
𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑑

Using Eq. (4) , we can write the above as

1 𝑉𝑐
Vo = Ad Vd ( 1+ ) ……. (6)
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑑

Even when both Vd and Vc components of signal are present, Eq. (6)
shows that for large values of CMRR, the output voltage will be due mostly
to the difference signal, with the common-mode component greatly reduced
or rejected. Some practical examples should help clarify this idea.

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Example (2):-

Determine the output voltage of an op-amp for input voltages of Vi1

=150μV, Vi2 =140 μV. The amplifier has a differential gain of Ad =4000 and
the value of CMRR
Is:-

a- 100
b- 105

Solution:-

a- 45.8 mv
b- 40.006 mv

Example (2 ) shows that the larger the value of CMRR, the closer the
output voltage is to the difference input times the difference gain with
the common-mode signal being rejected.

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Op. Amp Basics:-

An operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high

input impedance (typically a few megohms) and low output impedance (less
than 100 Ω). The basic circuit is made using a difference amplifier having
two inputs (plus and minus) and at least one output.

Figure (10):- Basic Op.Amp

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Figure (10) shows a basic op-amp ideal unit. As discussed earlier, the plus
(+) input produces an output that is in phase with the signal applied, while an
input to the minus (-) input results in an opposite polarity output. The ac
equivalent circuit of the op-amp is shown in Fig. (11) As shown, the input
signal applied between input terminals sees input impedance, Ri , typically
very high. The output voltage is shown to be the amplifier gain times the
input signal taken through output impedance, Ro, which is typically very
low.

Figure (11)

1. Infinite input impedance

2. Zero output impedance
3. Zero common-mode gain (i.e., infinite common-mode
rejection
4. Infinite loop-gain A
5. Infinite bandwidth

Op-Amp Parameters
1-Common –Mode Input Voltage Range:-
The common-mode input voltage range is the range of input voltages
which ,when applied to both inputs, will not cause clipping or other output

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distortion .many op-amp have common-mode input voltage ranges of ±10 V

with dc supply voltages of ±15 V.

2-Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Desired signals can appear on only one input or with opposite polarities
on both input lines. These desired signals are amplified and appear on the
output as previously discussed. Unwanted signals (noise) appearing with the
same polarity on both input lines are essentially cancelled by the op-amp
and do not appear on the output. The measure of an amplifier’s ability to
reject common-mode signals is a parameter called the CMRR (common-
mode rejection ratio).
Ideally, an op-amp provides a very high gain for differential-mode signals
and zero gain for common-mode signals. Practical op-amps, however, do
exhibit a very small common-mode gain (usually much less than 1), while
providing a high open-loop differential voltage gain (usually several
thousand). The higher the open-loop gain with respect to the common-mode
gain, the better the performance of the op-amp in terms of rejection of
common-mode signals. This suggests that a good measure of the op-amp’s
performance in rejecting unwanted common-mode signals is the ratio of the
open-loop differential voltage gain, Aol, to the common-mode gain, Acm.
This ratio is the common-mode rejection ratio, CMRR.

The higher the CMRR, the better. A very high value of CMRR means that
the open-loop gain, Aol, is high and the common-mode gain, Acm, is low.
The CMRR is often expressed in decibels (dB) as

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The open-loop voltage gain, Aol, of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain
of the device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when
there are no external components. The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely
by the internal design. Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106
dB) and is not a well-controlled parameter. Datasheets often refer to the
open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain. A CMRR of
100,000, for example, means that the desired input signal (differential) is
amplified 100,000 times more than the unwanted noise (common-mode). If
the amplitudes of the differential input signal and the common-mode noise
are equal, the desired signal will appear on the output 100,000 times greater
in amplitude than the noise. Thus, the noise or interference has been
essentially eliminated.

Example (3):

A certain op-amp has an open-loop differential voltage gain of 100,000 and

a common-mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR and express it in
decibels.

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3-Input Offset Voltage: -

The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in. In a practical
op-amp, however, a small dc voltage, VOUT(error), appears at the output when
no differential input voltage is applied. Its primary cause is a slight mismatch
of the base-emitter voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of an op-
amp. As specified on an op-amp datasheet, the input offset voltage, VOS, is
the differential dc voltage required between the inputs to force the
output to zero volts. Typical values of input offset voltage are in the range
of 2 mV or less. In the ideal case, it is 0 V. The input offset voltage drift is a
parameter related to VOS that specifies how much change occurs in the
input offset voltage VOS for each degree change in temperature. Typical
values range anywhere from about 5 µV per degree Celsius to about 50 µV
per degree Celsius.

4-Input Bias Current: -

The input bias current is the dc current required by the inputs of the
amplifier to properly operate the first stage. By definition, the input bias
current is the average of both input currents and is calculated as follows:

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The concept of input bias current is illustrated in Figure (12).

Figure (12):- Input bias current is the average of the two op-amp input currents.

5-Input Impedance:-
Two basic ways of specifying the input impedance of an op-amp are the
differential and the common mode. The differential input impedance is the
total resistance between the inverting and the noninverting inputs, as
illustrated in Figure (13-a) .Differential impedance is measured by
determining the change in bias current for a given change in differential
input voltage. The common-mode input impedance is the resistance between
each input and ground and is measured by determining the change in bias
current for a given change in common-mode input voltage. It is depicted in
Figure (13-b).

Figure 13:- Op-amp input impedance

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6- Input Offset Current: -

Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their difference is
zero. In a practical op-amp, however, the bias currents are not exactly equal.
The input offset current, IOS, is the difference of the input bias currents,
expressed as an absolute value.

Actual magnitudes of offset current are usually at least an order of

magnitude (ten times) less than the bias current. In many applications, the
offset current can be neglected. However, high-gain, high-input impedance
amplifiers should have as little IOS as possible because the difference in
currents through large input resistances develops a substantial offset voltage,
as shown in Figure (14).

Figure 14:- Effect of input offset current

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The offset voltage developed by the input offset current is

The error created by IOS is amplified by the gain Av of the op-amp and
appears in the output as:-

A change in offset current with temperature affects the error voltage

values of temperature coefficient for the offset current in the range of
0.5.

7- Output Impedance: -
The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output terminal
of the op-amp, as indicated in Figure (15).

Figure (15):- Op-amp output impedance

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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Negative feedback is illustrated in Figure (16). The inverting (-) input
effectively makes the feedback signal 180° out of phase with the input signal.

Figure (16):- Illustration of negative feedback.

Why Use Negative Feedback?

The inherent open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very high
(usually greater than 100,000). Therefore, an extremely small input voltage
drives the op-amp into its saturated output states. In fact, even the input
offset voltage of the op-amp can drive it into saturation. For example,
assume VIN = 1 mV and Aol = 100,000. Then,

VINAol = (1 mV)(100,000) = 100 V

Since the output level of an op-amp can never reach 100 V, it is driven
deep into saturation and the output is limited to its maximum output levels,
as illustrated in Figure (17) for both a positive and a negative input voltage
of 1 mV.

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The usefulness of an op-amp operated without negative feedback is

generally limited to comparator applications. With negative feedback, the
closed loop voltage gain (Acl) can be reduced and controlled so that the
op-amp can function as a linear amplifier. In addition to providing a
controlled, stable voltage gain, negative feedback also provides for
control of the input and output impedances and amplifier bandwidth.

Figure (17):- Without negative feedback, a small input voltage drives the op-amp to its
output limits and it becomes nonlinear.

An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback to stabilize the

gain and increase frequency response. Negative feedback takes a portion
of the output and applies it back out of phase with the input, creating an
effective reduction in gain. This closed loop gain is usually much less
than the open-loop gain and independent of it.

Closed-Loop Voltage Gain, ACL

The closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an op-amp with
external feedback. The amplifier configuration consists of the op-amp and an
external negative feedback circuit that connects the output to the inverting
input. The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external component
values and can be precisely controlled by them.

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Inverting Amplifier:-
In this and the following sections, we consider some useful op amp
circuits that often serve as modules for designing more complex circuits. The
first of such op amp circuits is the inverting amplifier shown in Fig. (18). In
this circuit, the noninverting input is grounded; vi is connected to the
inverting input through R1, and the feedback resistor Rf is connected
between the inverting input and output.

Figure (18): Inverting Amplifier

0 Applying KCL at node.

A virtual short circuit means that whatever voltage is at 2 will
automatically appear at 1 because of the infinite gain A. But terminal 2
happens to be connected to ground; thus v2 = 0 and v1 = O. We speak of
terminal 1 as being a virtual ground that is, having zero voltage but not
physically connected to ground.

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Figure (19): Virtual grounded and closed-loop voltage gain development for the
inverting amplifier

But v1 = v2 =0 for an ideal op amp, since the noninverting terminal is

grounded. Hence,

Or

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The voltage gain is Av = Vo/Vi = -Rf/R1.

An inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal while

amplifying it.

Example 4

Refer to the op amp in Fig. If vi = 0.5 V, calculate: (a) the output voltage vo,
and (b) the current in the 10-kΩ resistor.

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Noninverting Amplifier:-
Another important application of the op amp is the noninverting amplifier
shown in Fig (20) In this case, the input voltage vi is applied directly at the
noninverting input terminal, and resistor R1 is connected between the ground
and the inverting terminal.

Figure (20):- Non-Inverting Amplifier

We are interested in the output voltage and the voltage gain. Application of
KCL at the inverting terminal gives

But v1 =v2 = vi. The Equation becomes

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Or

The voltage gain is Av = Vo / Vi= ( 1 +Rf /R1), which does not have a
negative sign. Thus, the output has the same polarity as the input.

From the circuit we can derive the characteristic equation of the noninverting
Op.amp as shown below: -
𝑉𝑖
I1 = I2 =
𝑅1

𝑉𝑖
Vo = Vi + RF
𝑅1

𝑅𝐹
Vo = Vi (1+ )
𝑅1

𝑅𝐹
Av = Vo / Vi = 1+ 𝑅1

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Voltage –Follower:-
The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the noninverting
amplifier where all of the output voltage is fed back to the inverting (-) input
by a straight connection, as shown in Figure (22) .the straight feedback
connection has a voltage gain of 1 (which means there is no gain). The
closed-loop voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier is as previously derived.
Again we notice that the gain depends only on the external resistors. Notice
that if feedback resistor Rf= 0 (short circuit) or R1 = ∞ (open circuit) or both,
the gain becomes 1. Under these conditions (Rf = 0 and R1 =∞), the circuit
becomes that shown in Fig. (22), which is called a voltage follower (or
unity gain amplifier) because the output follows the input. Thus, the
equation for the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage-follower is:-

vo = vi
ACL (VF) =1

Figure (22):- Op-amp voltage follower

Such a circuit has very high input impedance and very low output
impedance and is therefore useful as an intermediate-stage (or buffer)
amplifier to isolate one circuit from another, as portrayed in Fig. (23).these

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features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier for interfacing high-

impedance sources and low-impedance loads.

Figure (23):-A voltage follower used to isolate two circuits

Slew Rate:-
The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to a step
input voltage is the slew rate of an op-amp. The slew rate is dependent upon
the high-frequency response of the amplifier stages within the op-amp.

Slew rate is measured with an op-amp connected as shown in figure (24)

.this practical op-amp connection is a unity-gain, noninverting configuration.

Figure (24):- Slew-rate measurement

A pulse is applied to the input and the resulting ideal output voltage is
indicated in figure (24-b) .the width of the input pulse must be sufficient to
allow the output to "slew" from its lower limiter to its upper limit. A certain
time interval, ∆t, is required for the output voltage to go from its lower limit

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(- Vmax ) to its upper limit ( + Vmax ) once the input step is applied .the slew
rate is expressed as :-

∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Slew rate =
∆𝑡
Where ∆ Vout = +Vmax – (-Vmax). The unit of slew rate is volts per
microsecond (V / μs).

Example 6:-

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