Digital Electronics/Second Class Third Subject

Computer Engineering Department

Second Class

Ass. Lecturer Suhad Haddad

2018/2019

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Digital Electronics/Second Class Third Subject

The Oscillator

An oscillator is a circuit that produces a periodic waveform on its output with

only the dc supply voltage as an input. A repetitive input signal is not required
except to synchronize oscillations in some applications. The output voltage can be
either sinusoidal or non sinusoidal, depending on the type of oscillator. Two major
classifications for oscillators are feedback oscillators and relaxation oscillators.
Essentially, an oscillator converts electrical energy from the dc power supply to
periodic waveforms. A basic oscillator is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The basic oscillator concept showing three common types

of output waveforms: sine wave, square wave, and sawtooth.

Feedback Oscillators One type of oscillator is the feedback oscillator, which

returns a fraction of the output signal to the input with no net phase shift, resulting
in a reinforcement of the output signal. After oscillations are started, the loop gain
is maintained at 1.0 to maintain oscillations. A feedback oscillator consists of an
amplifier for gain (either a discrete transistor or an op-amp) and a positive

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feedback circuit that produces phase shift and provides attenuation, as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2: Basic elements of a feedback oscillator.

Relaxation Oscillators A second type of oscillator is the relaxation oscillator.

Instead of feedback, a relaxation oscillator uses an RC timing circuit to generate a
waveform that is generally a square wave or other non sinusoidal waveform.
Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt trigger or other device that changes
states to alternately charge and discharge a capacitor through a resistor.

1- Feedback Oscillators

Feedback oscillator operation is based on the principle of positive feedback. In this

section, we will examine this concept and look at the general conditions required
for oscillation to occur. Feedback oscillators are widely used to generate sinusoidal
waveforms.

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Positive Feedback
Positive Feedback is characterized by the condition wherein a portion of the output
voltage of an amplifier is fed back to the input with no net phase shift, resulting in
a reinforcement of the output signal. This basic idea is illustrated in Figure 3(a). As
you can see, the in phase feedback voltage Vf , is amplified to produce the output
voltage, which in turn produces the feedback voltage.

Figure 3: Positive feedback produces oscillation

That is, a loop is created in which the signal sustains itself and a continuous
sinusoidal output is produced. This phenomenon is called oscillation. In some
types of amplifiers, the feedback circuit shifts the phase 1800 and an inverting
amplifier is required to provide another 1800 phase shift so that there is no net
phase shift. This is illustrated in Figure 3(b).

Conditions for Oscillation

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Two conditions, illustrated in Figure 4, are required for a sustained state of

oscillation:
1. The phase shift around the feedback loop must be effectively 0o.
2. The voltage gain, Acl, around the closed feedback loop (loop gain) must equal 1
(unity).

Figure 4: General conditions to sustain

The voltage gain around the closed feedback loop Acl, is the product of the
amplifier gain Av, and the attenuation, B, of the feedback circuit.

Acl = Av B

If a sinusoidal wave is the desired output, a loop gain greater than 1 will rapidly
cause the output to saturate at both peaks of the waveform, producing unacceptable
distortion. To avoid this, some form of gain control must be used to keep the loop
gain at exactly 1 once oscillations have started. For example, if the attenuation of
the feedback circuit is 0.01, the amplifier must have a gain of exactly 100 to
overcome this attenuation and not create unacceptable distortion (0.01 * 100 = 1).

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An amplifier gain of greater than 100 will cause the oscillator to limit both peaks
of the waveform.

Start-Up Conditions
So far, you have seen what it takes for an oscillator to produce a continuous
sinusoidal output. Now let’s examine the requirements for the oscillation to start
when the dc supply voltage is first turned on. As you know, the unity-gain
condition must be met for oscillation to be sustained. For oscillation to begin, the
voltage gain around the positive feedback loop must be greater than 1 so that the
amplitude of the output can build up to a desired level. The gain must then
decrease to 1 so that the output stays at the desired level and oscillation is
sustained. The voltage gain conditions for both starting and sustaining oscillation
are illustrated in Figure 5.
A question that normally arises is this: If the oscillator is initially off and there is
no output voltage, how does a feedback signal originate to start the positive
feedback buildup process? Initially, a small positive feedback voltage develops
from thermally produced broad-band noise in the resistors or other components or
from power supply turn-on transients. The feedback circuit permits only a voltage
with a frequency equal to the selected oscillation frequency to appear in phase on
the amplifier’s input. This initial feedback voltage is amplified and continually
reinforced, resulting in a buildup of the output voltage as previously discussed.

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Figure 5: When oscillation starts at t0, the condition Acl > 1 causes the sinusoidal output voltage amplitude to
build up to a desired level. Then Acl decreases to 1 and maintains the desired amplitude.

2- Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits

Three types of feedback oscillators that use RC circuits to produce sinusoidal

outputs are the Wien-bridge oscillator, the phase-shift oscillator, and the twin-T
oscillator. Generally, RC feedback oscillators are used for frequencies up to about
1 MHz. The Wien-bridge is by far the most widely used type of RC feedback
oscillator for this range of frequencies.

1- The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

One type of sinusoidal feedback oscillator is the Wien-bridge oscillator. A

fundamental part of the Wien-bridge oscillator is a lead-lag circuit like that shown
in Figure 6. R1 and C1 together form the lag portion of the circuit; R2 and C2 form
the lead portion. The operation of this lead-lag circuit is as follows. At lower
frequencies, the lead circuit dominates due to the high reactance of C2. As the
frequency increases, XC2 decreases, thus allowing the output voltage to increase. At
some specified frequency, the response of the lag circuit takes over, and the
decreasing value of XC1 causes the output voltage to decrease.

R2

R1

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Figure 6: A lead-lag circuits and its response curve.

The response curve for the lead-lag circuit shown in Figure 6(b) indicates that the
output voltage peaks at a frequency called the resonant frequency fr , At this point,
the attenuation (Vout /Vin) of the circuit is 1/ 3 if R1 = R2 and XC1 = XC2 as
stated by the following equation

The formula for the resonant frequency is:

To summarize, the lead-lag circuit in the Wien-bridge oscillator has a resonant

frequency fr, at which the phase shift through the circuit is 00 and the attenuation is
1/3. Below fr, the lead circuit dominates and the output leads the input. Above fr
the lag circuit dominates and the output lags the input.

The Basic Circuit The lead-lag circuit is used in the positive feedback loop of an
op-amp, as shown in Figure 7(a). A voltage divider is used in the negative
feedback loop.

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Figure 7 : The Wien-bridge oscillator schematic drawn in two

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The Wien-bridge oscillator circuit can be viewed as a noninverting amplifier

configuration with the input signal fed back from the output through the lead-lag
circuit. Recall that the voltage divider determines the closed-loop gain of the
amplifier.

The circuit is redrawn in Figure 7(b) to show that the op-amp is connected across
the bridge circuit. One leg of the bridge is the lead-lag circuit, and the other is the
voltage divider.

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Positive Feedback Conditions for Oscillation As you know, for the circuit to
produce a sustained sinusoidal output (oscillate), the phase shift around the
positive feedback loop must be 0° and the gain around the loop must equal unity
(1). The 0° phase-shift condition is met when the frequency is fr because the
phase shift through the lead-lag circuit is 0° and there is no inversion from the
noninverting (+) input of the op-amp to the output. This is shown in Figure 8(a).

Figure 8 : Conditions for sustained oscillation

The unity-gain condition in the feedback loop is met when

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Acl = 3

This offsets the 1/3 attenuation of the lead-lag circuit, thus making the total gain
around the positive feedback loop equal to 1, as depicted in Figure 8(b). To
achieve a closed-loop gain of 3,

R1 = 2R2

Then

Start-Up Conditions Initially, the closed-loop gain of the amplifier itself must be
more than 3 (Acl > 3) until the output signal builds up to a desired level. Ideally,
the gain of the amplifier must then decrease to 3 so that the total gain around the
loop is 1 and the output signal stays at the desired level, thus sustaining oscillation.
This is illustrated in Figure 9.
The circuit in Figure 10 illustrates a method for achieving sustained oscillations.
Notice that the voltage-divider circuit has been modified to include an additional
resistor R3 in parallel with a back-to-back zener diode arrangement. When dc
power is first applied,

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Figure 9 Conditions for start-up and sustained oscillations.

Figure 10 :Self-starting Wien-bridge oscillator using back-to-back zener diodes

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Both zener diodes appear as opens. These places R3 in series with R1 thus
increasing the closed-loop gain of the amplifier as follows (R1 = 2R2):

Initially, a small positive feedback signal develops from noise or turn-on

transients. The lead-lag circuit permits only a signal with a frequency equal to fr to
appear in phase on the noninverting input. This feedback signal is amplified and
continually reinforced, resulting in a buildup of the output voltage. When the
output signal reaches the zener breakdown voltage, the zeners conduct and
effectively short out R3. This lowers the amplifier’s closed loop gain to 3. At this
point, the total loop gain is 1 and the output signal levels off and the oscillation is
sustained.
All practical methods to achieve stability for feedback oscillators require the
gain to be self-adjusting. This requirement is a form of automatic gain control
(AGC). The zener diodes in Figure 10 limit the gain at the onset of nonlinearity, in
this case, zener conduction. Although the zener feedback is simple, it suffers from
the nonlinearity of the zener diodes that occurs in order to control gain. It is
difficult to achieve an undistorted sinusoidal output waveform. In some older
designs, a tungsten lamp was used in the feedback circuit to achieve stability. A
better method to control the gain uses a JFET as a voltage-controlled resistor in a
negative feedback path. This method can produce an excellent sinusoidal
waveform that is stable.

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A JFET operating with a small or zero VDS is operating in the ohmic region. As
the gate voltage increases, the drain-source resistance increases. If the JFET is
placed in the negative feedback path, automatic gain control can be achieved
because of this voltage-controlled resistance.
A JFET stabilized Wien Bridge is shown in Figure 11. The gain of the op-amp is
controlled by the components shown in the green box, which include the JFET.
The JFET’s drain-source resistance depends on the gate voltage. With no output
signal, the gate is at zero volts, causing the drain-source resistance to be at the
minimum. With this condition, the loop gain is greater than 1. Oscillations begin
and rapidly build to a large output signal. Negative excursions of the output signal
forward-bias D1, causing capacitor C3 to charge to a negative voltage. This
voltage increases the drain-source resistance of the JFET and reduces the gain (and
hence the output). This is classic negative feedback at work. With the proper
selection of components, the gain can be stabilized at the required level.

Figure 11 : Self-starting Wien-bridge oscillator using a JFET in the negative feedback loop.
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Example: Determine the resonant frequency for the Wien-bridge oscillator in

Figure shown below; also calculate the setting for Rf assuming the internal drain-
source resistance, rds of the JFET is 500 Ω when oscillations are stable.

Solution:
For the lead-lag circuit, R1 = R2 = R = 10 kΩ and C1 = C2 = C = 0.01 µF. The
frequency is
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The closed-loop gain must be 3.0 for oscillations to be sustained. For an inverting
amplifier, the gain expression is the same as for a noninverting amplifier.

Ri is composed of R3 (the source resistor) and rds Substituting,

Rearranging and solving for Rf

Rf = (Av - 1)(R3 + rds) = (3 - 1)(1.0 kΩ + 500 Ω) = 3.0 kΩ

2- The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Figure 12 shows a sinusoidal feedback oscillator called the phase-shift

oscillator. Each of the three RC circuits in the feedback loop can provide a
maximum phase shift approaching 90°. Oscillation occurs at the frequency where
the total phase shift through the three RC circuits is 180°. The inversion of the op-
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amp itself provides the additional 180° to meet the requirement for oscillation of a
360° (or 0°) phase shift around the feedback loop.

Figure 12 : Phase-shift oscillator.

The attenuation, B, of the three-section RC feedback circuit is

B =1/29

Where B = R3/Rf .To meet the greater-than-unity loop gain requirement, the
closed-loop voltage gain of the op-amp must be greater than 29 (set by Rf and
R3). The frequency of oscillation fr is also derived on the companion website and
is stated in the following equation, where R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C3 =
C.

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The 555 timer as an oscillator

IC timer 555 is one of the most commonly used general-purpose linear
integrated circuits. The simplicity with which monostable and astable multivibrator
circuits can be configured around this IC is one of the main reasons for its wide
use. Figure 13 shows the internal schematic of timer IC 555.
It comprises two Op-Amp comparators, a flip-flop, a discharge transistor (Qd),
three identical resistors and an output stage as shown in Figure 13. The flip-flop
(bistable multivibrator) is a two-state device whose output can be at either a high
voltage level (set, S) or a low voltage level (reset, R). The state of the output can
be changed with proper input signals. The resistive voltage divider is used to set
the voltage comparator levels. All three resistors are of equal value; therefore, the
upper comparator has a reference of 2⁄3VCC, and the lower comparator has a
reference of 1⁄3VCC. The comparators’ outputs control the state of the flip-flop.
When the trigger voltage goes below 1⁄3VCC, the flip-flop sets and the output
jumps to its high level. The threshold input is normally connected to an external
RC timing circuit. When the external capacitor voltage exceeds 2⁄3VCC, the upper
comparator resets the flip-flop, which in turn switches the output back to its low
level. When the device output is low, the discharge transistor is turned on and
provides a path for rapid discharge of the external timing capacitor. This basic
operation allows the timer to be configured with external components as an
oscillator, a one-shot, or a time delay element.

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Figure 13: Internal diagram of a 555 integrated

1-Monostable Operation
The 555 timer can also be used as a one-shot or monostable multivibrator
circuit, as shown in Fig. 14. When the trigger input signal goes negative, it triggers
the one shot, with output at pin 3 then going high for a time period

Thigh = 1.1RaC
The negative edge of the trigger input causes comparator 2 to trigger the flip-flop,
with the output at pin 3 going high. Capacitor C charges toward VCC through
resistor Ra . During the charge interval, the output remains high. When the voltage
across the capacitor reaches the threshold level of 2/3VCC, comparator 1 triggers
the flip-flop, with output going low. The discharge transistor also goes low,
causing the capacitor to remain at near 0 V until triggered again. Figure 16-b

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shows the input trigger signal and the resulting output waveform for the 555 timer
operated as a one-shot. Time periods for this circuit can range from
microseconds to many seconds, making this IC useful for a range of
applications.

Figure 14: Operation of 555 timers as one-shot: (a) circuit; (b) waveforms.

2-Astable Operation:
A 555 timer connected to operate in the astable mode as a free-running
relaxation oscillator ( astable multivibrator ) is shown in Figure 15. Notice that the
threshold input (Thresh) is now connected to the trigger input (Trig). The external
components R1, R2 and Cext form the timing circuit that sets the frequency of
oscillation. The 0,001µF capacitor connected to the control (Cont) input is strictly
for decoupling and has no effect on the operation.

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Figure 15 The 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator

Initially, when the power is turned on, the capacitor Cext is uncharged and thus
the trigger voltage (pin 2) is at 0 V. This causes the output of the lower comparator
to be high and the output of the upper comparator to be low, forcing the output of
the flip-flop, and thus the base of Qd, low and keeping the transistor off. Now,
Cext begins charging through and as indicated in Figure 16. When the capacitor
voltage reaches 1⁄3VCC, the lower comparator switches to its low output state, and
when the capacitor voltage reaches 2⁄3VCC, the upper comparator switches to its
high output state. This resets the flip-flop, causes the base of Qd to go high, and

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turns on the transistor. This sequence creates a discharge path for the capacitor
through R2 and the transistor, as indicated. The capacitor now begins to
discharge, causing the upper comparator to go low. At the point where the
capacitor discharges down to 1⁄3VCC, the lower comparator switches high, setting
the flip-flop, which makes the base of Qd low and turns off the transistor. Another
charging cycle begins, and the entire process repeats. The result is a rectangular
wave output whose duty cycle depends on the values of R1 and R2 or RA and RB

Figure 15 Operation of the 555 timer in the astable mode.

The frequency of oscillation is given by Equation

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Operation as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

A 555 timer can be set up to operate as a VCO by using the same external
connections as for astable operation, with the exception that a variable control
voltage is applied to the CONT input (pin 5), as indicated in Figure 17.
As shown in Figure 18, the control voltage (VCONT) changes the threshold values
of 1⁄3VCC and 2⁄3VCC for the internal comparators. With the control voltage, the
upper value is and the lower value is 1⁄2VCONT, as you can see by examining the
internal diagram of (VCONT) the 555 timer. When the control voltage is varied, the
output frequency also varies. An increase in VCONT increases the charging and
discharging time of the external capacitor and causes the frequency to decrease. A
decrease in VCONT decreases the charging and discharging time of the capacitor and
causes the frequency to increase. An interesting application of the VCO is in
phase-locked loops, which are used in various types of communication receivers to
track variations in the frequency of incoming signals.

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Figure 17: Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

Figure 18: The VCO output frequency varies inversely with VCONT because the charging
and discharging time of Cext is directly dependent on the control voltage.

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