Discovery II Chapter 1

1.1.1 The Internet standards

The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of networks. It enables

individuals and businesses alike, through interconnected computer networks, to share
information, resources, and services.

In the beginning, the Internet was used strictly for scientific, educational, and military
research.

In 1991, regulations changed to allow businesses and consumers to connect as well. The
Internet has grown rapidly, and is now global. New technologies are continuously being
developed that make the Internet easier and more attractive to use. Online applications
are available to the Internet user, including email, web browsing, streaming music and
video, online gaming, and instant messaging.

The way people interact, share information, and even do business is changing to keep up
with the continuous evolution of this global network. The Internet is creating a wider
audience and consumer base for whatever message, product or service can be delivered.
For many businesses, having Internet access has become critical, not only for
communication, but also just for day-to-day operation. Some of the business uses of the
Internet include:
E-Commerce
Communications
Collaboration and Training

With the increasing number of new devices and technologies coming online, how is it
possible to manage all the changes and still reliably deliver services such as email? The
answer is Internet standards.
A standard is a set of rules for how something must be done. Networking and Internet
standards ensure that all devices connecting to the network use the same set of rules. By
having standards, it is possible for different types of devices to send information to each
other over the Internet. For example, the way an email is formatted, forwarded, and
received by all devices is done in a standardized manner. If one individual sends an email
via a personal computer, another individual can use a mobile phone to receive and read
the e-mail as long as the mobile phone uses the same standards.

An Internet standard is the end result of a comprehensive cycle of discussion, problem

solving, and testing. When a new standard is proposed, each stage of the development
and approval process is recorded in a numbered Request for Comments (RFC) document
so that the evolution of the standard is tracked.

There are thousands of Internet standards that help define the rules for how devices
communicate on networks. These different standards are developed, published, and
maintained by a variety of different organizations. By these organizations creating and
maintaining standards, millions of individuals are able to connect to the Internet using a
variety of devices including personal computers, cellular phones, handheld personal
digital assistants (PDAs), MP3 players, and even televisions.

1.1.2 ISP and ISP services

Regardless of the type of device that an individual or business uses to connect to the
Internet, the device must connect through an Internet service provider (ISP). An ISP is a
company or organization through which a subscriber obtains Internet access. A subscriber
can be a business, a private consumer, a government body, or even another ISP.

In addition to offering connection to the Internet, an ISP can offer other services to
subscribers including:
Equipment co-location - A business may opt to have some or all internal network
equipment physically located on the ISP premises.
Web hosting - The ISP provides the server and application software for storing web pages
and web content for the business website.
FTP hosting - The ISP provides the server and application software for the FTP site of a
business.
Applications and media hosting - The ISP provides the server and software to allow a
business to provide streaming media such as music, video or applications, such as online
databases.
Voice over IP - A business can save on long distance telephone charges, especially for
internal calls between geographically distant offices, by using Voice over IP (VoIP).
Technical support - Many businesses do not have the in-house technical expertise to
manage large internal networks. Some ISPs provide technical support and consulting
services for an additional fee.
1.2.1 Delivering Internet services to end users
To gain access to the Internet, it is first necessary to have a connection to an ISP. ISPs
offer various connection options. The main connection methods used by home and small
business users are:

Dialup access
Dialup access is an inexpensive option that uses any phone line and a modem. To connect
to the ISP, a user calls the ISP access phone number. Dialup is the slowest connection
option, and is typically used by mobile workers and in areas where higher speed
connection options are not available.
DSL
DSL is more expensive than dialup, but provides a faster connection. DSL also uses
telephone lines, but unlike dialup access, DSL provides a continuous connection to the
Internet. This connection option uses a special high-speed modem that separates the DSL
signal from the telephone signal and provides an Ethernet connection to a host computer
or LAN.
Cable modem
A cable modem is a connection option offered by cable television service providers. The
Internet signal is carried on the same coaxial cable that delivers cable television to homes
and businesses. A special cable modem separates the Internet signal from the other
signals carried on the cable and provides an Ethernet connection to a host computer or
LAN.
Satellite
Satellite connection is an option offered by satellite service providers. The user's
computer connects through Ethernet to a satellite modem that transmits radio signals to
the nearest POP within the satellite network.
Bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps). Higher bandwidth speeds are measured
in kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).

There are three main types of high bandwidth connection options that are used by
businesses:
T1 connections transmit data up to 1.544 Mbps. T1 connections are symmetrical,
meaning that the upload bandwidth is the same as the download bandwidth. A medium-
sized business may need only one T1 connection. E1 is a European standard that
transmits data at 2.048 Mbps.
T3 connections transmit data up to 45 Mbps. Although considerably more expensive than
a T1 connection, a larger business may need a T3 connection to accommodate the
number of employees. Large businesses with multiple locations might use a combination
of T1 and T3 lines. E3 is a European standard that transmits data at 34.368 Mbps.
Metro Ethernet offers a wide range of high-bandwidth options, including Gbps links.
Large companies with many branches in the same city, such as banks, use Metro
Ethernet. Metro Ethernet connects the main office location and all the branches using
switched technology. Metro Ethernet allows the transfer of large amounts of data faster
and less expensively than other high-bandwidth connection options.
After the type of connection is established, it is necessary to connect to the ISP to get
access to the Internet. Individual computers and business networks connect to the ISP at a
POP. POPs are located at the edge of the ISP's network and serve a particular
geographical region. They provide a local point of connection and authentication
(password control) for multiple end users. An ISP may have many POPs, depending on
the size of the POP and the area that it services.

Within the ISP network, high-speed routers and switches move data between the various
POPs. Multiple links interconnect the POPs to provide alternate routes in case one of the
links becomes overloaded with traffic or fails.

1.2.1 Internet Hierarchy

The Internet has a hierarchical structure. At the top of this hierarchy are the ISP
organizations. The ISP POPs connect to an Internet Exchange Point (IXP). In some
countries, this is called a Network Access Point (NAP). An IXP or NAP is where
multiple ISPs join together to gain access to each other's networks and exchange
information. There are currently over 100 major exchange points located worldwide.
The Internet backbone consists of this group of networks owned by various organizations
and interconnected through IXPs and private peering connections.

The Internet backbone is like an information super highway that provides high-speed data
links to interconnect the POPs and IXPs in major metropolitan areas around the world.
The primary medium that connects the Internet backbone is fiber-optic cable. This cable
is typically installed underground to connect cities within continents. Fiber-optic cables
also run under the sea to connect cities between continents.

ISPs are classified into different tiers according to how they access the Internet backbone:
Tier 1 ISPs are the top of the hierarchy. Tier 1 ISPs are huge organizations that connect
directly with each other through private peering, physically joining their individual
network backbones together to create the global Internet backbone. Within their own
networks, the Tier 1 ISPs own the routers, high-speed data links, and other pieces of
equipment that join them to other Tier 1 ISP networks. This includes the undersea cables
that connect the continents.
Tier 2 ISPs are the next tier in terms of backbone access. Tier 2 ISPs can also be very
large, even extending across several countries, but very few have networks that span
entire continents or between continents. To provide their customers with global Internet
access, some Tier 2 ISPs pay Tier 1 ISPs to carry their traffic to other parts of the world.
Some Tier 2 ISPs exchange global traffic with other ISPs less expensively through public
peering at IXPs. A large IXP may bring together hundreds of ISPs in a central physical
location for access to multiple networks over a shared connection.
Tier 3 ISPs are the farthest away from the backbone. Tier 3 ISPs are generally found in
major cities and provide customers local access to the Internet. Tier 3 ISPs pay Tier 1 and
2 ISPs for access to the global Internet and Internet services.
1.2.3 Identifying the structure of the Internet
Network utilities create a map of the various interconnections to visualize how ISP
networks interconnect. These utilities also illustrate the speed at which each connecting
point can be reached.

The ping command tests the accessibility of a specific IP address. The ping command
sends an echo request packet to the destination address and then waits for an echo reply
packet to return from that host. It measures the time that elapses between when the
request packet is sent and the response packet is received. The ping command output
indicates whether the reply was received successfully and displays the round-trip time for
the transmissions.

To use the ping command, enter the following command at the Cisco command line
interface (CLI) router prompt or at the Windows command prompt:
ping <ip address>
where <ip address> is the IP address of the destination device.

If a packet does not reach the destination, or if delays are encountered along the way,
how is it determined where the problem is located or through which routers the packet
has passed?

The traceroute utility displays the path that a packet takes from the source to the
destination host. Each router that the packet passes through is called a hop. Traceroute
displays each hop along the way. It also calculates the time between when the packet is
sent and when a reply is received from the router at each hop.

If a problem occurs, use the output of the traceroute command to help determine where a
packet was lost or delayed. The output also shows the various ISP organizations that the
packet must pass through during its journey from source to destination.
The Windows tracert utility works the same way. There are also a number of visual
traceroute programs that provide a graphical display of the route that a packet takes.

1.3.1 ISP Requirements

An ISP requires a variety of devices to accept input from end users and provide services.
To participate in a transport network, the ISP must be able to connect to other ISPs. An
ISP must also be able to handle large volumes of traffic.

Some of the devices required to provide services include:

Access devices that enable end users to connect to the ISP, such as a DSL Access
Multiplexer (DSLAM) for DSL connections, a Cable Modem Termination System
(CMTS) for cable connections, modems for dialup connections, or wireless bridging
equipment for wireless access.
Border gateway routers to enable the ISP to connect and transfer data to other ISPs, IXPs,
or large business enterprise customers.
Servers for such things as e-mail, network address assignment, web space, FTP hosting,
and multimedia hosting.
Power conditioning equipment with substantial battery backup to maintain continuity if
the main power grid fails.
High capacity air conditioning units to maintain controlled temperatures.

ISPs, like other businesses, want to expand so that they can increase their income. The
ability to expand their business depends on gaining new subscribers and selling more
services. However, as the number of subscribers grows, the traffic on the ISP's network
also grows.

Eventually, the increased traffic may overload the network, causing router errors, lost
packets, and excessive delays. In an overloaded network, subscribers can wait for
minutes for a web page to load, or may even lose network connection. These customers
may choose to switch to a competing ISP to get better performance.

Loss of customers directly translates to loss of income for an ISP. For this reason, it is
important that the ISP provide a reliable and scalable network.

Scalability is the ability to allow for future change and growth. A scalable network can
expand quickly to support new users and applications without impacting the performance
of the service being delivered to existing users.
The most scalable devices are those that are modular and provide expansion slots for
adding modules. Different modules can have different numbers of ports. In the case of a
chassis router, some modules also offer different interface options, allowing for different
connection options on the same chassis.

1.3.2 Roles and Responsibility within an ISP

ISP organizations consist of many teams and departments who are responsible for
ensuring that the network operates smoothly and that the services that the ISP offers are
available.

Network support services are involved in all aspects of network management, including
planning and provisioning of new equipment and circuits, adding new subscribers,
network repair and maintenance, as well as customer service for network connectivity
issues.

When a new business subscriber orders ISP services, the various network support service
teams work together to ensure that the order is processed correctly and that the network is
ready to deliver those services as quickly as possible.
Each of the network support service teams have their own roles and responsibilities:
Customer Service receives the order from the customer and ensures that the customer's
specified requirements are accurately entered into the order tracking database.
Planning and Provisioning determines whether the new customer has existing network
hardware and circuits or whether new circuits need to be installed.
The On-site Installation is advised of which circuits and equipment to use and then
installs them at the customer site.
The Network Operations Center (NOC) monitors and tests the new connection and
ensures that it is performing properly.
The Help Desk is notified by the NOC when the circuit is ready for operation and then
contacts the customer to guide them through the process of setting up passwords and
other necessary account information.