Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights
into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions,
and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using
unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus
groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The
sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfil a given
quota.Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical
data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify
attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results
from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to
formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods
are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data
collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys,
mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews,
longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic
observations.Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of
numbers (Punch, 1998, p. 4).

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving

an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject
matter. This means that qualitative researchers study
things in their natural settings, attempting to make
sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the
meanings people bring to them.

An interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some
psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as the
behaviourists (e.g., Skinner). 

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an
appropriate way of carrying out research, since it fails to capture the totality of human
experience and the essence of what it is to be human.  Exploring the experience of
participants is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism).

The aim of qualitative research is to understand the social reality of individuals,

groups and cultures as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it. Thus,
people and groups, are studied in their natural setting.
Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’
and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behaviour, operates as it does in a particular
context.

Methods (used to obtain qualitative data)

Qualitative researchers use a variety of methods to develop deep understandings of

how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the
social world.

For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, documents, participant

observation, and ethnography.

The researcher has several methods for collecting

empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct
observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and
cultural records, to the use of visual materials or
personal experience.

A good example of a qualitative research method would be unstructured interviews

which generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the
respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher
develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs,
videos, sound recordings and so on, can be considered qualitative data.

Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just
leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her
findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to

make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss,
1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) or discourse analysis.

Key Features

Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a
qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The
contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken
for granted.
Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide
their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an
interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.

The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data, without the active
participation of the researcher, no data exists.

The design of the study evolves during the research, and can be adjusted or changed
as it progresses.

For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality, it is subjective and exist only
in reference to the observer.

Theory is data driven, and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the
data as they are collected.

Limitations

Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw
samples from large-scale data sets.

The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the

subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to
apply conventional standards of reliability and validity.

For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of
data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies. Also, contexts, situations,
events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor can
generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with any confidence

The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation are lengthy. Analysis
of qualitative data is difficult and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to try to
interpret qualitative data, and great care must be taken when doing so, for example, if
looking for symptoms of mental illness.

Strengths

Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider's view of the
field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties
and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.

Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible

relationships, causes, effects and dynamic processes.

Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which are a

reflection of social reality (Denscombe, 2010).

Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of

particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports in
order to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby
gaining new insight.

QuantitativeResearch

Quantitative research gathers data in a numerical form which can be put into
categories, or in rank order, or measured in units of measurement.  This type of data
can be used to construct graphs and tables of raw data.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behaviour and phenonomon

across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately
support or reject it.

Methods (used to obtain quantitative data)

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring
things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and
questionnaires can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate

quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into
categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers). 

Experimental methods limit the possible ways in which a research participant can
react to and express appropriate social behaviour.

Findings are therefore likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the

assumptions which the researcher brings to the investigation.

Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision
making. We can use statistics to summarise our data, describing patterns,
relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarise our data whereas inferential statistics are
used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as
intervention and control groups in a randomised control study).

Key Features

Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their

studies in the lab.

The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias), and is separated from the data.

The design of the study is determined before it begins.

For the quantitative researcher reality is objective and exist separately to the
researcher, and is capable of being seen by anyone.

Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations

Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition,

they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions
may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).

Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may

negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).

Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis.
Small scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of
data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to
wider populations.

Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus
on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Strengths

Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis,

and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative
approach is viewed as scientifically objective, and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe,
2010).

Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.

Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data
analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).

Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by

others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.

Hypotheses can also be tested because of the used of statistical analysis (Antonius,
2003).

When to use qualitative research

In psychosocial research, ‘quantitative’ research methods are appropriate when
‘factual’ data are required to answer the research question; when general or
probability information is sought on opinions, attitudes, views, beliefs or preferences;
when variables can be isolated and defined; when variables can be linked to form
hypotheses before data collection; and when the question or problem is known, clear
and unambiguous. Quantitative methods can reveal, for example, what percentage of
the population supports assisted conception, their distribution by age, marital status,
residential area and so on, as well as changes from one survey to the next (Kovacs et
al., 2012); the number of donors and donor siblings located by parents of donor-
conceived children (Freeman et al., 2009); and the relationship between the attitude of
donor-conceived people to learning of their donor insemination conception and their
family ‘type’ (one or two parents, lesbian or heterosexual parents; Beeson et al.,
2011).

In contrast, ‘qualitative’ methods are used to answer questions about experience,

meaning and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the participant. These
data are usually not amenable to counting or measuring. Qualitative research
techniques include ‘small-group discussions’ for investigating beliefs, attitudes and
concepts of normative behaviour; ‘semi-structured interviews’, to seek views on a
focused topic or, with key informants, for background information or an institutional
perspective; ‘in-depth interviews’ to understand a condition, experience, or event
from a personal perspective; and ‘analysis of texts and documents’, such as
government reports, media articles, websites or diaries, to learn about distributed or
private knowledge.

Qualitative methods have been used to reveal, for example, potential problems in
implementing a proposed trial of elective single embryo transfer, where small-group
discussions enabled staff to explain their own resistance, leading to an amended
approach (Porter and Bhattacharya, 2005). Small-group discussions among assisted
reproductive technology (ART) counsellors were used to investigate how the welfare
principle is interpreted and practised by health professionals who must apply it in
ART (de Lacey et al., 2015). When legislative change meant that gamete donors
could seek identifying details of people conceived from their gametes, parents needed
advice on how best to tell their children. Small-group discussions were convened to
ask adolescents (not known to be donor-conceived) to reflect on how they would
prefer to be told (Kirkman et al., 2007).

When a population cannot be identified, such as anonymous sperm donors from the
1980s, a qualitative approach with wide publicity can reach people who do not usually
volunteer for research and reveal (for example) their attitudes to proposed legislation
to remove anonymity with retrospective effect (Hammarberg et al., 2014). When
researchers invite people to talk about their reflections on experience, they can
sometimes learn more than they set out to discover. In describing their responses to
proposed legislative change, participants also talked about people conceived as a
result of their donations, demonstrating various constructions and expectations of
relationships (Kirkman et al., 2014).

Interviews with parents in lesbian-parented families generated insight into the diverse
meanings of the sperm donor in the creation and life of the family (Wyverkens et al.,
2014). Oral and written interviews also revealed the embarrassment and ambivalence
surrounding sperm donors evident in participants in donor-assisted conception
(Kirkman, 2004). The way in which parents conceptualise unused embryos and why
they discard rather than donate was explored and understood via in-depth interviews,
showing how and why the meaning of those embryos changed with parenthood (de
Lacey, 2005). In-depth interviews were also used to establish the intricate
understanding by embryo donors and recipients of the meaning of embryo donation
and the families built as a result (Goedeke et al., 2015).
It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative methods, although great care
should be taken to ensure that the theory behind each method is compatible and that
the methods are being used for appropriate reasons. The two methods can be used
sequentially (first a quantitative then a qualitative study or vice versa), where the first
approach is used to facilitate the design of the second; they can be used in parallel as
different approaches to the same question; or a dominant method may be enriched
with a small component of an alternative method (such as qualitative interviews
‘nested’ in a large survey). It is important to note that free text in surveys represents
qualitative data but does not constitute qualitative research. Qualitative and
quantitative methods may be used together for corroboration (hoping for similar
outcomes from both methods), elaboration (using qualitative data to explain or
interpret quantitative data, or to demonstrate how the quantitative findings apply in
particular cases), complementarity (where the qualitative and quantitative results
differ but generate complementary insights) or contradiction (where qualitative and
quantitative data lead to different conclusions). Each has its advantages and
challenges (Brannen, 2005).

How to judge qualitative research

Qualitative research is gaining increased momentum in the clinical setting and carries
different criteria for evaluating its rigour or quality. Quantitative studies generally
involve the systematic collection of data about a phenomenon, using standardized
measures and statistical analysis. In contrast, qualitative studies involve the systematic
collection, organization, description and interpretation of textual, verbal or visual
data. The particular approach taken determines to a certain extent the criteria used for
judging the quality of the report. However, research using qualitative methods can be
evaluated (Dixon-Woods et al., 2006; Young et al., 2014) and there are some generic
guidelines for assessing qualitative research (Kitto et al., 2008).

Although the terms ‘reliability’ and ‘validity’ are contentious among qualitative
researchers (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) with some preferring ‘verification’, research
integrity and robustness are as important in qualitative studies as they are in other
forms of research. It is widely accepted that qualitative research should be ethical,
important, intelligibly described, and use appropriate and rigorous methods (Cohen
and Crabtree, 2008). In research investigating data that can be counted or measured,
replicability is essential. When other kinds of data are gathered in order to answer
questions of personal or social meaning, we need to be able to capture real-life
experiences, which cannot be identical from one person to the next. Furthermore,
meaning is culturally determined and subject to evolutionary change. The way of
explaining a phenomenon—such as what it means to use donated gametes—will vary,
for example, according to the cultural significance of ‘blood’ or genes, interpretations
of marital infidelity and religious constructs of sexual relationships and families.
Culture may apply to a country, a community, or other actual or virtual group, and a
person may be engaged at various levels of culture. In identifying meaning for
members of a particular group, consistency may indeed be found from one research
project to another. However, individuals within a cultural group may present different
experiences and perceptions or transgress cultural expectations. That does not make
them ‘wrong’ or invalidate the research. Rather, it offers insight into diversity and
adds a piece to the puzzle to which other researchers also contribute.
In qualitative research the objective stance is obsolete, the researcher is the
instrument, and ‘subjects’ become ‘participants’ who may contribute to data
interpretation and analysis (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998). Qualitative researchers defend
the integrity of their work by different means: trustworthiness, credibility,
applicability and consistency are the evaluative criteria (Leininger, 1994).

Trustworthiness

A report of a qualitative study should contain the same robust procedural description
as any other study. The purpose of the research, how it was conducted, procedural
decisions, and details of data generation and management should be transparent and
explicit. A reviewer should be able to follow the progression of events and decisions
and understand their logic because there is adequate description, explanation and
justification of the methodology and methods (Kitto et al., 2008)

Credibility

Credibility is the criterion for evaluating the truth value or internal validity of
qualitative research. A qualitative study is credible when its results, presented with
adequate descriptions of context, are recognizable to people who share the experience
and those who care for or treat them. As the instrument in qualitative research, the
researcher defends its credibility through practices such as reflexivity (reflection on
the influence of the researcher on the research), triangulation (where appropriate,
answering the research question in several ways, such as through interviews,
observation and documentary analysis) and substantial description of the
interpretation process; verbatim quotations from the data are supplied to illustrate and
support their interpretations (Sandelowski, 1986). Where excerpts of data and
interpretations are incongruent, the credibility of the study is in doubt.

Applicability

Applicability, or transferability of the research findings, is the criterion for evaluating

external validity. A study is considered to meet the criterion of applicability when its
findings can fit into contexts outside the study situation and when clinicians and
researchers view the findings as meaningful and applicable in their own experiences.

Larger sample sizes do not produce greater applicability. Depth may be sacrificed to
breadth or there may be too much data for adequate analysis. Sample sizes in
qualitative research are typically small. The term ‘saturation’ is often used in
reference to decisions about sample size in research using qualitative methods.
Emerging from grounded theory, where filling theoretical categories is considered
essential to the robustness of the developing theory, data saturation has been
expanded to describe a situation where data tend towards repetition or where data
cease to offer new directions and raise new questions (Charmaz, 2005). However, the
legitimacy of saturation as a generic marker of sampling adequacy has been
questioned (O'Reilly and Parker, 2013). Caution must be exercised to ensure that a
commitment to saturation does not assume an ‘essence’ of an experience in which
limited diversity is anticipated; each account is likely to be subtly different and each
‘sample’ will contribute to knowledge without telling the whole story. Increasingly, it
is expected that researchers will report the kind of saturation they have applied and
their criteria for recognising its achievement; an assessor will need to judge whether
the choice is appropriate and consistent with the theoretical context within which the
research has been conducted.

Sampling strategies are usually purposive, convenient, theoretical or snowballed.

Maximum variation sampling may be used to seek representation of diverse
perspectives on the topic. Homogeneous sampling may be used to recruit a group of
participants with specified criteria. The threat of bias is irrelevant; participants are
recruited and selected specifically because they can illuminate the phenomenon being
studied. Rather than being predetermined by statistical power analysis, qualitative
study samples are dependent on the nature of the data, the availability of participants
and where those data take the investigator. Multiple data collections may also take
place to obtain maximum insight into sensitive topics. For instance, the question of
how decisions are made for embryo disposition may involve sampling within the
patient group as well as from scientists, clinicians, counsellors and clinic
administrators.

Consistency

Consistency, or dependability of the results, is the criterion for assessing reliability.

This does not mean that the same result would necessarily be found in other contexts
but that, given the same data, other researchers would find similar patterns.
Researchers often seek maximum variation in the experience of a phenomenon, not
only to illuminate it but also to discourage fulfilment of limited researcher
expectations (for example, negative cases or instances that do not fit the emerging
interpretation or theory should be actively sought and explored). Qualitative
researchers sometimes describe the processes by which verification of the theoretical
findings by another team member takes place (Morse and Richards, 2002).

Conclusions
Research that uses qualitative methods is not, as it seems sometimes to be
represented, the easy option, nor is it a collation of anecdotes. It usually involves a
complex theoretical or philosophical framework. Rigorous analysis is conducted
without the aid of straightforward mathematical rules. Researchers must demonstrate
the validity of their analysis and conclusions, resulting in longer papers and
occasional frustration with the word limits of appropriate journals. Nevertheless, we
need the different kinds of evidence that is generated by qualitative methods. The
experience of health, illness and medical intervention cannot always be counted and
measured; researchers need to understand what they mean to individuals and groups.
Knowledge gained from qualitative research methods can inform clinical practice,
indicate how to support people living with chronic conditions and contribute to
community education and awareness about people who are (for example)
experiencing infertility or using assisted conception.
Situations where qualitative research is often used:
 New product idea generation and development
 Investigating current or potential product/service/brand positioning and marketing strategy
 Strengths and weaknesses of products/brands
 Understanding dynamics of purchase decision dynamics
 Studying reactions to advertising and public relations campaigns, other marketing
communications, graphic identity/branding, package design, etc.
 Exploring market segments, such as demographic and customer groups
 Studying emotions and attitudes on societal and public affairs issues
 Assessing the usability of websites or other interactive products or services
 Understanding perceptions of a company, brand, category and product
 Determining consumer language as a preliminary step to develop a quantitative survey

Do not expect qualitative research to…

 Count, measure or offer statistical validation
 Determine the best product concept or price point; or establish the importance of specific
customer needs or satisfaction criteria
 Be a substitute for quantitative research because of time and/or budgetary constraints when
quantitative evaluation is critical

Authors' roles
Types of Qualitative Research

Just as quantitative, there are varieties of qualitative research methods. We shall look
at five types of qualitative research that are widely used in business, education and
government organizational models.

 Narrative Research

This method occurs over extended periods of time and garners information as it
happens. It laces a sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals to
form a consistent story.

Narrative research can be considered both a research method in itself but also the
phenomenon under study.

Businesses use the narrative method to define buyer personas and use them to identify
innovations that appeal to a target market.

 Ethnographic Research

This method is one of the most popular and widely recognized methods of qualitative
research, as it immerses samples in cultures unfamiliar to them. The researcher is also
often immersed as a subject for extended periods of time.
The objective is to understand and describe characteristics of cultures the same way
anthropologists observe cultural variations among humans.

"Ethnographic research allows us to regard and represent the actors as creators and
execute their own meanings. The very way in which they tell us about what they do,
tells the researcher a great deal about what is meaningful for and in the research. It
adds richness and texture to the experience of conducting research." (Stuart
Hannabuss).

The ethnographic method looks at people in their cultural setting; their behavior as
well as their words; their interactions with one another and with their social and
cultural environment; their language and its symbols; rituals etc. to produce a
narrative account of that culture.

 Historical Research

This method investigates past events in order to learn present patterns and anticipate
future choices. It enables the researcher to explore and explain the meanings, phases
and characteristics of a phenomenon or process at a particular point of time in the
past.

It is not simply the accumulation of dates and facts or even just a description of past
happenings but is a flowing and dynamic explanation or description of past events
which include an interpretation of these events in an effort to recapture implications,
personalities and ideas that have influenced these events (ibid).
The purpose of historical research is to authenticate and explicate the history of any
area of human activities, subjects or events by means of scientific processes
(Špiláčková, 2012).

Businesses can use historical data of previous ad campaigns alongside their targeted
demographic to split-test new campaigns. This would help determine the more
effective campaign.

 Grounded Theory

The grounded theory research method looks at large subject matters and attempts to
explain why a course of action progresses the way it did.

Simply put, it seeks to provide an explanation or theory behind the events. Sample
sizes are often larger to better establish a theory.

Grounded theory can help inform design decisions by better understanding how a
community of users currently use a product or perform tasks. For example, a
grounded theory study could involve understanding how software developers use
portals to communicate and write code.

Businesses use grounded theory when conducting user or satisfaction surveys that
target why consumers use company products or services.

 Case Study

This involves deep understanding through multiple data sources. Case studies can be
explanatory, exploratory, or descriptive. 

Unlike grounded theory, the case study method provides an in-depth look at one test
subject. The subject can be a person or family, business or organization, or a town or
city.

Businesses often use case studies when marketing to new clients to show how their
business solutions solve a problem for the subject.

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research is used to quantify behaviors, opinions, attitudes, and other
variables and make generalizations from a larger population. quantitative research
uses quantifiable data to articulate facts and reveal patterns in research. This type of
research method involves the use of statistical, mathematical tools to derive results.

When trying to quantify a problem, quantitative data will conclude on its purpose and
understand how dominant it is by looking for results that can be projected to a larger
population.

This data collection method includes various forms of online, paper, mobile, kiosk
surveys; online polls; systematic observations; face-to-face interviews, phone
interviews and so on.
Collect Quantitative Data With Online Surveys

Researchers who use quantitative research method are typically looking to quantify
the degree and accentuate objective measurements through polls, questionnaires, and
surveys, or by manipulating an existing statistical data using computational
techniques. 

Summarily, the goal in quantitative research is to understand the relationship between

an independent and dependent variable in a population.

5 Types of Quantitative Research

There are four main types of quantitative research designs: correlational, descriptive,
experimental and quasi-experimental. But there’s another one; survey research.
  Descriptive Research

Descriptive research method is more focused on the ‘what’ of the subject matter
rather than the ‘why’.i.e. it aims to describe the current status of a variable or
phenomenon.  Descriptive research is pretty much as it sounds – it describes
circumstances. It can be used to define respondent characteristics, organize
comparisons, measure data trends, validate existing conditions.

Data collection is mostly by observation and the researcher does not begin with a
hypothesis but, creates one after the data is collected. Albeit very useful, this method
cannot draw conclusions from received data and cannot determine cause and effect. 

 Correlational Research

Correlational research is a non-experimental research method, where the researcher

measures two variables, and studies the statistical relationship i.e. the correlation
between variables. The researcher ultimately assesses that relationship without
influence from any peripheral variable.

Let’s take this example, without classroom teaching, our minds relate to the fact that
the ‘louder the jingle of an ice cream truck is, the closer it is to us’. We also memorize
the jingle that comes from the speakers of the truck. And if there are multiple ice
cream trucks in the area with different jingles, we would be able to memorize all of it
and relate particular jingles to particular trucks. This is how correlational method
works.

The most prominent feature of correlational research is that the two variables are
measured – neither is manipulated.

A correlation has direction and can be either positive or negative. It can also differ in
the degree or strength of the relationship.

 Experimental Research

Often referred to as ‘true experimentation’, this type of research method uses a

scientific method to establish cause-effect relationship among a group of variables.

It is commonly defined as a type of research where the scientist actively influences

something to observe the consequences.

It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher

manipulates one or more variables, and controls/randomizes any change in other
variables.

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and

psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine and so on.

 Quasi-experimental Research
The prefix quasi means “resembling”. Quasi-experimental research resembles
experimental research but is not a true experimental research. It is often referred to as
‘Causal-Comparative’.

In this type of research, the researcher seeks to establish a cause-effect relationship

between two variables and manipulates the independent variable.

Although the independent variable is manipulated, participants are not randomly

assigned to conditions or orders of conditions (Cook & Campbell, 1979).

Abraham & MacDonald (2011) states:

"Quasi-experimental research is similar to experimental research in that there is

manipulation of an independent variable. It differs from experimental research
because either there is no control group, no random selection, no random
assignment, and/or no active manipulation."

Quasi-experimental involves ‘comparison.’ The study of two or more groups is done

without focusing on their relationship.

 Survey Research

Survey Research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of
behavior with concentrated precision. Researchers are able to judge behavior and then
present the findings in an accurate way.

Survey research can be conducted around one group specifically or used to compare
several groups. When conducting survey research, it is imperative that the researcher
samples random people. This allows for more accurate findings across a greater
number of respondents.

This kind of research can be done in person, over the phone, or through email. They
can be self-administered.
 Sign up to use Formplus Builder to create your preferred
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Why choose Quantitative Research over

Qualitative Research?
Quantitative research is more preferred over qualitative research because it is more
scientific, objective, fast, focused and acceptable. However, qualitative research is
used when the researcher has no idea what to expect. It is used to define the problem
or develop and approach to the problem.

 More scientific: A large amount of data is gathered and then analyzed statistically. This
almost erases bias, and if more researchers ran the analysis on the data, they would always
end up with the same numbers at the end of it.
 Control-sensitive: The researcher has more control over how the data is gathered and is
more distant from the experiment. An outside perspective is gained using this method.
 Less biased/objective: The research aims for objectivity i.e. without bias, and is separated
from the data. Researcher has clearly defined research questions to which objective answers
are sought.
 Focused: The design of the study is determined before it begins and research is used to test a
theory and ultimately support or reject it.
  Deals with larger samples: The results are based on larger sample sizes that are
representative of the population. The large sample size is used to gain statistically valid
results in customer insight.
 Repeatable: The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high
reliability.
 Arranged in simple analytical methods: Received data are in the form of numbers and
statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
 Generalizable: Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future
results, or investigate causal relationships. Findings can be generalized if selection process is
well-designed and sample is representative of a study population.
 Relatable: Quantitative research aims to make predictions, establish facts and test
hypotheses that have already been stated. It aims to find evidence which supports or does
not support an existing hypothesis. It tests and validates already constructed theories about
how and why phenomena occur.
 More structured: Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment to collect
numerical data.
 Pertinent in later stages of research: Quantitative research is usually recommended in later
stages of research because it produces more reliable results.
 Consistent with data: With quantitative research, you may be getting data that is precise,
reliable and consistent, quantitative and numerical.
 More acceptable: It may have higher credibility among many influential people (e.g.,
administrators, politicians, sponsors, donors)
 Fast: Data collection using quantitative methods is relatively quick (e.g., telephone
interviews). Also, data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using statistical software).
 Useful for decision making: Data from quantitative research—such as market size,
demographics, and user preferences—provides important information for business decisions.

"There's no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred

Kerlinger
When to use Quantitative Research Method

Quantitative research ends with conclusions/recommendations, as it tries to quantify a

problem and understand how prevalent it is by looking for results that can be
projected to a larger population. It can help you see the big picture.

A researcher may want to determine the link between income and whether or not
more people pay taxes. This is a question that asks “how many” and seeks to confirm
a hypothesis.

The method will be structured and consistent during data collection, most likely using
a questionnaire with closed-ended questions. The data can be used to look for cause
and effect relationships and therefore, can be used to make predictions.

The results will provide numerical data that can be analyzed statistically as the
researcher looks for a correlation between income and tax payers. Quantitative
methodology would best apply to this research problem.

Use quantitative research methods such as A/B testing for validating or choosing a
design based on user satisfaction scores, perceived usability measures, and/or task
performance. The data received is statistically valid and can be generalized to the
entire user population.
Basically, quantitative research is helpful when you get feedback from more than a
handful of participants; need to present a more convincing case to an audience; you
want to gather feedback from a diverse population of users NOT all located in the
same place; you have a limited budget.

When to use Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is explanatory and is used when the researcher has no idea what
to expect. It is used to define the problem or develop and approach to the problem.

It is used to delve deeper into issues of interest. Qualitative data adds the details and
can also give a human voice to your results.

Use this type of research method if you want to do in-depth interviews, want to
analyze issues affecting focus groups, want uninterrupted observation and
ethnographic participation.
You can use it to initiate your research by discovering the problems or opportunities
people are thinking about. Those ideas can later become hypotheses.

Quotes from open-ended questions in qualitative research can put a human voice to
the objective numbers and trends in your results. Many times, it helps to hear your
customers describe your organization honestly which helps point out blind spots.

Choose qualitative research if you want to capture the language and imagery
customers use to describe and can easily relate with a brand, product, service and so
on.

How to Interpret Qualitative Research Data

Qualitative data consists of words, observations, pictures, and symbols. Analyzing
received data typically occurs simultaneously with the data collection.

See qualitative research can be analysed and interpreted with the following steps:

1. Data familiarity: As a researcher, you should read and understand the data, noting
impressions, look for meaning and weed out unnecessary data.
2. Identify key questions you want to answer through the analysis. One way to focus the
analysis is to examine the data as it relates to a case, an individual, or a particular group.
3. Code and index the data by identifying themes and patterns that may consist of ideas,
concepts, behaviors, interactions, phrases and so on. Then, assign a code to pieces of data to
label the data and make it easier to manage.
4. After that, you should identify patterns and make connections. Identify the themes, look for
relative importance of responses received and try to find explanations from the data.
5. The last thing to do is to interpret the data and explain findings. You can develop a list of key
ideas or use models to explain the findings.

How to Interpret Quantitative Research Data

Quantitative research methods result in data that provides quantifiable, objective, and
easy to interpret results. Quantitative data can be analyzed in several ways.

The first thing to do for quantitative data is to identify the scales of measurement.
There are four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio (scale).

Identifying the scale of measurement helps determine how best to organize the data. It
can be entered into a spreadsheet and managed in a way that gives meaning to the
data.
The next thing to do is to use some of the quantitative data analysis procedures - data
tabulation, descriptive data, data disaggregation, moderate and advanced analytics.

Case Study of Quantitative Research

Geramian et al considered the prevalent problem of drug abuse in Iran especially in
adolescents and youth, and conducted a study to assess the status of drug abuse
among high school students in Isfahan Province, Iran.

The study was conducted through a questionnaire in 2009 in 20 cities. Study

population was high school students aged 14–18 years. The required sample size
(considering α = 0.05) was calculated as 6489 students, which was increased to 7137
students with consideration of the dropout rate of 10%.

The study identified the degree of drug abuse according to age, gender and cities.
There was also an assessment of the type of drugs used, the most common causes of
drug abuse for the first time, the most important cause of drug abuse, mean age of
abusers and mean age at first abuse, knowledge about short and long-term
complications of narcotics and stimulants, common time and locations of drug abuse,
and the most common routes of drug abuse according to gender as well as urban and
rural areas of Isfahan Province.

Using the results of the research, the knowledge, attitude, and practice of students
toward drug abuse were identified.

Case study of Qualitative Research

A good example of qualitative research is Alan Peshkin’s 1986 book God’s Choice:
The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School published by the University of
Chicago Press.

Peshkin examines the culture of Bethany Baptist Academy by interviewing the

students, parents, teachers, and members of the community; and observing for
eighteen months - to provide a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of Christian
schooling as an alternative to public education.

Peshkin's work represents qualitative research as it is an in-depth study using tools

such as observations and unstructured interviews, aimed at securing descriptive or
non-quantifiable data on Bethany Baptist Academy specifically, without attempting to
generalize the findings to other schools.

Peshkin describes Bethany Baptist Academy as having institutional unity of purpose,

a dedicated faculty, an administration that backs teachers in enforcing classroom
disciplines, cheerful students, rigorous homework, committed parents, and above all
grounded in positive moral values and a character-building environment.

According to Peshkin, the school focuses on providing ‘wholesome’ lives for

students, separate from a secular world, however interacting with the same world.

He adds that there is a lack of cultural diversity in the Academy and the
counterproductive method of training students in one-dimensional thought, where
students are not allowed to question the viewpoints of their teacher’s biblical
interpretations; not forgetting the presence of a heavily censored library.

The school also ignores state regulations for schools, such as state assessments,
certification and minimum wages for teachers, while enforcing compulsory volunteer
tasks for teachers. Peshkin however paints the school in a positive light and holds that
public schools have much to learn from such schools.

What is the best Data Collection tool?

Formplus! This is a unique online form tool that lets you collect and manage all the
data you need. With Formplus builder, you can create surveys, questionnaires or polls
that will help you gather data for your qualitative or quantitative research 
Formplus gives you an easy-to-use form builder with a variety of options including
customization to beautify the form in your way.

Signup on Formplus Builder to create your preferred

online surveys for qualitative and quantitative research.

Why Formplus is the Best Data Collection Tool

for Quantitative & Qualitative Data
Notwithstanding the kind of research you have chosen to do, Formplus offers you
amazing features to make your experience simple and easy.

 Collect Data Online

The world is more digital than ever and will become even more digital. Formplus
understands this and is giving you a platform to collect store data received from your
research, without having to look beyond your shoulders, worrying whether your data
is safe or not.

On Formplus, you can create forms for any type of qualitative or quantitative research
and you know what? There’s no limit to the amount of online forms you can create.

You can collect all types and sizes of data including typed documents, images, videos
and so on.
  Email Invitation

After you have created the online form, you definitely will want to get it to more
people so data collection is not restricted.

Use the email invitation feature on Formplus online form to invite people to fill the
research form. You can add the emails one after the other, upload a CSV file or
populate from an existing database.

 Geolocation

You want to know where responses are coming from? Or concentration of responses
from a particular location? Use the geolocation feature, so when responses are
submitted, you see the longitude and latitude of the said response.

This will come in handy when you are doing qualitative research for a particular area
and want to weed out data coming from other areas.

 Social Media/Website Popup Sharing

It does not end with email invitations, you could share your online forms to Facebook,
Twitter or LinkedIn for more responses.

Embed on your website as a popup to make it easy for respondents to click and fill
forms right away without leaving your website.
  Export/Data Interpretation

Export received data into another format – PDF or Microsoft Word – make
information easy to digest.

Use the exported data to review responses for the research or make comparisons.

On your dashboard, you can view live analytics of responses including abandonment
rate, total visits, average time spent and more.

 Storage Integration

Researches always come in with a lot of data but we got you covered. Formplus
allows you store unlimited file types and sizes. Added to that are cloud storage
integrations to give you options to choose from.

With Formplus, you can decide to use either Google Drive, OneDrive or Dropbox to
store and share received data without hassles. All you need to do is connect an
existing account you have with either of those three options and you are on your way.
You can easily create an account with any of them, if you do not have in easy steps.

 Team & Collaboration

Manage teams for your research to delegate duties to departments or specializations.

Add team members and assign roles to them. Restrict their access, also monitor their
activities on your account.

Basically, Formplus allows you collaborate with members of the research team to
ensure the data is well managed and positive results maintained.

One more thing, even if you give admin access to a team member, you are still in
control of your account.

Signup for Free to Start Collecting Online Data for Quantitative and Qualitative
Research

Conclusion
As much as qualitative data adds humanity to data, quantitative data usually comes at
the end to use numerical data to make conclusions.

Both qualitative and quantitative research methods have their flaws. However, it is
imperative to note that quantitative research method deals with a larger population
and quantifiable data and will, therefore, produce a more reliable result than
qualitative research.

We provided 15 reasons quantitative research outsmarts qualitative research but you

still have doubts? Let’s talk about it. 
Read on to understand the two research methods, the type of data each produces and
how you can use that to build and test concepts effectively.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research seeks more in-depth, free form answers from respondents either
in person or via open-test responses.

This type of research is usually carried out with small groups and takes the form of in-
person focus groups, telephone interviews or detailed surveys with free text
responses. The method is used to gather anecdotal views and opinions, which inform
generally rather than offer hard data.   

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research, as the name suggests, is primarily about numbers. It generally

involves surveying a large group of people (usually at least several hundred and often
thousands), using a structured questionnaire that contains predominantly closed-
ended, or forced-choice, questions.

This is so that findings may be expressed numerically, enabling companies to garner

statistics upon which plans and predictions can be made.

Why do quantitative research?

Quantitative research enables brands to profile a target audience by measuring what

proportion has certain behaviours, behavioural intentions, attitudes, and knowledge.

In the planning stages for a new product or service, the quantitative method can help
establish the importance of specific customer needs and validate the best product
concept.

It can also be used as a deductive process to test pre-specified concepts and theories,
such as, “Working mothers are time-poor and find cooking a healthy meal for their
family every evening a challenge.”

Quantitative research can help you answer questions such as “how many” and “how
often” and is invaluable when putting together a business case for any new product or
service, or proposing changes to existing ones.

The statistically robust results that can be derived from quantitative research are good
for estimating the probability of success.

As well as helping you validate the marketplace and demand for your particular
product or service, quant surveys can be used to shape your market proposition and
gain understanding of how to market to your target audience.

You can garner data to determine things such as the best price point or places to
advertise by looking at respondents’ price sensitivity or media usage.
But quantitative research is not just for the planning stage of your product or service;
you can employ it further down the line to test customer satisfaction or assess the
proportion of a target audience that recalls a message, for example.

Why do qualitative research?

Numerical (quantitative) research can measure behaviours, but it can’t necessarily tell
you why customers behave as they do (or how to change that behaviour). That’s
where qualitative research comes in; providing brands a more in-depth look into their
customers’ psyches, with feedback right from the horse’s mouth. It helps to answer
‘why?’

It’s best used for more deeply exploring a topic or idea, when you want unprompted
and unbound input rather than set answers to structured questions. Qualitative
research is a primarily inductive process used to formulate theory rather than test
existing ones. It helps brands to gain an insight into a target audience’s lifestyle,
culture, preferences and motivations.

Like quantitative research, it can help identify customer needs. The results will be
much more subjective but can be used to shape quantitative surveys that will validate
the findings.

For example you may ask an open ended question ‘what is most important to you
when it comes to dining out?,’ and then take the most common free-text answers, and
validate them with a larger number of consumers using a quantitative survey, with
fixed choice options based on the answers you got in your preliminary qual research.

You can also employ the two methods in the opposite direction – using quantitative
research to gain statistics on behaviour or beliefs, and then qualitative to discover the
reasons behind those behaviours or beliefs. It helps brands to better understand the
context of the data.

Qualitative research can be very useful when it comes to developing brand image and
marketing campaigns, since you can capture the language and imagery customers use
to describe and relate to products and services in their own words.

Likewise, you can understand how people perceive a marketing message or

communication piece and get their reactions to graphic identity or packaging designs.

Because qualitative research is conducted among smaller groups it’s ideal for
exploring different market segments, as well as getting input from key informants
who may be outside your target audience (such as industry experts).

The pros and cons of quantitative research

Pros

 Objectivity: Quantitative research is numerical. Therefore, the results are clear and are
harder to misinterpret. The survey can also be easily repeated and you can reliably track
changes over time.
  Easy to analyse: Because responses are numeric you can use statistical analysis to gain
additional insight from the data.
 Quick: Because you’re asking closed questions, it usually means data can be collected more
quickly (because it’s easier for people to answer), while digital tools such as Attest can be
used to easily analyse the results.
 Ability to generalise: When the survey involves a statistically valid random sample, you can
generalise your findings beyond your participant group and make decisions with confidence.

Cons

 Big sample needed: Quantitative research requires a large sample of the population to
deliver reliable results. The larger the sample of people, the more statistically accurate the
outputs will be.
 Limited answers: Because results of quantitative research must be numeric, free text
responses can not be permitted, meaning contextual detail may be missing.
 Potential for bias: Those willing to respond to surveys may share characteristics that don’t
apply to the audience as a whole, creating a potential bias in the study.
 Wording is crucial: To be confident in the results of quant surveys, you have to be confident
you’re asking the right questions, in the right way, with the correct answer-options included.

The pros and cons of qualitative research

Pros

 More detailed: Qualitative research offers a deeper understanding, with the ability to
explore topics in more detail.
 Unprompted feedback: Open-ended questions facilitate unprompted responses, vital for
testing things where you don’t want to bias the outcome with prompts (such as for
unprompted brand recall).
 Taps consumer creativity:Generate ideas for improvements and/or extensions of a product,
line, or brand.
 Smaller sample needed: You don’t need to recruit as many participants.

Cons

 Less measurable:With free text answers, it’s more difficult to quantify how many of your
audience answer one way or another, and the data set is less accessible for statistical
interrogation.
 Can’t generalise: Qualitative research does not give statistically robust findings, and you
therefore cannot generalise to your broader audience – although if followed up with quant
research this is easy to remedy.
 Not repeatable: Freeform interviewing makes it difficult to track changes over time.

How to do quantitative research

When you design a quantitative research survey all questions must be closed-ended,
with pre-defined answers. These can take a variety of forms:

 Dichotomous – “yes/no”
 Multiple-choice – select one or more options from a list
 Rank order scaling – reorder a list by, for example, order of importance or preference
 Rating scale – select a rating such as “satisfied” or “extremely satisfied”
 Semantic differential scale – select a number on a scale (i.e. 1-10)
Because you want results to be easily measurable, you need to think carefully about
the answer options to make them as inclusive as possible and thus minimise the
amount of respondents who will select “other” (but do be sure to include “other” or
“don’t know” as an option).

Avoid loaded questions, which make assumptions that might not be relevant to all
being surveyed, such as, “When you buy hair gel, is packaging important to you?”
with “yes/no” as answer options – it may be that they don’t purchase hair gel at all
and would be unable to answer truthfully. This could lead to abandoned surveys or
skewed results.   

How to do qualitative research

Although qualitative research is less structured than quantitative, it’s still necessary to
plan the topics that will be discussed and what information you aim to glean.

You should develop a set of clear and specific questions, otherwise the input will be
too unmanageable. For example, asking a group of horse riders to tell you their
biggest frustration in regards to their hobby is too broad a question.

Participants will struggle to answer and the researcher will struggle to draw
meaningful data. Work instead on narrowing it down to, for example, their biggest
frustrations with grooming or with feeding.

Design your questions so they are open-ended and cannot be answered with a simple
“yes or no” – the point of qualitative research is obtain more in-depth understanding.
Open-ended questions might start:

 How
 Why
 Tell me
 What do you think about…

Generally, you’re aiming for more than a one-word answer; you want to probe the
thoughts, beliefs and emotions of the participants. This will help you understand their
behaviours.

Qualitative research is also useful for obtaining unprompted recall, so you might ask
participants to think of a brand they’ve seen advertised on the TV recently and name
it.

Qualitative research is not restricted to in-person interviews; it can be carried out via
digital survey by using free-text responses.

How to analyse quantitative research data

Surveying tools should come with a range of options to help you work with the data,
such as cross-tabbing and filters which enable you to observe answers by
demographic combinations (variables). You can also export data to Excel where you
can use features such as pivot tables and descriptive statistics.
There are three core types of analysis:

 Univariate – analyse by one variable, such as gender

 Bivariate – analyse by two variables, such as gender and age
 Multivariate – analyse by several variables, such as gender, age and education

To help you visualise the results, you can use data visualisation tools which take your
data and put it into graphs and charts…or you could simply use Attest! Meanwhile,
you can utilise Excel’s Prediction Calculator tool to create a scorecard that can be
used to evaluate options or risk (probability).

How to analyse qualitative research data

Qualitative research results cannot be analysed in the same way as quantitative data or
expressed as percentages; rather the output should be thought of as themes.

You can organise the results using coding. In coding, you assign a word, phrase, or
number to each category, such as “pricing” or “barriers to entry”. You then go
through all of your data in a systematic way and “code” ideas, concepts and themes as
they fit categories.

Another way to get a feel for the overall themes is to use a basic text analysis tool,
which allows you to find the most frequent phrases and frequencies of words. Or use
more sophisticated software to mine text for themes, alongside analysing for
sentiment and subjectivity.

To see keywords visually depicted, use a wordcloud generator – simply paste text or
upload a document to generate a graphic which illustrates the frequency of words by
giving them more or less prominence in the design.

In conclusion

Quantitative and qualitative research both have their place in market research and a
mix of both should be carried out whenever you’re extending product lines or
launching something new.

Both methods can work hand-in-hand; brands can use qualitative research for
developing concepts and theories, and quantitative for testing pre-existing ones.

You can also use free-form qualitative research to guide the creation of more
structured qualitative surveys. And following quantitative surveys, turn to qualitative
to better understand the context of the responses!

The strengths/Integrity of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is good at simplifying and managing data without destroying

complexity and context.

Qualitative methods are highly appropriate for questions where preemptive reduction
of the data will prevent discovery. If the purpose is to learn from the participants in a
setting or a process the way they experience it, the meanings they put on it, and how
they interpret what they experience, the researcher needs methods that will allow for
discovery and do justice to their perceptions and the complexity of their
interpretations. Qualitative methods have in common the goal of generating new ways
of seeing existing data. If the purpose is to construct a theory or a theoretical
framework that reflects reality rather than the researchers own perspective or prior
research results, one may need methods that assist the discovery of theory in data.

If the purpose is to understand phenomena deeply and in detail, the researcher needs
methods for discovery of central themes and analysis of core concerns. Each of these
suggestions has a flip side. If one knows what is being hypothesized and what they are
likely to find, if one do not need to know the complexity of others’ understandings, if
one is testing prior theory rather than constructing new frameworks, or if one is
simply describing a situation rather than deeply analyzing it, it is possible that one
should not be working qualitatively. Perhaps the research question that one is tackling
with in-depth interviews would be more properly addressed with a survey. In such a
case, the best advice is that you review your general purpose and ask yourself if it can
be addressed better that way.

Qualitative research is a proper response to some, but not all, research needs. We have
both learned to be alert to risk in projects where the researcher is working
qualitatively for the wrong reasons. These include reasons that are negative rather
than positive (“I hate statistics” or “I can’t use computers”) and assumptions that
qualitative research is more humanistic, moral/ethical,

Ochieng Pamela ATIENO. An Analysis of the Strengths and Limitation of Qualitative

and Quantitative Research Paradigms

worthy, feminist, radical, or admirable. The point here is not just that you need a good
reason for working qualitatively because of both practical and ethical considerations,
but also that you need to have thought your way to this method if you are to start
learning it. Good qualitative research requires purpose, skill, and concentration, and
unless you recognize this and your purpose is clear and committed, the task will
quickly become onerous.

As the purpose points to the research question and the research question informs the
choice of method, so the method fits the type of data to be collected. However,
selecting a method and making data are not discrete events in the research process;
rather, they are aspects linked by common ways of thinking. The distinction between
a method and a way
of making data is not at all rigid. Many researchers would speak of focus groups or
participant observation as methods: They are ways of making data, with goals that fit
these ways of making data, and each has a methods literature.

The fact that you are interviewing people tells an observer nothing about why, or
about what you will do with those data. But the content and form of interviews and
what you see in them will be different for different methods. This is because how you
think about the data differs from method to method.

Qualitative data typically consists of words while quantitative data consists of

numbers. The two can be synchronized for better result, for the following reasons:

All qualitative data can be coded quantitatively. Anything that is qualitative can be
assigned meaningful numerical values. These values can then be manipulated to help
one achieve greater insight into the meaning of the data and to help examine specific
hypotheses. Even the simple act of categorizing can be viewed as a quantitative one as
well.

The point is that the line between qualitative and quantitative is less distinct. All
qualitative data can be quantitatively coded in an almost infinite variety of ways. This
doesn’t detract from the qualitative information. Recognizing the similarities between
qualitative and quantitative information opens up new possibilities for interpretation
that might otherwise go unutilized.

All quantitative data is based on qualitative judgment. Numbers in and of themselves

can’t be interpreted without understanding the assumptions which underlie them.

The bottom line here is that quantitative and qualitative data are, at some level,
virtually inseparable. Neither exists in a vacuum nor can be considered totally devoid
of the other. To ask which is “better” or more “valid” or has greater “verisimilitude”
or whatever ignores the intimate connection between them. To do good research we
need to use both the qualitative and the quantitative.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

•The aim of qualitative analysis is a complete, detailed description. No attempt is

made to assign frequencies to the linguistic features which are identified in the data,
and rare phenomena receives (or should receive) the same amount of attention as
more frequent phenomena. Qualitative analysis allows for fine distinctions to be
drawn because it is not necessary to shoehorn the data into a finite number of
classifications.

•Ambiguities, which are inherent in human language, can be recognized in the

analysis. For example, the word "red" could be used in a corpus to signify the color
red, or as a political categorization (e.g. socialism or communism). In a qualitative
analysis both senses of red in the phrase "the red flag" could be recognized.

•The main disadvantage of qualitative approaches to corpus analysis is that their

findings cannot be extended to wider populations with the same degree of certainty
that quantitative analyses can. This is because the findings of the research are not
tested to discover whether they are statistically significant or due to chance.

problems

of education

in the 21st century

Volume 13, 2009

17

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH
Qualitative researchers have been criticized for overusing interviews and focus groups
at the expense of other methods such as ethnography, observation, documentary
analysis, case studies, and conversational analysis. Qualitative research has numerous
strengths when properly conducted.

Strengths of Qualitative Research



Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.




Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided/redirected

by the researcher in real time.




The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as new

information emerges.




The data based on human experience that is obtained is powerful and

sometimes more compelling than quantitative data.




Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects and/or topic are
discovered that are often missed by more positivistic enquiries.
 


Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals so findings cannot
be generalized to a larger population. Findings can however be transferable to
another setting.

Limitations of Qualitative Research



Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher

and more easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and
idiosyncrasies.




Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.




The volume of data makes analysis and interpretation time consuming.




It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research

within the scientific community




The researcher's presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in

qualitative research, can affect the subjects' responses.




Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting

findings




Findings can be more difficult and time consuming to characterize in a visual

way.


What Are the Advantages of Qualitative Research?

1. Subject materials can be evaluated with greater detail.

There are many time restrictions that are placed on research methods. The goal of a
time restriction is to create a measurable outcome so that metrics can be in place.
Qualitative research focuses less on the metrics of the data that is being collected and
more on the subtleties of what can be found in that information. This allows for the
data to have an enhanced level of detail to it, which can provide more opportunities to
glean insights from it during examination.

2. Research frameworks can be fluid and based on incoming or available data.

Many research opportunities must follow a specific pattern of questioning, data
collection, and information reporting. Qualitative research offers a different approach.
It can adapt to the quality of information that is being gathered. If the available data
does not seem to be providing any results, the research can immediately shift gears
and seek to gather data in a new direction. This offers more opportunities to gather
important clues about any subject instead of being confined to a limited and often
self-fulfilling perspective.

3. Qualitative research data is based on human experiences and observations.

Humans have two very different operating systems. One is a subconscious method of
operation, which is the fast and instinctual observations that are made when data is
present. The other operating system is slower and more methodical, wanting to
evaluate all sources of data before deciding. Many forms of research rely on the
second operating system while ignoring the instinctual nature of the human mind.
Qualitative research doesn’t ignore the gut instinct. It embraces it and the data that
can be collected is often better for it.

4. Gathered data has a predictive quality to it.

One of the common mistakes that occurs with qualitative research is an assumption
that a personal perspective can be extrapolated into a group perspective. This is only
possible when individuals grow up in similar circumstances, have similar perspectives
about the world, and operate with similar goals. When these groups can be identified,
however, the gathered individualistic data can have a predictive quality for those who
are in a like-minded group. At the very least, the data has a predictive quality for the
individual from whom it was gathered.

5. Qualitative research operates within structures that are fluid.

Because the data being gathered through this type of research is based on observations
and experiences, an experienced researcher can follow-up interesting answers with
additional questions. Unlike other forms of research that require a specific framework
with zero deviation, researchers can follow any data tangent which makes itself
known and enhance the overall database of information that is being collected.

6. Data complexities can be incorporated into generated conclusions.

Although our modern world tends to prefer statistics and verifiable facts, we cannot
simply remove the human experience from the equation. Different people will have
remarkably different perceptions about any statistic, fact, or event. This is because our
unique experiences generate a different perspective of the data that we see. These
complexities, when gathered into a singular database, can generate conclusions with
more depth and accuracy, which benefits everyone.

7. Qualitative research is an open-ended process.

When a researcher is properly prepared, the open-ended structures of qualitative
research make it possible to get underneath superficial responses and rational thoughts
to gather information from an individual’s emotional response. This is critically
important to this form of researcher because it is an emotional response which often
drives a person’s decisions or influences their behavior.

8. Creativity becomes a desirable quality within qualitative research.

It can be difficult to analyze data that is obtained from individual sources because
many people subconsciously answer in a way that they think someone wants. This
desire to “please” another reduces the accuracy of the data and suppresses individual
creativity. By embracing the qualitative research method, it becomes possible to
encourage respondent creativity, allowing people to express themselves with
authenticity. In return, the data collected becomes more accurate and can lead to
predictable outcomes.

9. Qualitative research can create industry-specific insights.

Brands and businesses today need to build relationships with their core demographics
to survive. The terminology, vocabulary, and jargon that consumers use when looking
at products or services is just as important as the reputation of the brand that is
offering them. If consumers are receiving one context, but the intention of the brand is
a different context, then the miscommunication can artificially restrict sales
opportunities. Qualitative research gives brands access to these insights so they can
accurately communicate their value propositions.

10. Smaller sample sizes are used in qualitative research, which can save on
costs.
Many qualitative research projects can be completed quickly and on a limited budget
because they typically use smaller sample sizes that other research methods. This
allows for faster results to be obtained so that projects can move forward with
confidence that only good data is able to provide.

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11. Qualitative research provides more content for creatives and marketing
teams.
When your job involves marketing, or creating new campaigns that target a specific
demographic, then knowing what makes those people can be quite challenging. By
going through the qualitative research approach, it becomes possible to congregate
authentic ideas that can be used for marketing and other creative purposes. This
makes communication between the two parties to be handled with more accuracy,
leading to greater level of happiness for all parties involved.

12. Attitude explanations become possible with qualitative research.

Consumer patterns can change on a dime sometimes, leaving a brand out in the cold
as to what just happened. Qualitative research allows for a greater understanding of
consumer attitudes, providing an explanation for events that occur outside of the
predictive matrix that was developed through previous research. This allows the
optimal brand/consumer relationship to be maintained.

What Are the Disadvantages of Qualitative Research?

1. The quality of the data gathered in qualitative research is highly subjective.

This is where the personal nature of data gathering in qualitative research can also be
a negative component of the process. What one researcher might feel is important and
necessary to gather can be data that another researcher feels is pointless and won’t
spend time pursuing it. Having individual perspectives and including instinctual
decisions can lead to incredibly detailed data. It can also lead to data that is
generalized or even inaccurate because of its reliance on researcher subjectivisms.

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2. Data rigidity is more difficult to assess and demonstrate.

Because individual perspectives are often the foundation of the data that is gathered in
qualitative research, it is more difficult to prove that there is rigidity in the
information that is collective. The human mind tends to remember things in the way it
wants to remember them. That is why memories are often looked at fondly, even if
the actual events that occurred may have been somewhat disturbing at the time. This
innate desire to look at the good in things makes it difficult for researchers to
demonstrate data validity.

3. Mining data gathered by qualitative research can be time consuming.

The number of details that are often collected while performing qualitative research
are often overwhelming. Sorting through that data to pull out the key points can be a
time-consuming effort. It is also a subjective effort because what one researcher feels
is important may not be pulled out by another researcher. Unless there are some
standards in place that cannot be overridden, data mining through a massive number
of details can almost be more trouble than it is worth in some instances.

4. Qualitative research creates findings that are valuable, but difficult to present.

Presenting the findings which come out of qualitative research is a bit like listening to
an interview on CNN. The interviewer will ask a question to the interviewee, but the
goal is to receive an answer that will help present a database which presents a specific
outcome to the viewer. The goal might be to have a viewer watch an interview and
think, “That’s terrible. We need to pass a law to change that.” The subjective nature of
the information, however, can cause the viewer to think, “That’s wonderful. Let’s
keep things the way they are right now.” That is why findings from qualitative
research are difficult to present. What a research gleans from the data can be very
different from what an outside observer gleans from the data.

5. Data created through qualitative research is not always accepted.

Because of the subjective nature of the data that is collected in qualitative research,
findings are not always accepted by the scientific community. A second independent
qualitative research effort which can produce similar findings is often necessary to
begin the process of community acceptance.

6. Researcher influence can have a negative effect on the collected data.

The quality of the data that is collected through qualitative research is highly
dependent on the skills and observation of the researcher. If a researcher has a biased
point of view, then their perspective will be included with the data collected and
influence the outcome. There must be controls in place to help remove the potential
for bias so the data collected can be reviewed with integrity. Otherwise, it would be
possible for a researcher to make any claim and then use their bias through qualitative
research to prove their point.

7. Replicating results can be very difficult with qualitative research.

The scientific community wants to see results that can be verified and duplicated to
accept research as factual. In the world of qualitative research, this can be very
difficult to accomplish. Not only do you have the variability of researcher bias for
which to account within the data, but there is also the informational bias that is built
into the data itself from the provider. This means the scope of data gathering can be
extremely limited, even if the structure of gathering information is fluid, because of
each unique perspective.

8. Difficult decisions may require repetitive qualitative research periods.

The smaller sample sizes of qualitative research may be an advantage, but they can
also be a disadvantage for brands and businesses which are facing a difficult or
potentially controversial decision. A small sample is not always representative of a
larger population demographic, even if there are deep similarities with the individuals
involve. This means a follow-up with a larger quantitative sample may be necessary
so that data points can be tracked with more accuracy, allowing for a better overall
decision to be made.

9. Unseen data can disappear during the qualitative research process.

The amount of trust that is placed on the researcher to gather, and then draw together,
the unseen data that is offered by a provider is enormous. The research is dependent
upon the skill of the researcher being able to connect all the dots. If the researcher can
do this, then the data can be meaningful and help brands and progress forward with
their mission. If not, there is no way to alter course until after the first results are
received. Then a new qualitative process must begin.

10. Researchers must have industry-related expertise.

You can have an excellent researcher on-board for a project, but if they are not
familiar with the subject matter, they will have a difficult time gathering accurate
data. For qualitative research to be accurate, the interviewer involved must have
specific skills, experiences, and expertise in the subject matter being studied. They
must also be familiar with the material being evaluated and have the knowledge to
interpret responses that are received. If any piece of this skill set is missing, the
quality of the data being gathered can be open to interpretation.

11. Qualitative research is not statistically representative.

The one disadvantage of qualitative research which is always present is its lack of
statistical representation. It is a perspective-based method of research only, which
means the responses given are not measured. Comparisons can be made and this can
lead toward the duplication which may be required, but for the most part, quantitative
data is required for circumstances which need statistical representation and that is not
part of the qualitative research process.

The advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research make it possible to gather

and analyze individualistic data on deeper levels. This makes it possible to gain new
insights into consumer thoughts, demographic behavioral patterns, and emotional
reasoning processes. When a research can connect the dots of each information point
that is gathered, the information can lead to personalized experiences, better value in
products and services, and ongoing brand development.
problems of education in the 21st century

Volume 13, 2009

18Conclusion

Any researcher steeped in the qualitative tradition would certainly take issue with
comments about the similarities between quantitative and qualitative data.

In the end, people who consider themselves primarily qualitative or primarily

quantitative tend to be almost as diverse as those from the opposing camps. There are
qualitative researchers who fit comfortably into the post-positivist tradition common
to much contemporary quantitative research. And there are quantitative researchers
(albeit, probably fewer) who use quantitative information as the basis for exploration,
recognizing the inherent limitations and complex assumptions beneath all numbers. In
either camp, intense and fundamental disagreement about both philosophical
assumptions and the nature of data. Increasingly, there are researchers who are
interested in blending the two traditions, attempting to get the advantages of each.
Social research is richer for the wider variety of views and methods that the analysis
generates. The eclectic approach is thus not an option in educational research

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