The Reproductive

Systems
RIVKA H. BORGER, PA
TOURO COLLEGE
BIOLOGY 102
SPRING 2020
Reproduction

 Reproduction - generation of new individuals from existing ones.

 To understand the process of reproduction, and what it entails, we
need to understand what it entails.
Cell Division

 To understand what cell division is, we need to first differentiate

between the following three terms:
 Growth
 Development
 Reproduction
The
Cell Theory &
Cell Division

 Liv ing beings, unlike nonliv ing things, can produce

more of its own type.

 In 1855, Dr. Rudolf Virchow, a German physician,

stated that "W here a cell exists, there must hav e
been a preexisting cell, just as the animal arises
only from an animal and the plant only from a
plant". He used a Latin expression to express
this: "Om nis cellula e cellula", that ev ery cell arises
from a cell.

 This is all part of the "Cell Theory":

 A cell is the basic unit of life

 All liv ing organisms are made up of cells

 New cells arise only from pre-existing cells

How liv ing beings carry on the continuity of life is

based on cell division - the reproduction of
cells.
 ▪ An increase in size or number

Growth

An increase in size
or number
 Changes through the ages and stages
 Can be from the time the egg is fertilized until death
 Includes all the changes occurring during
childhood, adolescence, adulthood
 Also includes repair which takes place following an injury

Development
Reproduction
 Replication of the genetic material and passing it on
to the next generation

Wiley 2014
Cell Division
Cell Division can include:
 Growth
 Development
 Reproduction
 Tissue Renewal
Reproduction

 There are 2 modes of

reproduction:
 Asexual reproduction -
reproduction of all cells
except gametes, without the
fusion of egg and sperm, the
somatic cells. This is done
through mitosis.
 Sexual reproduction - fusion
of haploid gametes to
form a zygote. This is done
through meiosis.
Mechanisms of
Asexual Reproduction

 For vertebrates, all somatic cells

undergo mitosis and form 2 identical
daughter cells.
 Other mechanisms include:
 Binary fission - splitting and separating of
a parent organism into 2 individuals
of approximately the same size. Bacteria
undergo binary fission.
 Fragmentation and regeneration - The
body breaks into several pieces
and then the parts regenerate into new
organisms. Annelids, earthworms, do
fragmentation and regeneration.
 Pathogenesis - where an egg develops
without being fertilized. This occurs
among bees, wasps, and ants.
Sexual Reproduction

 For many animal species including humans, sexual

reproduction includes the mating of a female and
male. This will inv olve meiosis, which is fusion of
the haploid gametes, the egg and the sperm.
 Fertilization – fusion of the egg and the sperm to form
a diploid cell, the zygote.
 Some species hav e hermaphroditism - both male
and female reproductive systems. For these, any two
indiv iduals can mate.
 Reproduction exists in cycles, often relating to
changing seasons. Cycles are controlled
by hormones. Humans hav e a cycle av eraging 28
days.
 Mid-cycle, the release of a mature egg, is
called ovulation.
Gamete Production and Delivery

 Gonads - organs that

produce gametes. These are
found in many but not all animals.
 Male gonads are the testes which
produce sperm.
 Female gonads are the ovary which
produce eggs.
Human Male
Reproductive
Anatomy
 The male internal reproductive organs consist
of gonads called the testes w hich produce sperm
and reproductive hormones.
 The male external reproductive organs are:
 Scrotum
 Penis
 There are also the:
 Ducts that carry sperm and glandular secretions
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens
 Accessory glands:
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostate
 Bulbourethral glands
Human Male
Reproductive
Physiology
Testes

 Testes - the male gonads, singular testis.

 The hypothalamus produces and secretes Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH) to target the anterior pituitary gland.
 The anterior pituitary gland produces and
secretes Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone
(LH).
 The testes produce sperm in the seminiferous tubules. The Sertoli
cells are part of the seminiferous tubules and aid
in spermatogenesis by nurturing germ cells. They are controlled
by Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). The Leydig cells are located
within the interstitium of the testes between the seminiferous tubules
and they produce testosterone in response to Luteinizing Hormone
(LH).
 Most mammals produce sperm properly only when testes are cooler
than the rest of the body. The testis temperature is maintained at 2
degrees C below the core body temperature of 37 degrees C,
by staying in the scrotum.
 Testes develop in the abdominal cavity and descend into the
scrotum before birth. They can begin descending from as early as 6-
8 weeks of age, but may take longer.
Ducts

 Epididymis - a 6 m length duct where

sperm maturation takes place. Sperm take 3 weeks
to complete sperm maturation and become motile.
 Vas deferens (ductus deferens) - a
muscular duct through which sperm are propelled
during ejaculation.
 Ejaculatory duct - Each vas deferens extends
around and behind the urinary bladder where it
joins a duct from the seminal vesicle and forms
this short duct. These ducts open into the urethra.
 The urethra is the outlet for both excretory and
reproductive systems.
Accessory Glands

 There are 3 sets of accessory glands that combine to

form semen, the fluid which is ejaculated:
 Seminal vesicles - there are two of them. They contribute
about 60% of the volume of semen. Fluid from seminal
vesicles is yellow, thick, and alkaline. The fluid
contains mucus, fructose (to provide the sperm's energy),
a coagulating enzyme, ascorbic acid, and
prostaglandins. The fluid from the seminal vesicles exit
through the ejaculatory ducts.
 Prostate - the prostate secretes its fluid directly into
the urethra through small ducts. The fluid is thin and milky
and contains citrate and an anticoagulant enzyme.
 Bulbourethral glands - these are a pair of glands below
the prostate along the urethra. They secrete clear
mucus before ejaculation that will neutralize any acidic
urine remaining in the urethra.
Pathway of sperm:

 Sperm production in the testes ->

 Sperm maturation in the epididymis (3 weeks) ->
 Vas deferens ->
 Ejaculatory ducts, join up with the
accessory glands:
 Seminal vesicles (60% of semen)
 Prostate ->directly to urethra
 Bulbourethral glands (neutralizes acidic urine)
 Urethra (in penis) -> ejaculation
Human Female Reproductive
Anatomy
 Internal reproductive anatomy:
 The female gonads are a pair of ovaries w hich flank the uterus. They are held in place by ligaments.
 The outer layer of each ov ary is packed with follicles, each has an oocyte, an egg w hich is partially dev eloped and
surrounded by cells.
 An oviduct or fallopian tube extends from the uterus tow ards each ovary. Upon ovulation, cilia on the epithelial lining of the
ov iduct will help collect the egg through drawing fluid from the body cav ity into the tube. This will help mov e the egg down
the ov iduct into the uterus.
 The uterus (also know n as the w omb) is a thick muscular organ. The uterus can expand during pregnancy to
accommodate a fetus (at times more than one).
 The inner lining of the uterus is called the endometrium, and usually this is shed monthly during menstruation. The
endometrium has a rich blood supply.
 The muscular wall of the uterus is called the myometrium. The outer serous layer is called the perimetrium.
 The cervix is the neck of the uterus, and this opens into the vagina which is the entry chamber into the uterus and also serves
as the birth canal.
 External reproductive anatomy:
 The external female genitalia is called the vulva. These help protect the v agina:
 Labia majora - thick ridges, outer lips, protect the rest of the vulva

 Labia manora - thinner skin folds, inner lips, bordering the urethra.
Human Female Reproductive Physiology &
Control of Reproductive Cycles

 Sperm may be produced continuously in human males. In

females, events take place cyclically. There are 2 very closely
linked reproductive cycles in the female, both of which
are controlled by endocrine signaling.
 Ovarian cycle - the cyclic events in the ovary, the follicle
maturing. Once the oocyte is released, then the next cycle takes
place.
 Uterine cycle - this is in humans and some primates. This
involves menstruation, then endometrium thickens and develops a
rich blood supply before being shed if pregnancy does not occur. If
pregnancy does not occur, the endometrial lining is sloughed off
and shed monthly.
Ovarian Cycle

 The hypothalamus will secrete GnRH ->

 This will target the anterior pituitary gland ->
 The anterior pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH ->
 This will target the ovary.
 FSH targets follicle maturation in the first half of the cycle -
the follicular phase.
 LH induces ovulation at the midpoint of the cycle which
induces the luteal phase, the second half of the cycle.
Ovarian Cycle

 Follicular Phase:
 Under the endocrine signaling
of FSH:
 Follicles of the ovary mature from
Primordial follicles
containing primary
oocytes to primary follicles to
secondary follicles (all still
contain primary oocyte).
When follicles reach maturity, they
are called Mature (Graafian)
follicles, and contain secondary
oocytes. They are ready
for ovulation.
Hormones in
the Ovarian
Cycle
 FSH is low in the beginning of the cycle
and peaks mid-cycle when
estradiol rises prior to ov ulation, a higher
estradiol will increase the output of GnRH
which will in turn send out more FSH.
 Estradiol is low in the beginning of the
cycle, but peaks towards the middle of
the cycle as it is secreted by the growing
follicles. This will in turn stimulate
more output of GnRH which will in
turn send out more FSH and more LH.
 LH - there is an LH surge mid cycle, and
this triggers ovulation.
 Progesterone - low the whole first half of
the cycle, but the LH surge will induce
progesterone peak the second half of the
cycle during the luteal phase.
Ovarian Cycle

 Luteal Phase:
 After secondary oocyte is released upon ov ulation, the
remaining follicular tissue forms the corpus luteum, which is
a glandular structure.
 This is stimulated by LH, and now the corpus luteum will
secrete progesterone and estradiol.
 This can exert negative feedback on the hypothalamus
and the pituitary gland. This will reduce LH and FSH
to prevent maturation of another egg
should pregnancy be underway.
 This also promotes thickening of the endometrium.
 If pregnancy does not occur, progesterone and estradiol
levels will drop and the endometrium will slough off at the
end of the cycle.
Ovarian Cycle

 Luteal Phase:
 Hormones:
 LH - the surge triggers ovulation mid cycle in the follicular
phase but will drop in the luteal phase due to the rise in
progesterone and the negative feedback loop.
 FSH - had peaked mid cycle but now
with increased hormones, this causes negative feedback
looping.
 Progesterone - peaked in the luteal phase. This will protect
pregnancy if occurs and will promote thickening of the
endometrium. If no pregnancy, then will drop towards the end
of the cycle.
 Estradiol - peaks mid luteal phase which causes drop in LH and
FSH, causes thickening of endometrium, drops at end of
cycle and frees the hypothalamus and pituitary from negative
feedback.
Uterine Cycle

 Once the ovary follicles mature, the secondary oocyte has been
released through ovulation, and the cycle enters the luteal
phase, the female's reproductive system coordinates with the
uterine cycle as well to allow for menstruation.
 The uterine cycle is divided into two phases:
 Proliferative phase - stimulating growth of the endometrium
 Secretory phase - preparing the uterus for implantation of an
embryo.
 The proliferative phase coordinates with the ovarian follicular
phase.
 The secretory phase coordinates with the ovarian luteal phase.
The Female Menstrual
Cycle
Gametogenesis

 Gametogenesis - production of gametes, for both males and

females.
 Spermatogenesis - production of sperm, under the endocrine
signaling of FSH. This takes place in the testes.
 Oogenesis - development of mature oocytes under the endocrine
signaling of FSH. This takes place in the ovaries.
Spermatogenesis
▪ Spermatogenesis is sperm
formation for the male.
▪ This takes place in the male gonad,
the testes
▪ Stem cells arise from differentiation
and division of primordial germ
cells in the embryonic testes.
▪ These form the spermatogonia
which generate spermatocytes by
mitosis.
▪ Spermatocytes undergo meiosis in
order to produce spermatids
Pearson Education 2017
which differentiate into spem.
Oogenesis

▪ Oogenesis is egg formation in the female

▪ This takes place in the female gonad, the ovary
▪ However, unlike men who produce
sperm continuously once they reach
puberty, women develop their primary oocytes before
birth.
▪ The oogonia are produced from the primordial germ
cells in the female embryo
▪ However, oogonia will mitotically divide to form primary
oocytes which begin meiosis, but they are arrested in
prophase I
▪ At puberty, the primary oocytes resume meiosis and
become secondary oocytes which are arrested mid-
meiosis once more, this time at metaphase II.
▪ The oocyte is released during ovulation. If sperm
penetrates, meiosis II resumes. Pearson Education 2017
Oogenesis

▪ Primary oocytes undergo meiosis I and the resulting cells are haploid
with 23 chromosomes each with the first polar body produced.
▪ With oogenesis, there is unequal cytokinesis with both of the meiotic
divisions and the smaller cells become polar bodies.
▪ A polar body acts as a vessel to discard unused chromosomes
▪ If the egg is fertilized, it resumes Meiosis II after ovulation and a
second polar body is produced after
Pregnancy

 Conception - also called fertilization, occurs when egg

and sperm fuses in an oviduct.
 The zygote will begin a series of cell division
called cleavage (after 24 hours)-> produce a blastocyst
(a sphere of cells surrounding a central cavity) -> embryo
implants in the endometrium a few days later.
 Pregnancy - the condition of carrying one or more
embryos.
 The average human pregnancy is 38 weeks from
fertilization or 40 weeks from the last menstrual period.
 The 9 months of pregnancy are divided into 3 trimesters.
Pregnancy

 First trimester:
 The hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) acts like pituitary LH in
maintaining progesterone and estrogens by the corpus luteum through the first
months of pregnancy.
 Human hCG can be used as an early pregnancy test since it passes from the
maternal blood to the urine.
 During the first 2-4 weeks,vthe embryo obtains nutrients from the endomet rium.
 The outer layer of the blastocyst, the trophoblast, grows outward and
helps form the placenta.
 The placenta enables diffusion of material between maternal and embryonic
circulation.
 The first trimester is the main period of organogenesis, the development of the
body organs.
 Occasionally, the embryo splits during the first month of development which
results in identical - monozygotic – twins.
 At 8 weeks all the major structures are formed and the embryo is now called
a fetus.
 The fetus is about 5 cm in length at the end of the first trimester.
Pregnancy

 Third Trimester:
 Fetus grows to about 3-4 kg
in weight, 50 cm in length.
 Fetal activity decreases dues
to filling up all available
space.
 Mother's abdominal
organs become
compressed and displaced,
leading to frequent
urination.
Pregnancy

 Second Trimester:
 The fetus grows to about 30 cm in length.
 The fetus continues with
development of external sex
organs, fingernails, outer ears, etc.
 Mother feels fetal movements.
 Hormones stabilize as hCG declines. The
corpus luteum deteriorates.
 The placenta takes over the role
of progesterone production which is the
hormone that maintains pregnancy.
Childbirth
 Childbirth begins with labor - a series of strong rhythmic uterine
contractions which push the fetus and placenta out of the
body.
 Once labor begins, prostaglandins and hormones - estradiol
and oxytocin induce and regulate further contractions.
 This involves a positive feedback loop stimulating further
uterine contractions.
 There are 3 stages of labor:
 First stage - thinning and dilation of the cervix
 Second stage - delivery of the baby
 Third stage - delivery of the placenta
 After childbirth, oxytocin will continue to be released from the
posterior pituitary gland to target the mammary glands for
milk ejection.
 Milk ejection (oxytocin) plus milk production (under prolactin
control) = lactation.
 Reproduction

 What does reproduction mean?

 What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction and the
different categories of those?
 What are the gonads? Which are for male and which are for female?
 What is the male reproductive anatomy? How is sperm produced and how
does sperm trav el? Which hormone influence male physiology?
 What is the female reproductive anatomy?
 What is the difference between the ov arian and uterine cycle?
 What happens in the follicular phase and the luteal phase of the
ov arian cycle? Which hormones peak at which times?
 What happens during the uterine cycle and how does it correlate to different
aspects of the ov arian cycle?
 What is gametogenesis? How does spermatogenesis differ from oogenesis?

 What are the three trimesters of pregnancy and w hat happens in each one?
 What are the three stages of labor?
 What is the influence of oxytocin on labor and after childbirth?
• Urry, L.A. (2017). Campbell Biology (11 ed., Vol., pp.). New York, NY : Pearson Higher
Education .
• Mader , S. (2018). Human Biology (15 ed., Vol., pp.). New York, NY : McGraw Hill .
• Tortora, J. (2014) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (14th Ed.) Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and
Sons

References