Questions from Lecture 1 and 2 (Please attempt these questions in the last)

Question Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process

Answer The different steps involved in a research process
1. Formulating the research problem;
2. Extensive literature survey;
3. Developing the hypothesis;
4. Preparing the research design;
5. Determining sample design;
6. Collecting the data;
7. Execution of the project;
8. Analysis of data;
9. Hypothesis testing;
10. Generalizations and interpretation,
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.

Question What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
Answer As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of
1. Enunciating the problem,
2. Formulating a hypothesis,
3. Collecting the facts or data,
4. Analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either:

a) in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or

b) in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

Question Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.

Answer Research Methods versus Methodology Definitions
• Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used
to conduct research.
• Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
• Research methodology not only talk of the research methods but also consider the
logic behind the methods in the context of our research study and
• Explain/justify the basis of selection of a particular method or technique i.e. why we
are not using other methods?
Research Methods
 • Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used
to conduct research.
• Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
• In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course
of studying his research problem are termed as research methods.
• Since the objective of research, particularly the applied research, is to arrive at a
solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the
problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
• Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained

Research methodology not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods in the context of our research study and
• Explain/justify the basis of selection of a particular method or technique i.e. why we
are not using other methods?
• Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how
to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and
indicate and why.
• Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques
and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. (*Ansys*)

Question Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference
between an experiment and a survey.
Answer The basic types of research are as follows: (DAQC)

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:

2. Applied vs Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
4) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:

a. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds.
b. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present.
 c. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
d. Such “ex post facto research” projects are used for descriptive studies in which
the researcher seeks to measure items such as, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data.
e. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes
even when they cannot control the variables.
f. The methods of research are survey, including comparative and correlational
methods.
g. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation
of the material.

2. Applied vs Fundamental
a) Fundamental research is also called Basic Research.
b) “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
c) Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization, whereas
d) fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory.
e) Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the marketing research or evaluation research are
examples of applied research.
f) Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem, Whereas
g) Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

a) Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
b) Quantitative research involve formal, objective information about the world,
with mathematical quantification; it can be used to describe test relationships
and to examine cause and effect relationships.
c) Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
d) For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
 e) ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research, which aims
at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews
for the purpose.
f) Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior.

4) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

a) Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

b) It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to

reinterpret existing ones.

c) On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation

alone, often without due regard for system and theory.

d) It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of

being verified by observation or experiment.

e) In Empirical research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.

f) He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.

g) He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the

persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.

h) Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the

variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study
its effects.

i) Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables

affect other variables in some way.

j) Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today

considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis
5) Some Other Types of Research:
1. All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of
some other similar factor

2. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation

research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.

3. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such

research follow case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal
relations.
Research Approaches
We have seen that there are two basic approaches of research: Quantitative approach
and Qualitative approach.
The Quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form which
can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. The
Quantitative approach can be further sub-classified into Inferential, Experimental, and
Simulation approaches to research. The purpose of inferential approach is to form a data base
from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey
research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its
characteristics, It is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.

• Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research

environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables (* Making of better quality bricks –Saving Energy and cost *)
• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within
which relevant information and data can be generated. (* Thermal Conductivity
Experiment *)
• This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system)
under controlled conditions.
• The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications
refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a
dynamic process.
• Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a
simulation is run to represent the behavior of the process over time.”
• Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future
conditions

• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of

attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation is a function of
researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an approach to research generates results
either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis.

• Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.

5. Determining Sample Design:

• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry.
• It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no
element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
• But in practice this may not be true, since the slightest element of bias in such
an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.
• Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except
through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
• The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into
consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

Question Write short notes on: Design of the research project;

 •After finalizing the research problem, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted.
•The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information.
•In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
•The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research
problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:

i. The means of obtaining the information;

ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
iii. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining
information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the
selection;
iv. The time available for research; and
iv. the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the
purpose

Question Write short notes on: Ex post facto research ;

“” projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher
seeks to measure items such as, frequency of shopping, preferences of people,
or similar data.
Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover
causes even when they cannot control the variables.
Question Write short notes on: Motivation in research;
1. Desire to be of service to society;

2. Desire to get respectability

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,

concern over practical problems initiates’ research;

5. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

Question Write short notes on: Objectives of research;

• The Objective of research is to discover answers to questions through
the application of scientific procedures.
 • The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.

• Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groups:
1. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(hypothesis-testing research studies)
2. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else (diagnostic
research studies);
3. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (exploratory or formulative research studies);
4. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (descriptive research studies);
Question Write short notes on: Criteria of good research; (SLER)
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with
specified steps tobe taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well
defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out
creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition
in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the

rules of logicalreasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction
are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very
premise.In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.

3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically

to one or moreaspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that
provides a basis for externalvalidity to research results.

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results

to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for
decisions.

Question Write short notes on: Research and scientific method.

• The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.

• For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the
meaning of scientific method. Scientific method is the philosophy
common to all research methods and techniques, although they may
vary considerably from one science to another.
 • According to Karl Pearson “The scientific method is one and same in
the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically
trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods,
not its material…”

• The scientific method is a tool that helps scientists and the rest of us to
solve problems and determine answers to questions in a logical format.

• It provides step-by-step, general directions to help us work through

problems.

• Following are steps of scientific methods used in science/engineering

o Identify a problem. Pursuit of truth as determined by logical

considerations.

o Research the problem. (Lit Svy)

o Formulate a hypothesis. Logic aids in formulating propositions

explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives
become clear.

o Conduct an experiment-Experimentation is done to test

hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among
variables. Reach a conclusion. Without perceptions, bias, etc.
1. Example: You hear continuous or discrete knocking sound
while driving your car –How will you address this
situation???
• Research, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons
for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances,
whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded
just as they occur.

• Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than

particular results; he is interested in

o repeatability of the results and

o in their extension to more complicated and general situations.”

Question In a research project intended to gather data on the effects of type of study method
on examination performance, participants are randomly assigned to one of two
conditions. In one condition they study alone, using notes they took during class
lectures.In a second condition participants study ininteractive groups with notes
from class lectures. The amount of time spent studyingis held constant. All
students then take thesame exam. In this study:
a) What is the independent variable?
b) What is the dependent variable?
c) Identify the control and experimental groups.
 d) Is the independent variable manipulated, or is it a participant variable?
Answer In this case:-
e) Time of study is the independent variable.
f) Result of students is the dependent variable.
g) Both groups are Identified the control groups.
h) It a participant variable.

Questions from Lecture 3 and 3_1

Kothari Page No. 52
Q 1 Explain the meaning and significance of a Research design. Give features of good
research design
Answer Meaning of Research Design
• The preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the
“Research Design”.

• “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”

• Another definition, “Research Design refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of
research -the blueprint that will guide the research process ”In fact, the research
design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

• The design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.

• More explicitly, the decisions happen to be in respect of:

1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research
design into the following parts:
 a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;
b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
c) The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.

• So important features of a research design as under:

i. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
ii. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
iii. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.
• In brief, research design must, at least, contain—
1. A clear statement of the research problem;
2. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
3. Population to be studied; and
4. Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

Q2 Explain the meaning of the following in context of Research design.

(a) Extraneous variables;
• Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous
variables.

• Extraneous variables are any variables that you are not intentionally
studying in your experiment or test.

• When you run an experiment, you are looking to see if one variable
(independent variable) has an effect on another variable (i.e. dependent
variable).

• During experiment, you discover that some other variable influence the
outcome of an experiment. These undesirable variables are called
extraneous variables.

(b) Confounded relationship;

• As discussed earlier, when the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the
dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an
extraneous variable(s).

(c) Research hypothesis;

 • When a prediction or a hypothesized (What we call “gap”, in research),
the relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as
research hypothesis.

• The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an

independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research
hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one
dependent variable.

• Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the

relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are not termed
research hypotheses.
(d) Experimental and Control groups;
• In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is
exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when
the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an
‘experimental group’.

• In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and
the Group B an experimental group.

• If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programs, then

both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’

• It is possible to design studies which include only experimental groups

or studies which include both experimental and control groups.

Q3 Describe some of the important research designs used in experimental

hypothesis-testing research study.
Answer Experimental design refers to structure of an experiment of the important
research designs used in experimental hypothesis-testing research study are:
a) Informal experimental designs:
i. Before-and-after without control design.
ii. After-only with control design.
iii. Before-and-after with control design.

b) Formal experimental designs:

i. Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
ii. Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
iii. Latin square design (L.S. Design).
iv. Factorial designs.

4. “Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it must
minimize bias and maximize reliability.” Discuss.
Answer Blank
5 Explain and illustrate the Informal experimental designs.
Answer Before-and-after without control design:
•In such a design a single test group or area is selected

•The dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment.

•The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again after the
treatment.

•The difference between the two variables (i.e. before and after treatment) is equal to the
effect of the treatment

•The design can be represented thus:

•Drawback of this approach is “Extraneous variation” may be there, and not accounted for

•Example –Demonstrate Hook’s Law in Lab –But if I want to verify elasticity of some
material with the same equipment, what will be extraneous variables?
2. After-only with control design:
•In this design two groups or areas (test area and control area) are selected and the treatment
is introduced into the test area only.

•The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the same time.

•Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the
control area from its value in the test area.

•This can be exhibited in the following form:

•The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with respect to their
behavior towards the phenomenon considered.

•If this assumption is not true, there is the possibility of extraneous variation entering into the
treatment effect.

•However, data can be collected in such a design without the introduction of problems with
the passage of time.
3. Before and after with Control Design
•In this design two areas are selected, and the dependent variable is measured in both the
areas for an identical time-period before the treatment.

•The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is
measured in both for an identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment.

•The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the
control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.

•This design is superior to the above two designs for the simple reason that it avoids
extraneous variation resulting both from the passage of time and from non-comparability of
the test and control areas.

•But at times, due to lack of historical data, time or a comparable control area, we should
prefer to select one of the first two informal designs stated above.

From Sherri L Jackson

Q4 What do you understand by reliability and validity – How can you determine
reliability and validity
Answer Reliability is An indication of the consistency or stability of a measuring
instrument.

• In other words, the measuring instrument must measure exactly the same way every
time it is used.

• This consistency means that individuals should receive a similar output each time they
use the measuring instrument.

• For example, a bathroom scale needs to be reliable, that is, it needs to measure the
same way every time an individual uses it, Otherwise it is useless as a measuring
instrument.

• The conceptual formula for reliability is:

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦=𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒/𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒+𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
• A reduction in error leads to an increase in reliability, i.e. if there is no error,
reliability is equal to 1.00, the highest possible reliability score.
 • As error increases, reliability drops –The greater the error, the lower the reliability of
a measure
VALIDITY
• In addition to being reliable, measures must also be valid.
• Validity refers to whether a (statistical or scientific) study is able to draw conclusions
that are in agreement with statistical and scientific laws.
• This means if a conclusion is drawn from a given data set after experimentation, it is
said to be scientifically valid if the conclusion drawn from the experiment is scientific
and relies on mathematical and statistical laws.
• There are several types of validity;
• Like reliability, validity is measured by the use of correlation coefficients.
• For instance, if researchers developed a new test to measure any parameter, (such as
depression), they might establish the validity of the test by correlating scores on the
new test with scores on an already established measure of depression, and as with
reliability we would expect the correlation to be positive.
• Coefficients as low as 0.20 or 0.30 may establish the validity of a measure (Anastasi
& Urbina, 1997).
• In brief it means that the results are most likely not due to chance

Solve Critical thinking questions 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2

Q 5.1. Provide several operational definitions of anxiety. Include nonverbal
measures and physiological measures. How would your operational definitions differ
from a dictionary definition?
1. Nonverbal measures:
• Number of twitches per minute
• Number of fingernails chewed to the quick
2. Physiological measures:
• Blood pressure
• Heart rate
• Respiration rate
• Galvanic skin response
These definitions are quantifiable and based on measurable events. They are not conceptual
as a dictionary definition would be.
Q 5.2. Identify the scale of measurement for each of the following variables:
a. zip code
b. grade of egg (large, medium, small)
c. reaction time
d. score on the SAT
e. class rank
f. number on a football jersey
g. miles per gallon
Answer
a. nominal
 b. ordinal
c. ratio
d. interval
e. ordinal
f. nominal
g. ratio
Q 6.1. Which types of measures are considered more subjective? Which are
more objective?

Answer 1. Self-report measures and behavioral measures are more subjective; tests and
physical measures are more objective.
Q 6.2 Why might there be measurement error even when a researcher uses an
objective measure such as a blood pressure cuff? What would you recommend to
control or to minimize this type of measurement error?
2. The machine may not be operating correctly, or the person operating the machine may not
be using it correctly. Recommendations: proper training of individuals taking the measures;
checks on equipment; multiple measuring instruments; multiple measures.

Question Why does alternate-forms reliability provide a measure of both

equivalency of items and stability over time?
Answer: Because different questions on the same topic are used, alternative-forms
reliability tells us whether the questions measure the same concepts (equivalency). Whether
individuals perform similarly on equivalent tests at different times indicates the stability of a
test.
Question Two people observe whether or not vehicles stop at a stop sign. They
make 250 observations and disagree 38 times. What is the interrater reliability?
Is this good, or should it be of concern to the researchers?
Answer: If they disagreed 38 times out of 250 times, then they agreed 212 times out of
250 times. Thus, 212/250= 0.85x100= 85%, which is very high inter rater agreement.
Question You have just developed a new comprehensive test for introductory
psychology that covers all aspects of the course. What type(s) of validity would
you recommend establishing for this measure?
1. Content and construct validity should be established for the new test.

Question Why is face validity not considered a true measure of validity?

Ans. Face validity has to do only with whether a test looks valid, not with whether it truly
is valid.

Question How is it possible for a test to be reliable but not valid?

Ans. A test can consistently measure something other than what it claims to measure.

Question If on your next psychology examination you find that all of the questions
are about American history rather than psychology, would you be more
concerned about the reliability or validity of the test?

Ans. You should be more concerned about the validity of the test because it does not
measure what it claims to measure.
Questions from Chapter 4 (Module 7, Observational and Qualitative Methods)
Question Explain with example, how Qualitative research differs from how
Quantitative research.
Answer When comparing Qualitative vs Quantitative research, one come across the
Qualitative research A type of social research based on field observations that is analyzed
without the use of statistics, whereas quantitative researcher typically starts with a hypothesis
for testing, observes and collects data, statistically analyzes the data, and draws conclusions.
• Qualitative research usually takes place in the field or wherever the participants
normally conduct their activities.
• Researchers are more interested in interpreting and making sense of what they
have observed.
• Qualitative research entails observation and/or unstructured interviewing in
natural settings thus, the data are collected in a spontaneous and open-ended
fashion.
• Consequently, these methods have far less structure and control than do
quantitative methods
• Qualitative researchers are far less structured and go more with the flow of the
research setting and the participants.
• Qualitative research has been more commonly used by social researchers –
sociologists, psychiatrists, etc.

Question How does using a narrative record differ from using a checklist? Give
advantages/ disadvantages of narrative record and checklist.
Answer
Narrative records are full narrative descriptions of a participant s behavior. These records
may be created in a direct manner by taking notes or in an indirect manner by audio-or
videotaping the participants and then taking notes later.
Checklists A more structured and objective method of collecting data involves using a
checklist, a check list is a sheet on which the researcher records attributes of the participants
and whether particular behaviors were observed.

• Narrative records are full narrative descriptions of a participant s behavior.

• These records may be created in a direct manner by taking notes or in an indirect
manner by audio-or videotaping the participants and then taking notes later.
• The purpose of narrative records is to capture completely everything the
participant said or did during a specified period of time
• Although narrative records provide a complete account of what took place with
each participant in a study, they are a very subjective means of collecting data.
• In addition, narrative records cannot be analyzed quantitatively.

• To be analyzed, the data must be coded in some way that reduces the huge volume
of narrative information to a more manageable quantitative form.

• The data should be coded by more than one person to establish interrater
reliability
 • Checklists A more structured and objective method of collecting data involves
using a checklist,
• A check list is a sheet on which the researcher records attributes of the participants
and whether particular behaviors were observed.

• Checklists enable researchers to focus on a limited number of specific behaviors

• Researchers use two basic types of items on checklists.

• A static item is a means of collecting data on characteristics that do not change
while the observations are being made, These may include how many people are
present; the gender, race, and age of the participant;
• The second type of item used on a checklist, an action item, is used to record
whether specific behaviors are present or absent during the observational time
period. Action items could be used to record the type of stop made at a stop sign
(complete, rolling, or none)

Question Imagine that you want to study cell phone use by drivers. You decide to
conduct an observational study of drivers by making observations at three
locations a busy intersection, an entrance/exit to a shopping mall parking lot,
and a residential intersection. You are interested in the number of people
who use cell phones while driving. How would you recommendconducting
this study? How would you recommend collecting the data? What concerns
do you need to take into consideration? (Pl. note this question has already
been asked, but a similar one can be expected)
Answer This research might best be conducted by means of some form of naturalistic
observation. It would probably be best to use a disguised type of observation, either
nonparticipant or participant. Thus the researcher could have data collectors stationed at all of
the locations of interest. These individuals could either be hidden or appear to be part of the
normal environment. In either case it would not be noticeable that they were collecting data.
With respect to data collection, if the data recorders were hidden, a checklist could be used.
However, if the data recorders were disguised participants, then a narrative record might be
best so that drivers would not notice that they were being observed; the person collecting the
data could either use a hidden audio recorder or communicate with another individual via a
cell phone. The concerns would be those already indicated. Should you use a disguised
nonparticipant observation or a disguised participant observation? Also the type of data
collection used depends on which of the two previous methods was used.
Questions from M8, M8_1 – Survey Methods and Sampling Design (Module 8, Kothari
Chapter 4)
Question How is stratified random sampling different from random sampling?
Answer
•A stratified random sample allows us to take into account the different subgroups of
people in the population and to guarantee that the sample accurately represents the population
on specific characteristics.

• We begin by dividing the population into strata or subsamples.

• In our example the strata (men and women) are based on gender.
• We then randomly select 70% of our sample from the female stratum and 30% of
our sample from the male stratum.
• In this manner we ensure that the characteristic of gender in the sample is
representative of the population.

•A random sample is achieved through random selection in which each member of the
population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample.
• Say we start with a population of 300 students enrolled in introductory psychology
classes at a university.
• How should we go about selecting a random sample of 30 students?
• We do not want simply to take one 30-person section of introductory statistics
because depending on the instructor and the time of day of the class, there could
be biases in who registered for this section.
• If it is an early morning class, it could represent students who like to get up early
or those who registered for classes so late that nothing else was available. Thus
these students would not be representative of all students in introductory statistics

Question What are the problems with the following survey questions? (See Answers
below)
1 Do you agree that school systems should be given more money for computers and
recreational activities? (A loaded question includes non-neutral or emotionally
laden terms.)
2 Do you favor eliminating the wasteful excesses in the city budget? ( A loaded
question includes non-neutral or emotionally laden terms.)
3 Most people feel that teachers are underpaid. Do you agree? (A leading question
sways the respondent to answer in a desired manner.)

Question What common mistakes one can do with respect to questions, while designing
a questionnaire.
Answer When researchers write survey items, it is very important that their wording
not mislead the respondent; several types of questions can do just that.
• A loaded question includes non-neutral or emotionally laden terms.
o For example, a question: “Do you believe radical extremists should be allowed
to burn the American flag?”
 o The phrase radical extremists load the question emotionally, conveying the
opinion of the person who wrote the question.
• A leading question sways the respondent to answer in a desired manner.
o For example, most people agree that conserving energy is important. Do you
agree?
o The phrase most people agree encourages the respondent to agree also.
• A double-barreled question asks more than one thing. Double barreled questions
often include the word “and” or “or”.
o For example, the question is double-barreled: “Do you find using a cell phone
to be convenient and time-saving?”
o This question should be divided into two separate items, one addressing the
convenience of cell phones and one addressing whether they save time.
Questions from Assignment 3
Question 1 Under what circumstances stratified random sampling design is considered
appropriate? How would you select such sample? Explain by means of an example.
Answer If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally adopted to obtain a
representative sample.
• Population is divided into several sub-populations that are individually more
homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-populations are called
‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample.
• In this way, we are able to get precise estimates for each stratum and by estimating
more accurately each of the component parts; we get a better estimate of the whole.
• Therefore, stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed information.
• We shall discuss the following:
1. How to form strata?
2. How should items be selected from each stratum?
3. How many items be selected from each stratum or how to allocate the sample
size of each stratum?
 𝑛1=30×4000/8000=15,
𝑛2=30×2400/8000=9
𝑛3=30×1600/8000=6
Question 2 Distinguish between:
(a) Restricted and unrestricted sampling;
Restricted sampling occurs when elements are chosen using a specific methodology
as in probability sampling or complex probability sampling. Whereas, unrestricted
sampling occurs when elements are selected individually and directly from the
population

(b) Convenience and purposive sampling;

Convenience sampling involves getting participants wherever you can find them and
normally wherever is convenient. This method is sometimes referred to as haphazard
sampling. Say you wanted a sample of 100 college students. You could stand outside
the library and ask people who pass by to participate, or you could ask students in
some of your classes to participate. This approach might sound similar to cluster
sampling, but there is a difference. With cluster sampling we try to identify clusters
that are representative of the population. With convenience sampling, however, we
simply use whoever is available as a participant in the study.
Purposive or purposeful sampling is a form of non-random sampling that requires,
at a minimum, establishing criteria for who will be included in the sample, i.e., stating
who will meet your purpose. In contrast, convenience sampling is taking anyone who
happens to be available.
(c) Systematic and stratified sampling;
With stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups, based on some
characteristic. Then, within each group, a probability sample (often a simple random
sample) is selected. In stratified sampling, the groups are called strata. As an example,
suppose we conduct a national survey.
(d) Cluster and area sampling.
Cluster sampling refers to a type of sampling method. With cluster sampling, the
researcher divides the population into separate groups, called clusters. Then, a simple
random sample of clusters is selected from the population. The researcher conducts
his analysis on data from the sampled clusters.
Cluster Sampling -If the population is too large for random sampling of any sort, we
use Cluster Sampling.

Cluster sampling involves using participants who are already part of a group, or
cluster –i.e. before sampling, we divide the population into group or clusters

For example, if you were interested in surveying students at a large university where
it might not be possible to use true random sampling, you might sample from classes
that are required by all students at the university such as English composition.

If the classes are required to all students, they should contain a good mix of students,
and if you use several classes, the sample should represent the population.

Question 3 Under what circumstances would you recommend a probability sample?

Answer When researchers use probability sampling, each member of the population
has an equal likelihood of being selected to be part of the sample.
• We discuss three types of probability sampling:
 o Random sampling,
o Stratified random sampling, and
o Cluster sampling.
A random sample is achieved through random selection in which each member of the
population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample.

A stratified random sample allows us to take into account the different subgroups of people
in the population and to guarantee that the sample accurately represents the population on
specific characteristics.

•We begin by dividing the population into strata or subsamples.

•In our example the strata (men and women) are based on gender.

•We then randomly select 70% of our sample from the female stratum and 30% of our sample
from the male stratum.

•In this manner we ensure that the characteristic of gender in the sample is representative of
the population.

Cluster Sampling -If the population is too large for random sampling of any sort, we use
Cluster Sampling.

• Cluster sampling involves using participants who are already part of a group, or
cluster –i.e. before sampling, we divide the population into group or clusters

• For example, if you were interested in surveying students at a large university where
it might not be possible to use true random sampling, you might sample from classes
that are required of all students at the university such as English composition.
Question 3 Under what circumstances would you recommend a non-probability sample?
Non probability sampling is used when the individual members of the population do not
have an equal likelihood of being selected to be a member of the sample.
• Non probability sampling is typically used because it tends to be less expensive and
generating samples is easier.
• We discuss two types of no probability sampling: Convenience sampling and Quota
sampling.
• Convenience sampling involves getting participants wherever you can find them and
normally wherever is convenient.
• This method is sometimes referred to as haphazard sampling.
• Say you wanted a sample of 100 college students. You could stand outside the library
and ask people who pass by to participate, or you could ask students in some of your
classes to participate.
• This approach might sound similar to cluster sampling, but there is a difference.
• With cluster sampling we try to identify clusters that are representative of the
population. With convenience sampling, however, we simply use whoever is available
as a participant in the study.
• Quota sampling involves ensuring that the sample is like the population on certain
characteristics.
 • However, even though we try to ensure similarity with the population on certain
characteristics, we do not sample from the population randomly.
• We simply take participants wherever we find them, based on our convenience
• Thus this method is slightly better than convenience sampling, but there is still not
much effort devoted to creating a sample that is truly representative of the population
nor one in which all members of the population have an equal chance of being
selected for the sample.

Question 3 Under what circumstances would you recommend a stratified sample?

Answer A stratified random sample allows us to take into account the different
subgroups of people in the population and to guarantee that the sample accurately represents
the population on specific characteristics.

• We begin by dividing the population into strata or subsamples.

• In our example the strata (men and women) are based on gender.

• We then randomly select 70% of our sample from the female stratum and 30% of our
sample from the male stratum.

• In this manner we ensure that the characteristic of gender in the sample is

representative of the population.

Question 3 Under what circumstances would you recommend a cluster sample?

Answer Cluster Sampling -If the population is too large for random sampling of any
sort, we use Cluster Sampling.

• Cluster sampling involves using participants who are already part of a group, or
cluster –i.e. before sampling, we divide the population into group or clusters

• For example, if you were interested in surveying students at a large university where it
might not be possible to use true random sampling, you might sample from classes that
are required of all students at the university such as English composition.
Question 3 Under what circumstances would you recommend a non-probability
sample?
Non probability Sampling is used when the individual members of the population do not
have an equal likelihood of being selected to be a member of the sample.
• Non probability sampling is typically used because it tends to be less expensive and
generating samples is easier.
We discuss two types of non probability sampling, Convenience sampling and Quota
sampling.
• Convenience sampling involves getting participants wherever you can find them and
normally wherever is convenient.
• This method is sometimes referred to as haphazard sampling.
• Say you wanted a sample of 100 college students. You could stand outside the library
and ask people who pass by to participate, or you could ask students in some of your
classes to participate.
• This approach might sound similar to cluster sampling, but there is a difference.
 • With cluster sampling we try to identify clusters that are representative of the
population. With convenience sampling, however, we simply use whoever is available
as a participant in the study.

•Quota sampling involves ensuring that the sample is like the population on certain
characteristics.

• However, even though we try to ensure similarity with the population on certain
characteristics, we do not sample from the population randomly.
• We simply take participants wherever we find them, based on our convenience
• Thus this method is slightly better than convenience sampling, but there is still not
much effort devoted to creating a sample that is truly representative of the population
nor one in which all members of the population have an equal chance of being
selected for the sample.

Question 4 “A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures”. What do
you mean by such a systematic bias? Describe the important causes responsible for such a
bias. Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for
these errors can be detected and corrected. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the
questionnaire or the interviewer is biased.
Answer Response bias
Lastly, when writing a survey, the researcher should also be concerned with participants who
employ a particular response set or response bias, response bias, is tendency to consistently
give the same answer to almost all the items on a survey, i.e. just “yes” to every question (or
“no”) This happens, when respondent, agree to one or two questions, but to make answering
the survey easier on themselves, they simply respond yes (or no) to almost all of the
questions.

Question 5 (a) The following are the number of departmental stores in 10 cities: 35, 27,
24, 32, 42, 30, 34, 40, 29 and 38. If we want to select a sample of 15 stores using cities as
clusters and selecting within clusters proportional to size, how many stores from each
city should be chosen? (Use a starting point of 4).
Answer Let us put the information as under (as indicated in the table):
Since in the given problem, we have 321 departmental stores from which we have to select a
sample of 15 stores, the appropriate sampling interval is 21. As we have to use the starting
point of 4*, so we add successively increments of 21 till 15 numbers have been selected. The
numbers, thus, obtained are: 4, 25, 46, 88, 109, 130, 151, 172, 193, 214, 235, 256,277 and
297 which have been shown in the last column of the table against the concerning cumulative
totals. From this we can say that two stores should be selected randomly from city number 3,
5,6,7,9 and one each from city number 1, 2, 4, 8 and 10. This sample of 15 stores is the
sample with probability proportional to size.

City No No of Departmental Cumulative Sample S1 S2

Stores total size
1 35 35 4,25 4 25
2 27 52 46 46
3 24 76 67 67
4 32 108 88 88
5 42 150 109,130 109 130
 6 30, 180 151,172 151 172
7 34 214 193,214 193 214
8 40 254 235 235
9 29 283 256.277 256 277
10 38 321 298 298

(b) What sampling design might be used to estimate the weight of a group of men and
women?
Answer A stratified random sampling design is recommended to estimate the weight of
a group of men and women.

Question 6 A certain population is divided into five strata so that N1 = 2000, N2 =

2000, N3 = 1800, N4 = 1700, and N5 = 2500. Respective standard deviations are: σ1 =
1.6, σ2 = 2.0, σ3 = 4.4, σ4 = 4.8 and σ5 = 6.0 and further the expected sampling cost in
the first two strata is Rs 4 per interview and in the remaining three strata the sampling
cost is Rs 6 per interview. How should a sample of size n = 226 be allocated to five strata
if we adopt proportionate sampling design; if we adopt disproportionate sampling
design considering (i) only the differences in stratum variability (ii) differences in
stratum variability as well as the differences in stratum sampling costs
Answer Using the disproportionate sampling design for optimum allocation, the
sample sizes for different strata will be determined as under:
N1 = 2000, N2 = 2000, N3 = 1800, N4 = 1700, and N5 = 2500.
σ1 = 1.6, σ2 = 2.0, σ3 = 4.4, σ4 = 4.8 and σ5 = 6.0
Sampling cost in the first two strata is Rs 4 per interview and in the remaining three strata the
sampling cost is Rs 6 per interview
n = 226
Disproportionate Allocation
Sample size for strata with N1 = 2000

226(2000)(1.6)
n1=------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2000)(1.6)+(2000)(2.0)+(1800)(4.4)+(1700)(4.8)+(2500)(6)
n1 = 18.2923

Sample size for strata with N2 = 2000

226(2000)(2.0)
n2=------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2000)(1.6)+(2000)(2.0)+(1800)(4.4)+(1700)(4.8)+(2500)(6)
n2 = 23.61

Sample size for strata with N3 = 1800

226(1800)(4.4)
n3=-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2000)(1.6)+(2000)(2.0)+(1800)(4.4)+(1700)(4.8)+(2500)(6)
n3 = 46.75

Sample size for strata with N4 = 1700

226(1700)(4.8)
n4=----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2000)(1.6)+(2000)(2.0)+(1800)(4.4)+(1700)(4.8)+(2500)(6)
n4 = 48.175

Sample size for strata with N5 = 2500

226(2500)(6.0)
n5=---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2000)(1.6)+(2000)(2.0)+(1800)(4.4)+(1700)(4.8)+(2500)(6)
n5 = 88.557

Part b In addition to differences in stratum size and differences in stratum variability,

we may have differences in stratum sampling cost, then we can have cost optimal
disproportionate sampling design by requiring

n1 = n2 = ……………….. = nk

N1 σ1√ C1N2 σ2√ C2N3 σ3√ C3

Where,
C1=Cost of sampling in stratum 1
C2=Cost of sampling in stratum 2
Ck=Cost of sampling in stratum k
And all other terms remain the same as explained earlier. The allocation in such a situation
results in the following formula for determining the sample sizes for different strata.
Questions from ChapterM9_Conducting Co relational Research –(Module 9)
Question A health club recently conducted a study of its members and found a positive
relationship between exercise and health. It was claimed that the correlation
coefficient between the variables of exercise and health was 1.25. What is
wrong with this statement? In addition, it was stated that this finding proved
that an increase in exercise increases health. What is wrong with this
statement?
Answer The first problem is with the correlation coefficient that was calculated.
Correlation coefficients can vary between 1.0 and 1.0. They cannot be greater than
1.0. Thus the calculated correlation coefficient is incorrect. Second, correlation
does not mean causation, and observing a correlation between exercise and health
does not mean that we can conclude that exercise causes better health; they are
simply related.
Question We have mentioned several times that there is a fairly strong positive
correlation between SAT scores and freshman GPAs. The admissions process
for graduate school is based on a similar test, the GRE, which like the SAT
has a total point range of 400 to 1,600. Let us assume that graduate schools
do not accept anyone who scores below 1,000 and that a GPA below 3.00
represents failing work in graduate school. What would we expect the
correlation betweenGRE scores and graduate school GPAs to belike in
comparison to the correlation between SAT scores and college GPAs? Why
would we expect this?
Answer We would expect the correlation between GRE scores and graduate school GPAs
to be much lower than that between SAT scores and undergraduate GPAs because
both GRE scores and graduate school GPAs are restricted in range.

Question Discuss the factors that may lead to misinterpretation of correlation.

Answer Blank
Question General State University officials recently investigated the relationship
between SAT scores and GPAs (at graduation) for its senior class. They were
surprised to find a weak correlation between these two variables. They know
they have a grade inflation problem (the whole senior class graduated with
GPAs of 3.0 or higher), but they are unsure how this might help account for
the low correlation observed. Can you explain?
Answer General State University officials observed such a weak correlation between
GPAs and SAT scores because of a restrictive range on the GPA variable.
Because of grade inflation, the whole senior class graduated with a GPA of 3.0 or
higher. This restriction on one of the variables lessens the opportunity to observe a
Correlation .
Question Draw a scatterplot representing a strong negative correlation between
depression and self-esteem. Make sure you label the axes correctly. (Use
 random number generator, for data)

Questions from ChapterM15_Analysing Data –(Module 15) (Kothari 7)

Question “Processing of data implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation”.
Describe in brief these four operations pointing out the significance of each in
context of research study.
Answer Processing of Data
1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in
surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of
fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules

2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should
be appropriate to the research problem under consideration.

3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be
reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This requires (a)
Arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics (b) Data having a
common characteristic to be placed in one class.

4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. Tabulation is the
process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form
of statistical tables) for further analysis.

Question Classification according to class intervals involves three main problems viz.,
how many classes should be there? How to choose class limits? How to
determine class frequency? State how these problems should be tackled by a
researcher.
Question What is the difference between survey and experiment?
Answer Difference Between Survey and Experiment
1. Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies where as experiments
are a part of experimental research studies

2. Survey-type research studies usually have larger samples because the percentage of
responses generally happens to be low(Typically 20% --30%) As against this, experimental
studies generally need small samples.

3. Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting

conditions that either exist or existed in the past. The researcher does not manipulate the
variable or arrange for events to happen. Experimental research provides a systematic and
logical method for answering the question, “What will happen if certain variables are
carefully controlled or manipulated?” In fact, deliberate manipulation is a part of the
experimental method. In an experiment, the researcher measures the effects of an experiment
which he conducts intentionally.

4. Surveys are usually appropriate in case of social and behavioral sciences whereas
experiments are mostly an essential feature of physical and natural sciences

5. Surveys are an example of field research where as experiments generally constitute an

example of laboratory research

6. Surveys are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing the analysis of the
relationship between non-manipulated variables. Experimentation provides a method of
hypothesis testing. After experimenters define a problem, they propose a hypothesis The
ultimate purpose of experimentation is to generalize the variable relationships so that they
may be applied outside the laboratory to a wider population of interest.

7. In case of surveys, research design must be rigid, must make enough provision for
protection against bias and must maximize reliability. Research design in case of
experimental studies, apart reducing bias and ensuring reliability, must permit drawing
inferences about causality.

8. Causal analysis is considered relatively more important in experiments whereas in

most social and business surveys our interest lies in understanding and controlling
relationships between variables and as such correlation analysis is relatively more important
in surveys .

Question What do you think might be the advantage of a graphical representation of

data over a frequency distribution?
Answer One advantage is that it is easier to see the data set in a graphical representation. A
picture makes it easier to determine where the majority of the scores are in the
distribution. A frequency distribution requires more reading before a judgment
can be made about the shape of the distribution.
Question What is the significance of mean, median, mode, variance and standard deviation?
What information do we get, from these measures? Take example of some
manufacturing or production industry
Question A researcher observes driving behavior on a roadway, noting the gender of
the drivers, the types of vehicles driven, and the speeds at which they are
traveling. The researcher wants to organize the data in graphs but cannot
remember when to use bar graphs, histograms, or frequency polygons.
Which type of graph should be used to describe each variable?
Answer Gender and the type of vehicle driven are qualitative variables, measured on a
nominal scale; thus a bar graph should be used. The speed at which the drivers are
traveling is a quantitative variable, measured on a ratio scale. Either a histogram
or a frequency polygon could be used. A frequency polygon might be better
because of the continuous nature of the variable.
Question In the example described in previous question, a researcher collected data on
drivers gender, type of vehicle, and speed of travel. What is an appropriate
measure of central tendency to calculate for each type of data? i.e. mean,
median or mode?? Under what condition, the mean does not truly represent
central tendency???
Answer Because gender and the type of vehicle driven are nominal data, only the mode
can be determined; it is inappropriate to use the median or the mean with these
data. Speed of travel is ratio in scale, so the mean, median, or mode could be used.
Both the mean and median are better indicators of central tendency than the mode.
If the distribution is skewed, however, the mean should not be used.
Solve problems 1, to 6 on Pages 230 and 231
Q1 1. The following data represent a distribution of speeds (in miles per hour) at which
individuals were traveling on a highway.
64 80 64 70
76 79 67 72
65 73 68 65
67 65 70 62
67 68 65 64
Organize these data into a frequency distribution with frequency (f) and relative frequency
(rf) columns.
A Speed f rf
62 1 .05
64 3 .15
65 4 .20
67 3 .15
68 2 .10
70 2 .10
72 1 .05
73 1 .05
76 1 .05
79 1 .05
80 1 .05
_______________________
20 1.00

Q2 Organize the data in Exercise 1 into a class interval frequency distribution using 10
intervals with frequency (f) and relative frequency (rf) columns.
A Class interval is calculated as 80-62/10=1.8
 Speed Class interval f rf
62 62-63.8 1 .05
64 63.8-65.6 7 .35
65 65.6-67.4 3 .15
67 67.4-69.2 2 .10
68 69.2-71 2 .10
70 71-72.8 1 .05
72 72.8-74.6 1 .05
73 74.6-76.4 1 .05
76 76.4-78.2 0 .05
79 78.2-80 2 .05
_______________________
20 1.00

Q3 Which type of figure should be used to represent the data in Exercise 1: a bar
graph, histogram, or frequency polygon? Why? Draw the appropriate figure for these
data.
A Either a histogram or a frequency polygon could be used to graph these data.
However, due to the continuous nature of the speed data, a frequency polygon might be most
appropriate. Both a histogram and a frequency polygon of the data are presented.

Q4 Calculate the mean, median, and mode for the data set in Exercise 1. Is the
distribution normal or skewed? Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate
for this distribution? Why?
A 62 1 .05
64 3 .15
65 4 .20
67 3 .15
68 2 .10
70 2 .10
72 1 .05
73 1 .05
76 1 .05
 79 1 .05
80 1 .05

62+64+64+64+65+65+65+65+67+67+67+68+68+70+70+72+73+76+79+80
Mean=_______________________________________________________________
20

Median=67
Mode=65
Q5. Calculate the mean, median, and mode for the following four distributions (a d):
a b c d
2 1 1 2
2 2 3 3
4 3 3 4
5 4 3 5
8 4 5 6
9 5 5 6
10 5 8 6
11 5 8 7
11 6 8 8
11 6 9 8
8 10
9 11
A
a. X 7.3, Median 8.5, Mode 11
b. X 4.83 Median 5 Mode 5
c. X 6.17 Median 6.5 Mode 3, 8
d. X 5.5 Median 6 Mode 6
Q6 Calculate the range and standard deviation for the following five distributions:
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
b. -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
c. 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90
d. 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9
e. 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800,900
A Range
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 = 9-1=8
b. -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 4-(-4)=8
c. 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 90-10=80
d. 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 0.9-0.1=0.8
e. 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800,900 900-100=800
Standard deviation

a. X bar = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 = 5

/(1-5)2+(2-5)2+(3-5)2+(4-5)2+(5-5)2+(6-5)2+(7-5)2+(8-5)2+(9-5)2
Std Dev = /__________________________________________________
/ 9
b. -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 4-(-4)=8
c. 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 90-10=80
d. 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 0.9-0.1=0.8
e. 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800,900 900-100=800

Questions from ChapterM16_Analysing Data 2 – (Module 16 Transformation Scores

and Corrélation Coefficients)
Question 1 In a recent study researchers were interested in determining for a group
of college students the relationship between gender and the amount of time
spent studying. Which correlation coefficient should be used to assess this
relationship?
Answer In this study gender is nominal in scale, and the amount of time spent studying is
ratio in scale. Thus a point-biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate.
Question 2 Why is it not possible to use the proportions under the Standard Normal
Curve with skewed distributions?
Answer The proportions hold for only normal (symmetrical) distributions in which one
half of the distribution is equal to the other. If the distribution were skewed, this
condition would be violated.
Question 3 Students in the psychology department at General State University
consume an average of 7 sodas per day with a standard deviation of 2.5. The
distribution is normal.
a) What proportion of students consumes an amount equal to orgreater
than 6 sodas per day?
b) What proportion of students consumes an amount equal to or greater
than 8.5 sodas per day?
c) What proportion of students consumes an amount between 6 and8.5
sodas per day?
d) What is the percentile rank for an individual who consumes 5.5 sodas
per day?
e) How many sodas would an individual at the 75th percentile drink per
day?
Answer a. 0.6554 b. 0.2743 c. 0.3811 d. 27.43rd e. 8.68
Question 4 Based on what you have learned about z-scores, percentile ranks, and the
area under the Standard Normal Curve, fill in the missing information in the
following table representing performance on an exam that is normally
distributed with X́ = 55 and S = 6.
X z- Score Percentile Rank
John 63 1.33 90.82
Ray 45.04 -1.66 4.85
Betty 58.48 0.58 72

Question Solve questions 1 to 4 on Page 252 (Sherry Jackson)

Question:1 The results of a recent survey indicate that the average new car costs
$23,000 with a standard deviation of $3,500. The prices of cars are normally distributed.
a. If someone buys a car for $32,000, what proportion of cars cost an equal amount or
more than this?
b. If someone buys a car for $16,000, what proportion of cars cost an equal amount or
more than this?
c. At what percentile rank is a car that sells for $30,000?
d. At what percentile rank is a car that sells for $12,000?
e. What proportion of cars are sold for an amount between $12,000 and $30,000?
f. For what price would a car at the 16th percentile have sold?
Answer: 1
a. z =+2.57; proportion of cars that cost an equal amount or more = 0.0051
b. z= -2.0; proportion of cars that cost an equal amount or more = 0.9772
c. z =+2.0; percentile rank = 97.72
d. z =-3.14; percentile rank =0.08
e. z =-3.14, z=+ 2.0; proportion between= 0.4992+ 0.4772= 0.9764
f. 16th percentile converts to a z-score of 0.99; 0.99(3,500)+23,000= $19,535
Question 2 A survey of college students was conducted during final exam week to
assess the number of cups of coffee consumed each day. The mean number of cups was 5
with a standard deviation of 1.5 cups. The distribution was normal.
a. What proportion of students drank 7 or more cups of coffee per day?
b. What proportion of students drank 2 or more cups of coffee per day?
c. What proportion of students drank between 2 and 7 cups of coffee per day?
d. How many cups of coffee would an individual at the 60th percentile rank drink?
e. What is the percentile rank for an individual who drinks 4 cups of coffee a day?
f. What is the percentile rank for an individual who drinks 7.5 cups of coffee
a day?
Answer: 2
a. z =+1.33; proportion of students that drank 7 or more cups of coffee per day =
0.09175
b. z= -2.0; proportion of students drank 2 or more cups of coffee per day = 0.97725
c. proportion of students drank between 2 and 7 cups of coffee per day = 0.069
d. z = 0.25; No of cups of coffee would an individual at the 60th percentile rank
drink
x =5.375
e. z =-0.6666, the percentile rank for an individual who drinks 4 cups of coffee a day
is 25.463
f. z =1.6666, percentile rank for an individual who drinks 7.5 cups of coffee is 4.846
Question 3 Fill in the missing information in the following table representing
performance on an exam that is normally distributed with X(Avg) 75 and S 9.
Answer 3
X z-Score Percentile Rank
Ken 73 -0.222 41.30
Drew 88.95 1.55 93.94
Cecil 83.28 0.92 82
Question 4 Assuming that the regression equation for the relationship between IQ
score and psychology exam score is Y= 9+0.274X, what would you expect the psychology
exam scores to be for the following individuals given their IQ exam scores?
Answer 4
Individual IQ Score (x) Psychology Exam Score (y)
Tim 118 41
Tom 98 36
Tina 107 38
Tory 103 37
Questions from ChapterM17_Hypothesis Testing –
Question Distinguish between the following:
(i) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis;
(ii) One-tailed test and two-tailed test;
(iii) Type I error and Type II error;
(iv) Acceptance region and rejection region;

Question What is a hypothesis? What characteristics it must possess in order to be a

good research hypothesis?
Answer WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS?
Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere
assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher
hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be
defined as a proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the
occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a
provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in
the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive
statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent
variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the
following ones:
“Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than
students not receiving counseling” Or “the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.”
These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may
conclude that a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which
can be put to a test to determine its validity.
Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following
characteristics:
(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and
precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untreatable
hypotheses, many a time the research programmes have bogged down. Some prior
study may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A
hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be
confirmed or disproved by observation.”1
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be
a relational hypothesis.
(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher
must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should
develop such hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that
the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that
simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
 (vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be
consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one
which judges accept as being the most likely.
(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One
should not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in
reasonable time for one
cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted
generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem condition. Thus
hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain; it should have empirical
reference.
Question A manufacturer considers his production process to be working properly if
the mean length of the rods the manufactures is 8.5". The standard deviation
of the rods always runs about 0.26". Suppose a sampleof 64 rods is taken and
this gives a mean length of rods equal to 8.6". What are the null and
alternativehypotheses for this problem? Can you infer at 5% level of
significance that the process is working properly?
Answer

Question The procedure of testing hypothesis requires a researcher to adopt several

steps. Describe in brief all such steps.
Answer The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:
(i) Making a formal statement: The step consists in making a formal statement of the null
hypothesis (H0) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha).
(ii) Selecting a significance level: The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of
significance and as such the same should be specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level
or 1% level is adopted for the purpose.
(iii) Deciding the distribution to use: After deciding the level of significance, the next step
in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice
generally remains between normal distribution and the t-distribution.
(iv) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value: Another step is to
select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning
the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution.
(v) Comparing the probability: Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus
calculated with the specified value for the significance level.