c01Introduction.

qxd 2/13/12 3:52 PM Page 14

14 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

Table 1.7
Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure
(BG Units)

(See inside of front cover.)

Table 1.8
44.7 30 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure
(SI Units)

(See inside of front cover.)

14.7 0 The gas constant, R, which appears in Eq. 1.8, depends on the particular gas and is related to
the molecular weight of the gas. Values of the gas constant for several common gases are listed in
Tables 1.7 and 1.8. Also in these tables the gas density and specific weight are given for standard at-
0 –14.7
(abs) (gage) mospheric pressure and gravity and for the temperature listed. More complete tables for air at stan-
p, psi dard atmospheric pressure can be found in Appendix B 1Tables B.3 and B.42.

1.6 Viscosity
The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the “heaviness” of a fluid. It is clear,
however, that these properties are not sufficient to uniquely characterize how fluids behave since
V1.3 Viscous fluids two fluids 1such as water and oil2 can have approximately the same value of density but behave
quite differently when flowing. Apparently, some additional property is needed to describe the “flu-
idity” of the fluid.
To determine this additional property, consider a hypothetical experiment in which a mater-
ial is placed between two very wide parallel plates as shown in Fig. 1.4a. The bottom plate is
rigidly fixed, but the upper plate is free to move. If a solid, such as steel, were placed between the
two plates and loaded with the force P as shown, the top plate would be displaced through some
small distance, da 1assuming the solid was mechanically attached to the plates2. The vertical line
AB would be rotated through the small angle, db, to the new position AB¿. We note that to resist
the applied force, P, a shearing stress, t, would be developed at the plate–material interface, and
V1.4 No-slip for equilibrium to occur, P " tA where A is the effective upper plate area 1Fig. 1.4b2. It is well
condition known that for elastic solids, such as steel, the small angular displacement, db 1called the shear-
ing strain2, is proportional to the shearing stress, t, that is developed in the material.
What happens if the solid is replaced with a fluid such as water? We would immediately no-
tice a major difference. When the force P is applied to the upper plate, it will move continuously
with a velocity, U 1after the initial transient motion has died out2 as illustrated in Fig. 1.5. This be-
havior is consistent with the definition of a fluid—that is, if a shearing stress is applied to a fluid
it will deform continuously. A closer inspection of the fluid motion between the two plates would
reveal that the fluid in contact with the upper plate moves with the plate velocity, U, and the fluid
in contact with the bottom fixed plate has a zero velocity. The fluid between the two plates moves
Real fluids, even with velocity u " u 1y2 that would be found to vary linearly, u " Uy!b, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5.
though they may be Thus, a velocity gradient, du!dy, is developed in the fluid between the plates. In this particular case
moving, always the velocity gradient is a constant since du !dy " U!b, but in more complex flow situations, such
“stick” to the solid
boundaries that δa
contain them. P P
B B' τA

A δβ ■ Figure 1.4 (a) Deformation of material

Fixed plate placed between two parallel plates. (b) Forces
(a) ( b) acting on upper plate.
c01Introduction.qxd 3/2/12 5:12 PM Page 15

1.6 Viscosity 15
U δa
P

B B'
u

b
y

A δβ ■ Figure 1.5 Behavior of a fluid placed between

Fixed plate two parallel plates.

y u = u(y) as that shown by the photograph in the margin, this is not true. The experimental observation that
the fluid “sticks” to the solid boundaries is a very important one in fluid mechanics and is usually
referred to as the no-slip condition. All fluids, both liquids and gases, satisfy this condition.
u = 0 on surface In a small time increment, dt, an imaginary vertical line AB in the fluid would rotate through
an angle, db, so that
Solid body da
tan db ! db "
b
Since da " U dt, it follows that
U dt
db "
b
We note that in this case, db is a function not only of the force P 1which governs U2 but also of
time. Thus, it is not reasonable to attempt to relate the shearing stress, t, to db as is done for solids.
#
Rather, we consider the rate at which db is changing and define the rate of shearing strain, g, as
# db
g " lim
dtS0 dt

which in this instance is equal to

# U du
g" "
b dy
A continuation of this experiment would reveal that as the shearing stress, t, is increased by in-
creasing P 1recall that t " P!A2, the rate of shearing strain is increased in direct proportion—that is,
#
t r g
or
du
t r
dy
This result indicates that for common fluids such as water, oil, gasoline, and air the shearing stress
V1.5 Capillary tube and rate of shearing strain 1velocity gradient2 can be related with a relationship of the form
viscometer
du
t"m (1.9)
dy
where the constant of proportionality is designated by the Greek symbol m 1mu2 and is called the
absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the fluid. In accordance with Eq. 1.9,
plots of t versus du!dy should be linear with the slope equal to the viscosity as illustrated in Fig. 1.6.
The actual value of the viscosity depends on the particular fluid, and for a particular fluid the vis-
Dynamic viscosity cosity is also highly dependent on temperature as illustrated in Fig. 1.6 with the two curves for water.
is the fluid property Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain 1also referred to
that relates shear- as rate of angular deformation2 are designated as Newtonian fluids after I. Newton (1642–1727).
ing stress and fluid Fortunately, most common fluids, both liquids and gases, are Newtonian. A more general formula-
motion. tion of Eq. 1.9 which applies to more complex flows of Newtonian fluids is given in Section 6.8.1.
c01Introduction.qxd 2/13/12 3:52 PM Page 16

16 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

Crude oil (60 °F)

µ
Shearing stress, τ

1
Water (60 °F)

Water (100 °F)

Air (60 °F)

■ Figure 1.6 Linear variation
du
Rate of shearing strain, __
of shearing stress with rate of shearing
dy strain for common fluids.

F l u i d s i n t h e N e w s
An extremely viscous fluid Pitch is a derivative of tar once used for the funnel. The flowrate is quite small. In fact, to date only seven
waterproofing boats. At elevated temperatures it flows quite readily. drops have fallen from the end of the funnel, although the eighth
At room temperature it feels like a solid—it can even be shattered drop is poised ready to fall “soon.” While nobody has actually seen
with a blow from a hammer. However, it is a liquid. In 1927 Profes- a drop fall from the end of the funnel, a beaker below the funnel
sor Parnell heated some pitch and poured it into a funnel. Since that holds the previous drops that fell over the years. It is estimated that
time it has been allowed to flow freely (or rather, drip slowly) from the pitch is about 100 billion times more viscous than water.

Fluids for which the shearing stress is not linearly related to the rate of shearing strain are
For non-Newtonian
fluids, the apparent
designated as non-Newtonian fluids. Although there is a variety of types of non-Newtonian flu-
viscosity is a func- ids, the simplest and most common are shown in Fig. 1.7. The slope of the shearing stress versus
tion of the shear rate of shearing strain graph is denoted as the apparent viscosity, map. For Newtonian fluids the ap-
rate. parent viscosity is the same as the viscosity and is independent of shear rate.
For shear thinning fluids the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate—the harder
the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. Many colloidal suspensions and polymer solutions
are shear thinning. For example, latex paint does not drip from the brush because the shear rate is
small and the apparent viscosity is large. However, it flows smoothly onto the wall because the thin
layer of paint between the wall and the brush causes a large shear rate and a small apparent viscosity.

Bingham plastic

tyield
Shearing stress, τ

Shear thinning

Newtonian

µ ap

1
■ Figure 1.7 Variation of shearing
Shear thickening
stress with rate of shearing strain for several
du types of fluids, including common non-Newtonian
Rate of shearing strain,
dy fluids.
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1.6 Viscosity 17

For shear thickening fluids the apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rate—the
The various types
of non-Newtonian harder the fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes. Common examples of this type of fluid
fluids are distin- include water–corn starch mixture and water–sand mixture 1“quicksand”2. Thus, the difficulty in
guished by how removing an object from quicksand increases dramatically as the speed of removal increases.
their apparent The other type of behavior indicated in Fig. 1.7 is that of a Bingham plastic, which is neither
viscosity changes a fluid nor a solid. Such material can withstand a finite, nonzero shear stress, !yield , the yield stress,
with shear rate. without motion 1therefore, it is not a fluid2, but once the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a fluid
1hence, it is not a solid2. Toothpaste and mayonnaise are common examples of Bingham plastic ma-
terials. As indicated in the figure in the margin, mayonnaise can sit in a pile on a slice of bread 1the
t < tyield
shear stress less than the yield stress2,but it flows smoothly into a thin layer when the knife increases
the stress above the yield stress.
From Eq. 1.9 it can be readily deduced that the dimensions of viscosity are FTL#2. Thus, in
t > tyield BG units viscosity is given as lb # s!ft2 and in SI units as N # s !m2. Values of viscosity for several
common liquids and gases are listed in Tables 1.5 through 1.8. A quick glance at these tables reveals
the wide variation in viscosity among fluids. Viscosity is only mildly dependent on pressure and the
effect of pressure is usually neglected. However, as previously mentioned, and as illustrated in Fig.
1.8, viscosity is very sensitive to temperature. For example, as the temperature of water changes from
60 to 100 °F the density decreases by less than 1%, but the viscosity decreases by about 40%. It is
thus clear that particular attention must be given to temperature when determining viscosity.
Figure 1.8 shows in more detail how the viscosity varies from fluid to fluid and how for
a given fluid it varies with temperature. It is to be noted from this figure that the viscosity of
liquids decreases with an increase in temperature, whereas for gases an increase in temperature
causes an increase in viscosity. This difference in the effect of temperature on the viscosity of
V1.6 Non- liquids and gases can again be traced back to the difference in molecular structure. The liquid
Newtonian behavior molecules are closely spaced, with strong cohesive forces between molecules, and the resistance
to relative motion between adjacent layers of fluid is related to these intermolecular forces. As

4.0

2.0

1.0
8
6
4 Gl
yc
er
2 in
SA
E
1 × 10-1 10
8 W
oi
6 l
4
Dynamic viscosity, m, N • s/m2

2
-2
1 × 10
8
6
4

1 × 10-3
8
6
4 Water

2
-4
1 × 10
8
6
4
Air
2
Hydrogen
1 × 10-5
8
6 ■ Figure 1.8 Dynamic (absolute)
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 viscosity of some common fluids as a
Temperature, °C function of temperature.
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18 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

the temperature increases, these cohesive forces are reduced with a corresponding reduction in
resistance to motion. Since viscosity is an index of this resistance, it follows that the viscosity
is reduced by an increase in temperature. In gases, however, the molecules are widely spaced
and intermolecular forces negligible. In this case, resistance to relative motion arises due to the
exchange of momentum of gas molecules between adjacent layers. As molecules are transported
by random motion from a region of low bulk velocity to mix with molecules in a region of higher
bulk velocity 1and vice versa2, there is an effective momentum exchange that resists the relative
motion between the layers. As the temperature of the gas increases, the random molecular activity
increases with a corresponding increase in viscosity.
The effect of temperature on viscosity can be closely approximated using two empirical for-
mulas. For gases the Sutherland equation can be expressed as
CT 3!2
Viscosity is very m" (1.10)
T$S
sensitive to
temperature. where C and S are empirical constants, and T is absolute temperature. Thus, if the viscosity is known
at two temperatures, C and S can be determined. Or, if more than two viscosities are known, the
data can be correlated with Eq. 1.10 by using some type of curve-fitting scheme.
For liquids an empirical equation that has been used is
m " DeB!T (1.11)
where D and B are constants and T is absolute temperature. This equation is often referred to as
Andrade’s equation. As was the case for gases, the viscosity must be known at least for two tem-
peratures so the two constants can be determined. A more detailed discussion of the effect of tem-
perature on fluids can be found in Ref. 1.

E XAMPLE 1.4 Viscosity and Dimensionless Quantities

GIVEN A dimensionless combination of variables that is impor-

tant in the study of viscous flow through pipes is called the Reynolds
number, Re, defined as rVD!m where, as indicated in Fig. E1.4, r is
the fluid density, V the mean fluid velocity, D the pipe diameter, and
m the fluid viscosity. A Newtonian fluid having a viscosity of r, m
0.38 N # s!m2 and a specific gravity of 0.91 flows through a 25-mm- V
diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m!s.

FIND Determine the value of the Reynolds number using 1a2 SI

D
units and 1b2 BG units.

SOLUTION
(a) The fluid density is calculated from the specific gravity as
■ Figure E1.4
r " SG rH2O@4 °C " 0.91 11000 kg!m3 2 " 910 kg!m3
and from the definition of the Reynolds number

rVD 1910 kg!m3 212.6 m!s2125 mm2110#3 m!mm2 expressed in a consistent set of units. To check this, we will calcu-
Re " " late the Reynolds number using BG units.
m 0.38 N # s!m2
# 2 (b) We first convert all the SI values of the variables appear-
" 156 1kg m!s 2 !N
ing in the Reynolds number to BG values by using the conver-
However, since 1 N " 1 kg # m!s2 it follows that the Reynolds sion factors from Table 1.4. Thus,
number is unitless—that is,
r " 1910 kg!m3 211.940 % 10#3 2 " 1.77 slugs!ft3
Re " 156 (Ans) V " 12.6 m!s213.2812 " 8.53 ft!s
The value of any dimensionless quantity does not depend on the D " 10.025 m2 13.2812 " 8.20 % 10#2 ft
system of units used if all variables that make up the quantity are m " 10.38 N # s!m2 212.089 % 10#2 2 " 7.94 % 10#3 lb # s!ft2
c01Introduction.qxd 2/13/12 3:52 PM Page 19

1.6 Viscosity 19

and the value of the Reynolds number is COMMENTS The values from part 1a2 and part 1b2 are the
3 same, as expected. Dimensionless quantities play an important
11.77 slugs!ft 2 18.53 ft !s2 18.20 # 10 $2
ft2
Re " role in fluid mechanics, and the significance of the Reynolds
7.94 # 10$3 lb # s!ft2 number as well as other important dimensionless combinations
" 156 1slug # ft!s2 2 !lb " 156 (Ans) will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7. It should be noted that in
the Reynolds number it is actually the ratio m!r that is important,
since 1 lb " 1 slug # ft!s2. and this is the property that is defined as the kinematic viscosity.

E XAMPLE 1.5 Newtonian Fluid Shear Stress

GIVEN The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of
fluid between two fixed wide, parallel plates (see Fig. E1.5a) is 0.04 lb # s !ft2. Also, V " 2 ft!s and h " 0.2 in.
given by the equation
FIND Determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom
3V y 2 wall, and (b) the shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the
u" c1 $ a b d
2 h walls and passing through the centerline (midplane).

SOLUTION
For this type of parallel flow the shearing stress is obtained from h y u
Eq. 1.9,
du h
t"m (1)
dy
Thus, if the velocity distribution u " u1y2 is known, the shearing
■ Figure E1.5a
stress can be determined at all points by evaluating the velocity
gradient, du !dy. For the distribution given
du 3Vy COMMENT From Eq. 2 we see that the velocity gradient
"$ 2 (2)
dy h (and therefore the shearing stress) varies linearly with y and in
this particular example varies from 0 at the center of the channel
(a) Along the bottom wall y " $h so that (from Eq. 2)
to 14.4 lb !ft2 at the walls. This is shown in Fig. E1.5b. For the
du 3V more general case the actual variation will, of course, depend on
" the nature of the velocity distribution.
dy h
and therefore the shearing stress is
3V 10.04 lb # s!ft2 213212 ft!s2
tbottom " m a b" 15
h 10.2 in.211 ft!12 in.2 %bottom wall = 14.4 lb/ft2 = %top wall
wall
2
" 14.4 lb!ft 1in direction of flow2 (Ans)
This stress creates a drag on the wall. Since the velocity distribu- 10
%, lb/ft 2

tion is symmetrical, the shearing stress along the upper wall

would have the same magnitude and direction.
(b) Along the midplane where y " 0 it follows from Eq. 2 that 5

du
"0 %midplane = 0
dy
0
$0.2 $0.1 0 0.1 0.2
and thus the shearing stress is
y, in.
tmidplane " 0 (Ans) ■ Figure E1.5b

Quite often viscosity appears in fluid flow problems combined with the density in the
form
m
n"
r
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20 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

Kinematic viscosity This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity and is denoted with the Greek symbol n 1nu2. The dimen-
is defined as the sions of kinematic viscosity are L2!T, and the BG units are ft2 !s and SI units are m2!s. Values of
ratio of the kinematic viscosity for some common liquids and gases are given in Tables 1.5 through 1.8. More ex-
absolute viscosity tensive tables giving both the dynamic and kinematic viscosities for water and air can be found in Ap-
to the fluid density. pendix B 1Tables B.1 through B.42, and graphs showing the variation in both dynamic and kinematic
viscosity with temperature for a variety of fluids are also provided in Appendix B 1Figs. B.1 and B.22.
Although in this text we are primarily using BG and SI units, dynamic viscosity is often ex-
pressed in the metric CGS 1centimeter-gram-second2 system with units of dyne # s!cm2. This com-
bination is called a poise, abbreviated P. In the CGS system, kinematic viscosity has units of cm2!s,
and this combination is called a stoke, abbreviated St.

1.7 Compressibility of Fluids

p
1.7.1 Bulk Modulus
An important question to answer when considering the behavior of a particular fluid is how eas-
ily can the volume 1and thus the density2 of a given mass of the fluid be changed when there is a
V
change in pressure? That is, how compressible is the fluid? A property that is commonly used to
characterize compressibility is the bulk modulus, Ev, defined as
dp
Ev " $ (1.12)
p + dp $!$
dV V
where dp is the differential change in pressure needed to create a differential change in volume,
V – dV
$, of a volume $
dV V . This is illustrated by the figure in the margin. The negative sign is included
since an increase in pressure will cause a decrease in volume. Since a decrease in volume of a
given mass, m " rV $, will result in an increase in density, Eq. 1.12 can also be expressed as
dp
Ev " (1.13)
dr!r
The bulk modulus 1also referred to as the bulk modulus of elasticity2 has dimensions of pressure,
FL$2. In BG units, values for Ev are usually given as lb!in.2 1psi2 and in SI units as N!m2 1Pa2.
Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively incompressible—that is, it
takes a large pressure change to create a small change in volume. As expected, values of Ev for
common liquids are large 1see Tables 1.5 and 1.62. For example, at atmospheric pressure and a
V1.7 Water
temperature of 60 °F it would require a pressure of 3120 psi to compress a unit volume of water
balloon
1%. This result is representative of the compressibility of liquids. Since such large pressures are
required to effect a change in volume, we conclude that liquids can be considered as incompress-
ible for most practical engineering applications. As liquids are compressed the bulk modulus in-
creases, but the bulk modulus near atmospheric pressure is usually the one of interest. The use of
bulk modulus as a property describing compressibility is most prevalent when dealing with liq-
uids, although the bulk modulus can also be determined for gases.

F l u i d s i n t h e N e w s
This water jet is a blast Usually liquids can be treated as incom- pheres), the water is compressed (i.e., the volume reduced) by
pressible fluids. However, in some applications the compressibility about 10 to 15%. When a fast-opening valve within the pressure
of a liquid can play a key role in the operation of a device. For ex- vessel is opened, the water expands and produces a jet of water
ample, a water pulse generator using compressed water has been that upon impact with the target material produces an effect simi-
developed for use in mining operations. It can fracture rock by lar to the explosive force from conventional explosives. Mining
producing an effect comparable to a conventional explosive such with the water jet can eliminate various hazards that arise with the
as gunpowder. The device uses the energy stored in a water-filled use of conventional chemical explosives, such as those associated
accumulator to generate an ultrahigh-pressure water pulse ejected with the storage and use of explosives and the generation of toxic
through a 10- to 25-mm-diameter discharge valve. At the ultra- gas by-products that require extensive ventilation. (See Problem
high pressures used (300 to 400 MPa, or 3000 to 4000 atmos- 1.110.)
c01Introduction.qxd 2/13/12 3:53 PM Page 35

Problems 35

liquid of interest, the viscosity is given by Andrade’s equation (Eq. 3.5 # 10$5 lb # s&ft2. Determine the thickness of the water layer un-
1.11) with D " 5 # 10 $7 lb # s&ft2 and B " 4000 °R. By what der the runners. Assume a linear velocity distribution in the water layer.
percentage will the velocity increase as the liquid temperature is
increased from 40 !F to 100 !F? Assume all other factors remain
constant.
*1.72 Use the value of the viscosity of water given in Table B.2
at temperatures of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C to determine the
constants D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation 1Eq. 1.112.
Calculate the value of the viscosity at 50 °C and compare with
the value given in Table B.2. 1Hint: Rewrite the equation in the
form
1
ln m " 1B2 ' ln D
T
■ Figure P1.77
and plot ln m versus 1 &T. From the slope and intercept of this curve,
B and D can be obtained. If a nonlinear curve-fitting program is
available, the constants can be obtained directly from Eq. 1.11 with- 1.78 A 25-mm-diameter shaft is pulled through a cylindri-
out rewriting the equation.2 cal bearing as shown in Fig. P1.78. The lubricant that fills the
0.3-mm gap between the shaft and bearing is an oil having a kine-
1.73 For a certain liquid m " 7.1 # 10$5 lb # s/ft2 at 40 !F and m matic viscosity of 8.0 # 10$4 m2&s and a specific gravity of 0.91.
" 1.9 # 10$5 lb # s/ft2 at 150 !F. Make use of these data to deter- Determine the force P required to pull the shaft at a velocity of
mine the constants D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation 3 m/s. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
(Eq. 1.11). What would be the viscosity at 80 !F?
1.74 GO For a parallel plate arrangement of the type shown in
Fig. 1.5 it is found that when the distance between plates is 2 mm, Bearing Lubricant
a shearing stress of 150 Pa develops at the upper plate when it is
pulled at a velocity of 1 m/s. Determine the viscosity of the fluid
P
between the plates. Express your answer in SI units. Shaft

1.75 Two flat plates are oriented parallel above a fixed lower plate
as shown in Fig. P1.75. The top plate, located a distance b above
the fixed plate, is pulled along with speed V. The other thin plate
is located a distance cb, where 0 % c % 1, above the fixed plate. 0.5 m
This plate moves with speed V1, which is determined by the vis-
cous shear forces imposed on it by the fluids on its top and bot- ■ Figure P1.78
tom. The fluid on the top is twice as viscous as that on the bot-
tom. Plot the ratio V1/V as a function of c for 0 % c % 1.
1.79 A piston having a diameter of 5.48 in. and a length of 9.50
V in. slides downward with a velocity V through a vertical pipe. The
downward motion is resisted by an oil film between the piston and
2µ the pipe wall. The film thickness is 0.002 in., and the cylinder
b weighs 0.5 lb. Estimate V if the oil viscosity is 0.016 lb # s/ft2. As-
V1
sume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
cb µ 1.80 A 10-kg block slides down a smooth inclined sur-
face as shown in Fig. P1.80. Determine the terminal velocity of
■ Figure P1.75 the block if the 0.1-mm gap between the block and the surface
contains SAE 30 oil at 60 °F. Assume the velocity distribution
1.76 There are many fluids that exhibit non-Newtonian in the gap is linear, and the area of the block in contact with
behavior (see, for example, Video V1.6). For a given fluid the dis- the oil is 0.1 m2.
tinction between Newtonian and non-Newtonian behavior is usu-
ally based on measurements of shear stress and rate of shearing 0.1 mm gap
strain. Assume that the viscosity of blood is to be determined V
20°
by measurements of shear stress, !, and rate of shearing strain,
du/dy, obtained from a small blood sample tested in a suitable vis-
cometer. Based on the data given below, determine if the blood is
a Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. Explain how you arrived at
your answer.
!(N/m2) 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.30 0.52 1.12 2.10
$1
du/dy (s ) 2.25 4.50 11.25 22.5 45.0 90.0 225 450 ■ Figure P1.80
1.77 The sled shown in Fig. P1.77 slides along on a thin hor-
izontal layer of water between the ice and the runners. The horizon- 1.81 A layer of water flows down an inclined fixed surface
tal force that the water puts on the runners is equal to 1.2 lb when with the velocity profile shown in Fig. P1.81. Determine the mag-
the sled’s speed is 50 ft/s. The total area of both runners in contact nitude and direction of the shearing stress that the water exerts on
with the water is 0.08 ft2, and the viscosity of the water is the fixed surface for U " 2 m&s and h " 0.1 m.
c01Introduction.qxd 3/2/12 5:38 PM Page 36

36 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

1.85 The space between two 6-in.-long concentric cylinders

is filled with glycerin 1viscosity ! 8.5 $ 10%3 lb # s#ft2 2. The in-
h ner cylinder has a radius of 3 in. and the gap width between cylin-
U
ders is 0.1 in. Determine the torque and the power required to rotate
y u the inner cylinder at 180 rev#min. The outer cylinder is fixed.
u
__ y y2 Assume the velocity distribution in the gap to be linear.
= 2 __ – __2
U h h
1.86 A pivot bearing used on the shaft of an electrical in-
strument is shown in Fig. P1.86. An oil with a viscosity of ! !
0.010 lb . s/ft2 fills the 0.001-in. gap between the rotating shaft and
the stationary base. Determine the frictional torque on the shaft
■ Figure P1.81
when it rotates at 5000 rpm.
1.82 A thin layer of glycerin flows down an inclined, wide plate
with the velocity distribution shown in Fig. P1.82. For h ! 0.3 in.
and a ! 20", determine the surface velocity, U. Note that for equi- 5000 rpm
librium, the component of weight acting parallel to the plate sur-
face must be balanced by the shearing force developed along the
plate surface. In your analysis assume a unit plate width.
0.2 in.

U
u y α

y
u = __ y2
__ 2 – __2
U h h
h
30°

0.001 in. µ = 0.010 lb • s/ft2

■ Figure P1.82
*1.83 Standard air flows past a flat surface, and velocity
measurements near the surface indicate the following distribution:
■ Figure P1.86
y 1ft2 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
1.87 The viscosity of liquids can be measured through the use of a
u 1ft#s2 0.74 1.51 3.03 6.37 10.21 14.43 rotating cylinder viscometer of the type illustrated in Fig. P1.87. In
The coordinate y is measured normal to the surface and u is the this device the outer cylinder is fixed and the inner cylinder is rotated
velocity parallel to the surface. (a) Assume the velocity distribu- with an angular velocity, v. The torque t required to develop " is
tion is of the form measured and the viscosity is calculated from these two measurements.
(a) Develop an equation relating m, v, t, /, Ro, and Ri. Neglect end
u ! C1y & C2 y3 effects and assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
(b) The following torque-angular velocity data were obtained with a
and use a standard curve-fitting technique to determine the con- rotating cylinder viscometer of the type discussed in part (a).
stants C1 and C2. (b) Make use of the results of part 1a2 to determine
the magnitude of the shearing stress at the wall 1y ! 02 and at Torque 1ft # lb2 13.1 26.0 39.5 52.7 64.9 78.6
y ! 0.05 ft. Angular
1.84 A new computer drive is proposed to have a disc, as velocity 1rad#s2 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
shown in Fig. P1.84. The disc is to rotate at 10,000 rpm, and the For this viscometer Ro ! 2.50 in., Ri ! 2.45 in., and / ! 5.00 in.
reader head is to be positioned 0.0005 in. above the surface of the Make use of these data and a standard curve-fitting program to de-
disc. Estimate the shearing force on the reader head as a result of termine the viscosity of the liquid contained in the viscometer.
the air between the disc and the head.
Fixed
outer
cylinder
Liquid !
Stationary reader head ω
0.2-in.dia.

10,000 rpm
0.0005 in. Ri
Ro

2 in. Rotating
Rotating disc inner "
cylinder

■ Figure P1.84 ■ Figure P1.87