50 Reinforced Concrete Design In examples 3.3 and 3.4 the second moment of area of the beam was calculated as bi? /12 a rectangular section for simplicity, but where an in site slab forms a flange to the beam, the second moment of area may be calculated for the ‘T-section or L-section, 3.4.2 Lateral loads on frames Lateral loads on a structure may be caused by wind pressures, by retained earth or by seismie forces. A horizontal force should also be applied at each level of a structure resulting from a notional inclination of the vertical members representing imperfections, “The value of this depends on building height and number of columns (EC2 clause 5.2), ‘bat will typically be fess than 1% of the vertical load at that level for a braced structure, This should be added to any wind loads at the ultimate limit state An unbraced frame subjected to wind forces must be analysed for all the vertical loading combinations described in section 3.2.1. The vertical-loading analysis can be carried out by the methods described previously. The analysis for the tateral loads should be kept separate. The forces may be calculated by an elastic computer analysis or by a simplified approximate method. For pretiminary design calculations, and also only for medium-size regular structures, a simplified analysis may well be adequate, ‘A suitable approximate analysis is the cantilever method, It assumes that: 1. points of contraflexure are located at the mid-points of all columns and beams; and 2. the direct axial loads in the columns are in proportion to their distances from the centre of gravity of the frame, It is also usual to assume that all the columns in a storey are of equal cross-sectional area. It should be emphasised that these approximate methods may give, quite inaccurate results for irregular or high-rise structures. Application of this method is probably best illustrated by an example, as follows, Figure 3.19 Frame with lateral load EXAMPLE 3.5 ) Simplified analysis for lateral loads - cantilever method Figure 3.19 shows a building ftame subjected to a characteristic wind action of 3.0KN per metre height of the frame, This action is assumed to be transferred to the frame as a concentrated load at each floor level as indicated in the figure. ’ 5.25kN “T_T 7, 13 1O.SKN | Ath a g 4 z rosin, | ws | 8 o a g 11.25kh, | 2nd a i 12.068 it) sows 3 2 CT OT oo | 40.) 60Analysis of the structure at the ultimate limit state 51 Figure 3.20 Subframes at the rook and 4th floor 1.0 50135 60135 (©) 4th Floor 270 0.88 0.68 By inspection, there is tension in the two columns to the left and compression in the columns to the sight; and by assumption 2 the axial forces in columns are proportional to their distances from the centre line of the frame. Thus Axial force in exterior cofumn : axial force in interior column = 4,0P : LOP ‘The analysis of the frame continues by considering a section through the top-storey columns: the removal of the frame below this section gives the remainder shown in figure 3.20a. The forces in this subftame are calculated as follows. (@) Axial forces in the columns ‘Taking moments about point s, S>M; = 0, therefore 5.25 x L.75-+ P x 6.0 ~P x 10.0 —4P x 16. ‘and therefore P=0,135KN thus: Ny = Ny = 4.0P = 0.54KN Ny = —Ny = 1.0P = 0.135KN ©) Vertical shearing forces Fin the beams For each part of the subframe, °F = 0, therefore PLN, = 0.54KN F< Ni +N) =0.675KN52 Reinforced Concrete Design (©) Horizontal shearing forces H in the columns Taking moments about the points of contraflexure of each beam, J>M = 0, therefore My x LIS —N, x3.0=0 | Hy = 093KN and ! (Hh + )LIS—N, X80 —M x 2.0 =O : hy = 1.70KN | ‘The calculations of the equivalent forces for the fourth floor (figure 3.20b) follow a similar procedure, as follows. (2) Axdal forces in the columns For the frame above section #’, 37M, = 0, therefore §.25(3 x 1.75) + 10.5 x 1.75 +P x 6.0 Px 10.0 —4P x 16.0=0 P=0.6751KN therefore N, = 4.0P =2.70 KN Nz = LOP = 0.68kN (©) Beam shears Fy = 210-054 246KN 2.70 4.0.68 — 0.54 ~ 0.135 2.705 KN () Column shears Hy x 1.75 +0.93 x 1.75 ~ (2.70 — 0.54)3.0.= 0 Hy =2.78KN th = jos $5.25) 2.78 =S.1kN Values calculated for sections taken below the remaining floors are third floor Ni; = 7.03KN Np = L.76KN F,=433KN Fy = SAIN Hy = 4.644N 849KN second floor Ni =14.14KN- Np = 3.53KN Pr= TUKN Fy = 8.88KN Hy = 6.61KN first floor Ny = 24.37 KN Fy = 10.23kN Hy = 8.74KN2 16 b a9 30 ae x 49 ca Bo 149 el ss ei vo es ‘The bending moments in the beams and columns at their connections can be ‘calculated from these results by the following formulae beams My = F x }beam span columns Mc = H x storey height _ $0 af the roof’s external connection My = 054 x4. x 60 = L6ANm Me = 093 x3x35=16kNm Asa check at each joint, SMa SMe, The bending moments due to characteristic wind loads in all the columns and beams 2 Cv this structure are shown in figure 3.21. Ss Analysis of the structure at the ultimate limit state Figure 3.21 Moments (kNem) and reactions (kN) = 7 __ 3.5 Shear wall structures resisting horizontal loads A reinforced concrete structure with shear walls is shown in figure 3.22 . Shear walls are Yery effective in resisting horizontal loads such as F, in the figure which act in the direction of the plane of the walls. As the walls are relatively thin they offer litle resistance to loads which are perpendicular to their plane. The floor slabs which are supported by the walls also act as tigid diaphragms which Uwansfer and distribute the horizontal forces into the shear walls. The shear walls act as | Yetical cantilevers transferring the horizontal loads to the structural foundations. } The design of reinforcement for shear walls is considered in Section 9.854 Reinforced Concrete Design Figure 3.22 Shoar wall structure Resultant horizontal, force Fe 3.5.1 Symmetrical arrangement of walls With a symmetrical arrangement of walls as shown in figure 3.23 the horizontal load is distributed in proportion to the the relative stiffness k; of each wall. The relative stiffnesses are given by the second moment of area of each wall about its major axis such that hahxb® where fis the thickness of the wall and b is the length of the wall. ‘The force P; distributed into each wall is then given by Figure 3.23 Symmetrical arrangement of shear walls EXAMPLE 3.6 ) Symmetrical arrangement of shear walls ‘A structure with a symmetrical arrangement of shear walls is shown in figure 3.23. Caleulate the proportion of the 100KN horizontal. load carried by each of the walls. ne arnt a 8 i : i \ |Analysis of the structure at the ultimate limit state 55 | Relative stiffnesses: = S Walls A ky = 0.3 x 20% — WallsB iy = 0.2 x 18 = 346 Dk = 2(2400 + 346) = 5492 Force in each wall: : ka 2400 hx B= SE x 100 = 43.7kN EP eX? ~ sam * 2 Check 2(43.7 + 6.3) = 100KN = F | J 3.5.2. Unsymmetrical arrangement of walls ‘With an unsymmetrical arrangement of shear walls as shown in figure 3.24 there will - also be a torsional force on the structure about the centre of rotation in addition to the direct forces caused by the tanslatory movement, The calculation procedure for this = case is: FL. Determine the location of the centre of rotation by taking moments of the wall stiffnesses about convenient axes. Such that Lilker) pa ly) SS and y vk vy where ky and &, are the stiffnesses of the walls orientated in the x and y directions respectively. 2. Calculate the torsional moment M, on the group of shear walls as M=Fxe R= where e is the eccentricity of the horizontal force F about the centre of rotation, 3. Calculate the force P| in each wall as the sum of the direct component Py and the torsional rotation component P, Poo PatPe , ke kn =FxX yk tM, xX => ‘where 7 is the perpendicular distance between the axis of each wall and the centre of rotation. (EXAMPLE 3.7 |) ___Unsymmetrical layout of shear walls Determine the distribution of the 100 KN horizontal force F into the shear walls A, B, C, _ Dand Eas shown in figure 3.24. The relative stiffness of each shear wall is shown in the ‘igure in terms of multiples of &.56 Reinforced Concrete Design Figure 3.24 Unsymmericl arrangement of shear was Centre of rotation Dk =20454+5=30 ‘Taking moments for k, about YY at wall A. Db) _ 200453245 x40 Sk 30 = 12.0 metres ‘Taking moments for k, about XX at wall C _ Liky) 6 x044x 16 "Th 10 = 6.4 metres ‘The torsional moment M, is M, = F x (20 ~¥) = 100 x (20-12) = 800 KNm ‘The remainder of these calculations are conveniently set out in tabular form: Wall ky by Ge Po 7 0 0 12. 240 2880666) 204. 46.2 We 0a oe aad aa as ee oO ie 4 246 Bi: 3.3 =D: oS. 100 2000. Bae, e foe ee 140392016. yo sa Ss sag a 100 As an example for wall A: ka kara Pr= Ppt Pp =F x RM x A Dk Dlr?) 2» 20x12 = 100 x 22 — g00 x 22%? _ 66.6 20.4 = aK 10x35 800 x OAS 66.6 — 20,4 = 46.2 KN J3.5.3. Shear walls with openings ‘Shear walls with openings can be idealised into equivalent plane frames as shown in figure 3.25. In the plane frame the second moment of area J, of the columns is ‘equivalent to that of the wall on either side of the openings. ‘The second moment of area Jrof the beams is equivalent to that part of the wall between the openings. - (@) Shear Wall (b) Idealised Plane Figure ‘The lengths of beam that extend beyond the openings as shown shaded in figure 3.25 | = afe given a very large stiffnesses so that their second moment of area would be say * 100K. ‘The equivalent plane frame would be analysed by computer with a plane frame program, 3.5.4 Shear walls combined with structural frames - For simplicity in the design of low or medium-height structures shear walls or a lift shaft are usually considered to resist all of the horizontal load, With higher rise structures for reasons of stiffness and economy it often becomes necessary to include ‘the combined action of the shear walls and the structural frames in the design. ‘A method of analysing a structure with shear walls and structural frames as one equivalent linked-plane frame is illustrated by the example in figure 3.26. In the actual structure shown in plan there are four frames of type A and two frames of type B which include shear walls. In the linked frame shown in elevation the four type A frames are lumped together into one frame whose member stif nesses are multiplied by four. Similarly the two type B frames are lumped together into one frame +. Whose member stiffnesses are doubled. These two equivalent frames are then linked =| together by beams pinned at each end. ‘The two shear walls are represented by one column having the sectional properties of the sum of the two shear walls. For purposes of analysis this colurnn is connected to the |___ Test of its frame by beams with a very high bending stiffiness, say 1000 times that of the ‘other beams so as to represent the width and rigidity of the shear wall The link beams transier the loads axially between the two types of frames A and B so < representing the rigid diaphragm action of the conerete floor slabs, These link beams, pinned at their ends, would be given a cross-sectional area of say 1000 times that of the ‘other beams in the frame, As all the beams in the structural frames are pressing against the rigid shear wall in the computer mode! the effects of axial shortening in these beams will be exaggerated, : Analysis of the structure at the ultimate limit state Figure 3.25 ‘Shear wall with openings 575B. Reinforced Conerete Design Figure 3.26 Ideals tink frame for a structure with shear walls and structural frames A A 8 Bo AA 5 shear * —— wate 5 Lateral (@) Plan of Structure toad pins 4No. frames & links of large cross-sectional area pinned at their ends (©) Elevation of Link-Frame Model whereas this would normally be of a secondary magnitude, To overcome this the cross- sectional areas of all the beams in the model may be increased say to 1000 m? and this will virtually remove the effects of axial shortening in the beams. In the computer output the member forces for type A frames would need to be divided by a factor of four and those for type B frames by a factor of two. 3.6 Redistribution of moments Some method of elastic analysis is generally used to calculate the forces in a concrete structure, despite the fact that the structure does not behave elastically near its ultimate load. The assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably true for low stress levels; but as a section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic deformation will occur, This is recognised in EC2, by allowing redistribution of the elastie moments subject to certain limitations. i | { | | | | | i | | i |Fist yi Conezete crushing Fist crack Moment Curvatwe Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that of steel and concrete. | The sttess-strain curves for the two materials (Figures 1.7 and 1.4) show the elastoplastic tehaviour of steel and the plastic behaviour of concrete. The latter will fail at @ relatively stall compressive strain, The exact behaviour of a reinforced concrete - section depends on the relative quantities and the individual properties of the (wo _ materials. However, such a section may be considered virtually elastic until the steel yields; and then plastic until the conerete fails in compression, Thus the plastic __ behaviour is limited by the concrete failure; or more specifically, the concrete failure {limits the rotation that may take place at a section in bending. A typical moment- ‘curvature diagram for a reinforced concrete member is shown in figure 3.27 ‘Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate moment of resistance, M,, it then behaves as a plastic hinge resisting a constant moment of that value. Further loading must be taken by other paris of the structure, with the | chaiiges in moment elsewhere being just the same as if a real hinge existed, Provided rotation of a hinge does not cause crushing of the concrete, further hinges will be + formed until a mechanism is produced. This requirement is considered in more detail in . Analysis of the structure at the ultimate limit state 59 Figure 3.27, ‘Typleal mament-curvature diagram EXAMPLE 3.8 Moment redistribution — single span fixed-end beam ‘The beam shown in figure 3.28 is subjected to an increasing uniformly distributed load: Elastic span moment In the case where the ultimate bending strengths are equal at the span and at the Supports, and where adequate rotation is possible, then the additional load w,, which the member can sustain by plastic behaviour, can be found. At collapse 08 2 wit Opt Additional mid-span moment Where my = (WvaL?)/8 as for a simply supported beam with hinges at A and C,60 Reinforced Concrete Design Figure 3.28 Moment redistribution, ‘one-span beam vant length astic BMD Mq= Mc= My Addons! moments diagram SS Mhinge atari) Sete on = Lt Bastic BMD (Collapse loads) 2 K . A Final Collapse BMD wh? _ wl? 12 24 ‘Thus w Hence wy = 3 where w is the load to cause the first plastic hinge; thus the beam may carry 2 load of 1.33W with redistribution From the design point of view, the elastic bending-moment diagram can be obtained for the required ultimate foading in the ordinary way. Some of these moments may then be reduced; but this will necessitate increasing others to maintain the static equilibrium of the structure. Usually it is the maximum support moments which are reduced, so economising in reinforcing steel and also reducing congestion at’ the columns. The requitements for applying moment redistribution are: 1. Equilibrium between internal and external forves must be maintained, hence it is necessary to recalculate the span bending moments and the shear forces for the load case involved 2. The continuous beams or slabs are predominately subject to flexure. 3, The ratio of adjacent spans be in the range of 0.5 to 2. 4, ‘The column design moments must not be reduced. ‘There are other restrictions on the amount of moment redistribution in order to ensure ductility of the beams or slabs. This entails limitations on the class of the reinforcing steel and of the areas of tensile reinforcement and hence the depth of the neutral axis as described in chapter 4 —‘Analysis of the section’. ) EXAMPLE 3.9 \ Moment redistribution In example 3.3, figure 3.13, it is required t0 reduce the maximum support moment of ‘Mpa = 147kNim as much as possible, but without increasing the span moment above the present maximum value of 18KNm, i |Analysis ofthe structure at the ultimate limit state 61 vy, 3.29 M15 gp, 102 Foue y 8) das, Mores and shears after ‘edstribution a 1 Wd 7 a @) Original Moments (Nn) 40, : a 108 go, 102 = "6 S fie ” () Redistibuted Moments (KN m) 1s tos, Ie Nw 1585 (©) Shears (kN) Figure 3.29a duplicates the original bending-moment diagram (part 3 of figure 3.13) ‘of example 3.3 while figure 3.29 shows the redistributed moments, with the span “moment set at LI8kNm. The moment at support B can be calculated, using a ‘rearrangement of equations 3.4 and 3.1 Van = Vimar = Mas) 201 yL Maa = (%~ -¥) + Mas "For span AB, w = 48.75kNm, therefore Van = VIB + 67) x2 x B75] 34 KN Mon = (24 BE 60 or = 140kNm and Vaa = 292.5 ~ 134 = 158.5KN Reduction in Mya = 147 ~ 140 =7kNm 7x 100 “Ta = 4.8 per cent