Module 5 - Radiography Testing

Radiography
• Radiography is used in a very wide range of
applications including medicine, engineering,
forensics, security, etc.
• In NDT, radiography is one of the most
important and widely used methods.
• Radiographic testing (RT) offers a number of
advantages over other NDT methods,
however, one of its major disadvantages is the
health risk associated with the radiation.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• RT is one of the most widely used NDT
methods for the detection of internal defects
such as porosity and voids.
• With proper orientation of the X-ray beam,
planar defects can also be detected with
radiography.
• It is also suitable for detecting changes in
material composition, thickness
measurements and locating unwanted or
defective components hidden from view in an
assembled part.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
•In general, RT is method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws
by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials.
•The intensity of the radiation that penetrates and passes
through the material is either captured by a radiation sensitive
film (Film Radiography) or by a planer array of radiation sensitive
sensors (Real-time Radiography).
•Film radiography is the oldest approach, yet it is still the most
widely used in NDT.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Basic Principles
• In radiographic testing, the part to be inspected is placed
between the radiation source and a piece of radiation
sensitive film.
• The radiation source can either be an X-ray machine or a
radioactive source.
• The part will stop some of the radiation where thicker and
more dense areas will stop more of the radiation.
• The radiation that passes through the part will expose the
film and forms a shadowgraph of the part.
• The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film through the test object,
• where darker areas indicate more exposure (higher
radiation intensity) and lighter areas indicate less exposure
(higher radiation intensity).
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 The variation in the image darkness can be used to determine thickness or
composition of material and would also reveal the presence of any flaws or
discontinuities inside the material.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Advantages of RT

• Both surface and internal discontinuities can be

detected.
• Significant variations in composition can be detected.
• It can be used on a variety of materials.
• Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access
to surface is not required)
• Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
• Permanent test record is obtained.
• Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Disadvantages
• Hazardous to operators and other nearby
personnel.
• High degree of skill and experience is required for
exposure and interpretation.
• The equipment is relatively expensive (especially
for x-ray sources).
• The process is generally slow.
• Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
• Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
• It requires a two-sided access to the component.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 PHYSICS OF RADIATION
• Nature of Penetrating Radiation
• Both X-rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic waves and
on the electromagnetic spectrum they occupy frequency
ranges that are higher than ultraviolet radiation.
• In terms of frequency, gamma rays generally have higher
frequencies than X-rays.
• The major distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is the
origin where X-rays are usually artificially produced using an
X-ray generator and gamma radiation is the product of
radioactive materials.
• Both X-rays and gamma rays are waveforms, as are light rays,
microwaves, and radio waves.
• X-rays and gamma rays cannot be seen, felt, or heard. They
possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not
influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will generally
travel in straight lines.
• However, they can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar to
light. Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Electromagentic radiation act somewhat like a particle at
times in that they occur as small “packets” of energy and
are referred to as “photons”.
• Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of
energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of
these photons.
• The only difference between the various types of
electromagnetic radiation is the amount of energy found
in the photons.
• Due to the short wavelength of X-rays and gamma rays,
they have more energy to pass through matter than do
the other forms of energy in the electromagnetic
spectrum.
• As they pass through matter, they are scattered and
absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on the
kind of matter and the energy of the rays.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• They are not detected by human senses (cannot
be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
• They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
• Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or
magnetic fields.
• They can be diffracted, refracted to a small
degree at interfaces between two different
materials, and in some cases be reflected.
• Their degree of penetration depends on their
energy and the matter they are traveling through.
• They have enough energy to ionize matter and
can damage or destroy living cells.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Electromagnetic Radiation sources
• X ray source
• In the widely used conventional X radiography, the
source of radiation is an X-ray tube.
• It consists of a glass tube under vacuum, enclosing a
positive electrode or ‘anode’ and a negative electrode
or ‘cathode’.
• The cathode comprises a filament, which when
brought to incandescence by a current of a few
amperes, emits electrons.
• Under the effect of electrical tension set up between
the anode and the cathode, these electrons are
attracted to the anode.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• The stream of electrons is concentrated in a
beam by a cylinder or a focusing cup.
• The anti-cathode is a slip of metal with high
melting point recessed in to the anode, where
it is struck by the beam of electrons.
• It is by impinging on the anti-cathode that fast
moving electrons give rise to X-rays.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• The development of electronics has led to the availability of
constant potential units which give stable operating
conditions.
• The replacement of glass tubes by metal ceramic ones has
led to an extended tube life.
• X-ray machines are characterized by the operating voltage
and current which determine the penetrability and
intensity of radiation produced.
• Modern X-ray generators are available up to 450 kV and 50
mA.
• Highly automated self propelled X-ray mini-crawlers which
travel within pipelines are used to take radiographs of
pipelines and welds from inside.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• The area of the anti-cathode which is struck by the
electron flux is called the ‘focal spot’ or TARGET.
• It is essential that this area should be sufficiently large,
in order to avoid local heating which may damage the
anti-cathode and to allow rapid dissipation of heat.
• The projection of the focal spot on a surface
perpendicular to the axis of the beam of X-rays is
termed as the ‘optical focus’ or ‘focus’.
• This focus has to be as small as possible in order to
achieve maximum sharpness in the radiographic image.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Production of X-rays
• X-rays are produced when fast moving
electrons are suddenly brought to rest by
colliding with matter.
• Electrons may also lose energy by ionization
and excitation of the target atoms.
• The accelerated electrons lose their kinetic
energy (KE) very rapidly at the surface of the
metal plate, and energy conversion occurs.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• Conversion in 3 different ways:
• 1. A very small fraction (< 1 %) is converted into X radiation.
• The conversion factor f can be estimated using an empirical
relation f = 1.1 x 10-9 ZV
• Z = atomic number of the target, V = energy of electron in
volts.
• 2. Approximately 99% of energy of electrons is converted into
heat by increasing the thermal vibration of the atoms of the
target, the temperature of which may rise considerably.
• 3. Some of the electrons have sufficient energy to eject orbital
electrons from the atoms of the target material that are
ionized.
• The secondary electrons produced in this way may escape
from the surface of the target and subsequently be
recaptured by it producing further heat or secondary
radiation.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• The two important distinguishing features of a
beam of X rays are its intensity and quality.
• The first term refers to how much radiation
(quantity).
• The second term refers to the kind of radiation
(how penetrating it is).

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 High energy X-ray source
• Inspection of thicker sections is carried out using high
energy X-rays ( energy value 1 MeV or more).
• Using high energy X-rays, possibilities of large distance
to thickness ratios with correspondingly low
geometrical distortion, short exposure times and high
production rate can be achieved.
• Also, small focal spot size and reduced amount of high
angle scattered X-rays reaching the film result in
radiographs with good contrast, excellent sensitivity
and good resolution.
• A number of machines are available: synchrotron,
betatron, Van De Graff type electrostatic generators etc

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Gamma Radiation
• Radioactivity, is the process by which a nucleus of an
unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing
radiation.
• Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural
radioactivity.
• The other two types of natural radioactivity are alpha
and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles.
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation just like X-
rays.
• Gamma rays are the most energetic form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms.
• Depending upon the ratio of neutrons to protons
within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element
may be stable or unstable.
• When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold
the nucleus of an atom together, the atom is said to be
unstable.
• Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly changing as
a result of the imbalance of energy within the nucleus.
• Over time, the nuclei of unstable isotopes
spontaneously disintegrate, or transform, in a process
known as “radioactive decay” and such material is
called “radioactive material”.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• Gamma-rays
• A nucleus which is in an excited state (unstable
nucleus) may emit one or more photons of discrete
energies.
• The emission of gamma rays does not alter the number
of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has
the effect of moving the nucleus from a higher to a
lower energy state (unstable to stable).
• Gamma ray emission frequently follows beta decay,
alpha decay, and other nuclear decay processes.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Basic terms
• Isotopes
• The number of nucleons (both protons and neutrons)
in the nucleus is the atoms mass number, and each
isotope of a given element has a different mass
number.
• For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are
three isotopes of the element carbon with mass
numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively.
• Half life
• Half-life is the amount of time required for a quantity
to fall to half its value as measured at the beginning of
the time period.
• It is the time required, for half of the unstable,
radioactive atoms in a sample to undergo radioactive
decay.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Gamma ray sources
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from an
unstable nucleus.
• X-ray machines emit a broad band of wavelengths, but
Gamma ray sources emit one or a few discrete wavelengths.
• Radiography with gamma rays has the advantages of
simplicity of the apparatus, compactness of radiation source
and independence from outside power.
• This facilitates examination of pipes, pressure vessels and
other assemblies in which the access to interior is difficult.
• Each isotope with unstable nucleus will have characteristic
nuclear energy levels and intensities for the emitted
radiation.
• The gamma ray energy levels remain constant for a particular
isotope but the intensity decays with time as indicated by the
half life.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• A variety of radioisotopes are produced in a
nuclear reactor but a few have been utilized for
the purposes of radiography.
• Other isotopes are unsuitable for a variety of
reasons such as shorter half life, low intensity and
high cost of production.
• The 4 most popular radiographic sources are
Cobalt 60 (Co-60), Iridium 192 (Ir-192), Caesium
137 (Cs-137) and Thulium 170 (Th-170).
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Manmade radioactive sources are produced by
introducing an extra neutron to atoms of the
source material.
• As the material gets rid of the neutron, energy is
released in the form of gamma rays.
• Two of the most common industrial gamma-ray
sources for industrial radiography are Iridium-192
and Cobalt-60.
• In comparison to an X-ray generator, Cobalt-60
produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MV X-
ray system and Iridium-192 to a 460 kV X-ray
system.
• These high energies make it possible to penetrate
thick materials with a relatively short exposure
time.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Inspection techniques
• With the various techniques available, the choice
of appropriate one is made on the basis of
geometry, size, sensitivity requirements, in-situ
space availability etc.
• The techniques used for various engg
components for radiographic inspection are:
1. Single wall single image technique
2. Double wall penetration technique
a. Double wall single image
b. Double wall double image
c. Double wall superimposing image
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Single wall single image technique
(SWSI)
• Used when both the sides of the specimen are
accessible.
• The source is kept outside and the film inside or
vice versa and the weld is exposed part by part
(a smaller length of weld).
• This is used for plates, cylinders, shells and
large diameter pipes.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Panoramic technique
• The radiation source is kept in the centre of
the pipe and the film is fixed around the weld
on the outer surface of the pipe.
• The total circumferential weld length is
exposed at a time.
• Reduces the examination time considerably.
• It can be effectively employed only when the
source to film distance is sufficient enough to
ensure the proper sensitivity.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Double wall penetration technique
• Used where the inside surface of the pipe is not
accessible.
• The source of radiation and the film are kept
outside.
• The radiation penetrates both the walls of the
pipe.
• This can be effectively adopted in 3 different
methods.
1. Double wall single image (DWSI)
2. Double wall double image (DWDI)
3. Double wall superimposing image
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Double wall single image (DWSI)

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• The radiation source is kept on the pipe or very
near to the OD and just near the weld.
• Used for pipes with diameter more than 90 mm
OD.
• The image quality indicator (IQI) is placed on the
film side.
• Here film side weld only can be interpreted.
• As the interpretable weld length is small, it
requires a number of exposures to cover the entire
weld length, depending upon the pipe diameter.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Double wall double image (DWDI)

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• Specially suited for small diameter pipes up to 90
mm OD.
• The radiation source is kept at a distance SFD
(Source-to-Film Distance) with an offset from the
axis of the weld,
• to avoid the super imposing of the source side
weld over the film side weld and to obtain an
elliptical image on the film.
• Here both the source and film side welds can be
interpreted from the image.
• Requires min. of two exposures, perpendicular to
each other, to cover the entire circumference.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Superimposing technique
• Used when the required offset to obtain
double image could not be possible due to site
restrictions for the pipes with dia : 90mmOD.
• The source is kept at a distance without offset,
thereby the source side weld is superimposed
on the film side weld on the film.
• Requires minimum of 3 exposures each at
120° apart, to cover the entire length of the
weld.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Real time radiography
• Uses X or gamma radiation to produce a visible
volumetric image of an object.
• In Film radiography, the image is viewed in a
static mode; in Real time radiography, the image
is interpreted at the same time as the radiation
passes through the object (Dynamic mode).
• A positive image is normally presented in Real
time radiography, whereas the X-ray film gives a
negative image.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Basic equipment consists of a source of
radiation, a fluorescent screen, mirrors and a
viewing port.
• Object is placed between the source and the
screen.
• The fluorescent screen converts the transmitted
radiation to visible light.
• A specially coated mirror then reflects the
visible image to a viewing port.
• As low light levels are produced during
conventional fluoroscopy, an intensifier is used
to provide brightness.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Real time radiography has the advantages of high
speed and low cost of inspection.
• Real-time radiographic concept can be applied in the
case of microfocal radiography. (focal spot = 100 µm)
• In Real-time microfocal radiography the zooming is
done by dynamically positioning the object with the
manipulators between X-ray tube and image
receptor.
• Real-time radiography can be applied to the
inspection of laser welds or electron beam welds in
thin pipes having thickness 1mm and porosities in
the range of 0.025mm – 0.1mm can be detected in 1
second.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Films used in industrial radiography
• They are similar to photographic film in that there is a
central carrier called film base that is made of thin sheet of
polyester type material.
• This is normally transparent and serves only as the carrier
for the chemically reactive material that forms the
emulsion.
• Emulsion consisting of a silver halide recording medium
with a binder (gelatin) is applied to both sides of the base.
• The emulsion is usually coated on both sides of a flexible,
transparent, blue-tinted base in layers about 0.012 mm
thick.
• The typical total thickness of the X-ray film is approximately
0.23 mm.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Though films are made to be sensitive for X-ray or
gamma-ray, yet they are also sensitive to visible
light.
• When X-rays, gamma-rays, or light strike the film,
some of the halogen atoms are liberated from
the silver halide crystal and thus leaving the silver
atoms alone.
• This change is of such a small nature that it
cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods
and is called a “latent (hidden) image”.
• When the film is exposed to a chemical solution
(developer) the reaction results in the formation
of black, metallic silver.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• The film speed is another important film
parameter.
• A film whose grains would begin reacting to the
exposure considerably sooner than other films –
High speed film.
• For a constant intensity, the grains of a high
speed film would produce the required density
before the grains of slow speed film.
• Grain size in a film affects quality and time of
exposure.
• Faster speed films have larger grains and slow
films have extra-fine or fine grains, and give
better quality even though the exposure time is
longer.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Speed of film
• Speed is defined as the density recorded on
the film resulting from a given radiation input.
• It is measured in terms of inverse of exposure
required to produce a radiograph of a
particular density, under specified conditions.
• A film requiring less exposure is called faster.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Film Selection
• Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal
radiographic technique for a particular component
depends on a number of different factors;
1. Composition, shape, and size of the part being
examined and, in some cases, its weight and location.
2. Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-ray
generator or gamma rays from a radioactive source.
3. Kilovoltage available with the X-ray equipment or the
intensity of the gamma radiation.
4. Relative importance of high radiographic detail or
quick and economical results.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Film Packaging
• Radiographic film can be purchased in a
number of different packaging options and
they are available in a variety of sizes.
• The most basic form is as individual sheets in a
box. In preparation for use, each sheet must
be loaded into a cassette or film holder in a
darkroom to protect it from exposure to light.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• Industrial X-ray films are also available in a
form in which each sheet is enclosed in a light-
tight envelope.
• The film can be exposed from either side
without removing it from the protective
packaging.
• A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in
the darkroom for processing.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• Packaged film is also available in the form of
rolls where that allows the radiographer to cut
the film to any length.
• The ends of the packaging are sealed with
electrical tape in the darkroom.
• In applications such as the radiography of
circumferential welds and the examination of
long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths
of film offer great economic advantage.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Film Handling
• X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid
physical strains, such as pressure, creasing, buckling,
friction, etc.
• Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible holders and
external clamping devices are used, care should be
taken to make sure pressure is uniform.
• Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are
moist or contaminated with processing chemicals, as
well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are
always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free.
• Use of envelope-packed films avoids many of these
problems until the envelope is opened for processing.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Intensifying screens
• The radiographic image is formed by only approximately 1
% of the amount of radiation energy exposed at the film.
• The rest passes through the film and is consequently not
used.
• To utilize more of the available radiation energy, the film is
sandwiched between two intensifying screens.
• The screens help to cut down the exposure time by utilizing
more effectively the radiations reaching the film.
• The intensification effect is primarily due to the liberation
of photoelectrons from the screen.

• Different types of materials are being used for this purpose.

– Lead screens
– Steel and copper screens
– Fluorescent screens
– Salt screens
– Fluorometallic screens
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Lead screens
• Under the impact of X-rays and gamma-rays, lead
screens emit electrons to which the film is sensitive.
• In industrial radiography this effect is made use of: the
film is placed between two layers of lead to achieve the
intensifying effect and intensity improvement of
approximately factor 4 can be realized.
• This method of intensification is used within the energy
range of 80 keV to 420 keV, and applies equally to X-ray
or gamma-radiation, such as produced by Iridium192.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• Intensifying screens are made up of two homogeneous
sheets of lead foil (stuck on to a thin base such as a
sheet of paper or cardboard) between which the film is
placed: the so called front and back screens.
• The thickness of the front screen (source side) must
match the hardness of the radiation being used, so that
it will pass the primary radiation while stopping as
much as possible of the secondary radiation (which has
a longer wavelength and is consequently less
penetrating).
• The surface of lead screens is polished to allow as close
a contact as possible with the surface of the film.
• Flaws such as scratches or cracks on the surface of the
metal will be visible in the radiograph and must,
therefore, be avoided.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Steel and copper screens
• For high-energy radiation, lead is not the best
material for intensifying screens.
• With Cobalt60 gamma-rays, copper or steel have
been shown to produce better quality
radiographs than lead screens.
• With megavoltage X-rays in the energy range 5-8
MeV (linac) thick copper screens produce better
radiographs than lead screens of any thickness.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Fluorescent screens
• The term fluorescence (often mistaken for
phosphorescence) is used to indicate the characteristic of a
substance to instantly emit light under the influence of
electromagnetic radiation.
• The moment radiation stops, so does the lighting effect.
• This phenomenon is made good use of in film based
radiography.
• Certain substances emit so much light when subjected to
ionising radiation, that they have considerably more effect
on the light sensitive film than the direct ionising radiation
itself..

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• Salt screens
• These are fluorescent screens consisting of a thin, flexible
base coated with a fluorescent layer made up from micro-
crystals of a suitable metallic salt (rare earth; usually calcium
tungstate) which fluoresce when subjected to radiation.
• The radiation makes the screen light up.
• The light intensity is in direct proportion to the radiation
intensity.
• With these screens a very high intensification factor of 50 can
be achieved, which means a significant reduction in exposure
time.
• The image quality, however, is poor because of increased
image unsharpness.
• Fluorescent screens are only used in industrial radiography
when a drastic reduction of exposure time, in combination
with the detection ofAsst.
large defects,
Prof. Vishnu is required.
Sankar,DME,RSET
• Fluorometallic screens
• Apart from fluorescent and lead intensifying
screens, there are fluorometallic screens which to
a certain extent combine the advantages of both.
• These screens are provided with a lead foil
between the film base and the fluorescent layer.
• This type of screen is intended to be used in
combination with so-called RCF-film (Rapid Cycle
Film).
• The degree of intensification achieved largely
depends on the spectral sensitivity of the X-ray
film for the light emitted by the screens.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Types of Films
• (a) On the basis of photosensitive emulsion layer
• i) Single coated
• ii) Double coated

• (b) On the basis of intensifying screens

• i) Screen films
• ii) Non-screen films

• (c) On the basis of type of emulsion coating

• i) Blue light sensitive films
• ii) Green light sensitive films (Orthochromatic)
• iii) Red light sensitive films (Panchromatic)

• (d) On the basis of film speed

• i) Standard speed films
• ii) Fast speed films
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• iii) Ultra fast films
 Types of films
• Can be divided into 3 groups on the basis of
radiography considerations.
i. Films for use with salt screens, also known as
salt screen films.
ii. Films for use with metal screens or without
screens also called direct films. This group covers
a large range of film speeds.
iii. Films used for special purposes, such as single
emulsion films.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• i) Salt screen films
• These are used with salt screens.
• Salt screens are fluorescent screens consisting of a
thin, flexible base coated with a fluorescent layer made
up from micro-crystals of a suitable metallic salt
(usually calcium tungstate) which fluoresce when
subjected to radiation.
• The use of salt screens causes loss of definition and
hence these films should be used where their
disadvantages are clearly understood and tolerable.
• For about 90% of the medical work, salt screen films
are used.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• ii) Direct films
• Generally used with metal screens.
• This group covers industrial films and some of the
medical films.
• The contrast of industrial film increases as density
increase, whereas that of a medical film readily
react as a maximum with increasing density.
• Industrial films have coating weights, which are
usually between 2-2.5 times those of normal
screen type medical films.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• iii) Special purpose films
• These find less frequent use in radiography and are
discussed below.
• a) Fluorographic films
• These films are used for photographing a fluorescent
screen on which X-ray image has been projected.
• These films are usually sensitive to blue or blue-green
glow emitted by the screen in use.
• They differ from normal X-ray films in that they are
coated on one side only.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• b) X-ray paper
• Instant cycle X-ray papers are the latest addition
to the family of X-ray films.
• When used in instant cycle processor units, these
papers develop to completion within seconds by
the developing agents contained in the emulsion.
• Good for fast radiographic examinations.
• This paper is cheap compared to X-ray films and
processing cost is very low.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Film Processing
• As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a
transparent, blue-tinted base coated on both sides
with an emulsion.
• The emulsion consists of gelatin containing
microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide crystals,
such as silver bromide and silver chloride.
• When X-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the
crystals or grains, some of the Br- ions are liberated
leaving the Ag+ ions.
• In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a
latent (hidden) image because the change in the grains
is virtually undetectable, but the exposed grains are
now more sensitive to reaction with the developer.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• When the film is processed, it is exposed to
several different chemical solutions for controlled
periods of time.
• Film processing basically involves the following
five steps:
• 1.Development: The developing agent gives up
electrons to convert the silver halide grains to
metallic silver.
• Grains that have been exposed to the radiation
develop more rapidly, but given enough time the
developer will convert all the silver ions into silver
metal.
• Proper temperature control is needed to convert
exposed grains to pure silver while keeping
unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• 2. Stopping the development: The stop bath simply stops
the development process by diluting and washing the
developer away with water.
• 3. Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by
the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals,
leaving the silver metal behind.
• 4. Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all the
processing chemicals.
• 5. Drying: The film is dried for viewing.

• Film processing is a strict science governed by rigid rules of

chemical concentration, temperature, time, and physical
movement.
• Whether processing is done by hand or automatically by
machine, excellent radiographs require a high degree of
consistency and quality control.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Viewing Radiographs
• After the film processing, radiographs are viewed
using a light-box (or they can be digitized and
viewed on a high resolution monitor) in order to
be interpreted.
• In addition to providing diffused, adjustable white
illumination of uniform intensity, specialized
industrial radiography light-boxes include
magnifying and masking aids.
• When handing the radiographs, thin cotton
gloves should be worn to prevent fingerprints on
the radiographs.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Interpretation and Evaluation
of Test results
• The common term for film interpretation is film viewing.
• Film viewing in fact means the evaluation of the image quality of a
radiograph for compliance with the code requirements and the
interpretation of details of any possible defect visible on the film.
• For this purpose, the film is placed in front of an illuminated screen
of appropriate brightness/luminance.
• The edges of the film and areas of low density need to be masked
to avoid glare.
• The following conditions are important for good film interpretation:
– brightness of the illuminated screen (luminance)
– density of the radiograph
– diffusion and evenness of the illuminated screen
– ambient light in the viewing room
– film viewer’s eye-sight
• Poor viewing conditions may cause important defect information on
a radiograph to go unseen.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• The light of the viewing box must be diffusive
and preferably white.
• Radiographs should be viewed in a darkened
room, although total darkness is not
necessary.
• Care must be taken that as little light as
possible is reflected off the film surface
towards the film viewer.
• If the film viewer enters a viewing room from
full daylight, some time must be allowed for
the eyes to adapt to the dark.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• An yearly eye-test for general visual acuity is
required while especially sight at close range
needs to be checked.
• The film viewer must be able to read a Jaeger
number 1 letter at 300 mm distance with one
eye, with or without corrective aids.
• The trained eye is capable of discerning an
abrupt density change/step of 1 %.
• While interpreting, a magnifying glass of
power 3 to 4 can be advantageous.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• The film-interpreter
• Apart from the requirements regarding “viewing
conditions” and “viewing equipment” the film-
interpreter (film viewer) shall have thorough
knowledge of the manufacturing process of the object
being examined and of any defects it may contain.
• The type of defects that may occur in castings,
obviously, differs from those in welded constructions.
• Different welding processes have their own
characteristic defects which the film interpreter must
know to be able to interpret the radiograph.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• To become a qualified NDT operator, various training
courses, course materials and leaflets specifying the
requirements they need to comply with, exist.
• The European NDT industry conforms to the
qualification standards of the American ASNT
organization.
• So far, a training program for film-interpreter has not
been established in similar fashion.
• Textbooks for example are not uniform.
• Sometimes, the IIW-weld defect reference collection is
used, beside which the instructor usually has his own
collection of typical examples, supplemented with
process-specific radiographs.
• ASTM has a reference set of defects in castings
available.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
• In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the
radiographer must also be skilled in radiographic interpretation.
• Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1)
detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation.
• All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity.
• Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an
image.
• The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in
radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the place
of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various
features in the image.
• The following material will help to develop an understanding of
the types of defects found in weldments and how they appear in
a radiograph. Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Discontinuities
• Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical
structure of a material.
• These interruptions may occur in the base
metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones.
• Discontinuities, which do not meet the
requirements of the codes or specifications
used to invoke and control an inspection, are
referred to as defects.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass
material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base
metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow
into the base material without bonding.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal.
Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears
as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in
clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may
appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to
escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called
wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and it will
have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are
contaminated with moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when
heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the welding
process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the
radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld
metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark,
jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld
joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are
propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness
that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged
and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear
as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Radiograph Interpretation - Castings
• The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of
defects that adversely affect the strength of the product.
• Castings are a product form that often receive radiographic inspection
since many of the defects produced by the casting process are volumetric
in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method.
• These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process deficiencies,
which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions
as well as to suitable corrective measures.
• Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the
performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to
identify the type and size of the defects.
• ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to
help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in
components.
• The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been
destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities
present.
• The following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity
types included in existing reference radiograph documents (in graded
types or as single illustrations).
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Radiographic indications for castings
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas or air which
is trapped by the metal. These discontinuities are usually smooth-
walled rounded cavities of a spherical, elongated or flattened shape. If
the sprue is not high enough to provide the necessary heat transfer
needed to force the gas or air out of the mold, the gas or air will be
trapped as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can also be
caused by sand that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low
permeability so that gas cannot escape.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Sand inclusions and dross: are nonmetallic oxides, which appear
on the radiograph as irregular, dark blotches. These come from
disintegrated portions of mold or core walls and/or from oxides
(formed in the melt) which have not been skimmed off prior to
the introduction of the metal into the mold gates. Careful control
of the melt, proper holding time in the ladle and skimming of the
melt during pouring will minimize or obviate this source of
trouble.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed
discontinuities that occur after the melt has solidified. They
generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces.
Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as
a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite.
They may appear on a radiograph as cracks or seams with smooth
or rounded edges.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an otherwise solid
metallic matrix. They may be less or more dense than the matrix
alloy and will appear on the radiograph, respectively, as darker or
lighter indications. The latter type is more common in light metal
castings.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Safety aspects required in Radiography
• Radiation Health Risks
• The health risks associated with the radiation is considered to be
one of the major disadvantages of radiography.
• The amount of risk depends on the amount of radiation dose
received, the time over which the dose is received, and the body
parts exposed.
• The fact that X-ray and gamma-ray radiation are not detectable
by the human senses complicates matters further.
• However, the risks can be minimized and controlled when the
radiation is handled and managed properly in accordance to the
radiation safety rules.
• The active laws all over the world require that individuals
working in the field of radiography receive training on the safe
handling and use of radioactive materials and radiation
producing devices.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• The occurrence of particular health effects from
exposure to ionizing radiation is a complicated
function of numerous factors.
• Type of radiation involved.
• All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce health
effects.
• The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta
particles and gamma and X-rays to cause health
effects is the amount of energy they have.
• Their energy determines how far they can
penetrate into tissue and how much energy they
are able to transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Size of dose received
• The higher the dose of radiation received, the
higher the likelihood of health effects.

• Rate at which the dose is received

• Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of
time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days or
weeks, the results are often not as serious if a
similar dose was received in a matter of minutes.

• Part of the body exposed

• Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to
receive a greater amount of radiation with less
resulting damage than blood forming organs
housed in the upper body.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• The age of the individual
• As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is
less sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once
cell division has slowed, the effects of radiation are
somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly
dividing.

• Biological differences
• Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than
others. Studies have not been able to conclusively
determine the cause of such differences.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Controlling Radiation Exposure
• When working with radiation, there is a concern
for two types of exposure: acute and chronic.
• An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure
to a high dose of radiation during a short period
of time.
• Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes called
“continuous exposure”, is long-term, low level
overexposure.
• Chronic exposure may result in health effects and
is likely to be the result of improper or
inadequate protective measures.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• The three basic ways of controlling exposure
to harmful radiation are:
• 1) limiting the time spent near a source of
radiation,
• 2) increasing the distance away from the
source,
• 3) and using shielding to stop or reduce the
level of radiation.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Applications of Radiographic Testing
• Used to inspect most types of solid materials, both ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys as well as non metallic materials and
composites.
• Used to inspect the condition and proper placement of
components, for liquid level measurement of sealed
components etc.
• Used extensively for castings, weldments and forgings when
there is a critical need to ensure that the object is free from
internal flaws.
• Well suited to the inspection of semiconductor devices for
detection of cracks, broken wires, unsoldered connections,
foreign material and misplaced components, whereas other
methods are limited in ability to inspect semiconductor devices
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Thank you

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET