DYNAMIC ACTIONS OF WIND

1. WIND IS FORCE BASED LOADINGS I.E.

IN WIND , THE BUILDING IS SUBJECTED
TO WIND PRESSURE.
2. WIND FORCES MAY EXPERIENCE
SMALL FLUCTUATION IN THE STRESS
FIELD.
3. REVERSAL OF STRESSES UNER WIND
LOAD OCCUR OVER A LARGE
DURATION OF TIME.

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 DYNAMIC ACTIONS OF EARTHQUAKE
1. IN EARTHQUAKE, IT IS SUBJECTED TO
RANDOM MOTION OF GROUND AT ITS
BASE, WHICH INDUCES INERTIA
FORCES IN THE BUILDINGS I.E.
DISPLACEMENT TYPE LOADINGS.
2. MOTION OF GROUND DURING
EARTHQUAKE IS CYCLIC ABOUT THE
NUETRAL POSITION OF THE
STRUCTURE. I.E. ZERO MEAN CYCLIC.
3. STRESSES IN THE BUILDING MAY
UNDERGO COMPLEET REVERSAL
WITHIN VERY SMALL DURATION OF
THE EARTHQUAKE.

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 BASIC ASPECTS OF SEISMIC DESIGN
1. THE MASS OF THE BUILDING
CONTROLS THE SEISMIC DESIGN.
2. MORE THE MASS OF THE
BUILDING, MORE WILL BE THE
INERTIA FORCES PRODUCED IN
THE BUILDING.
3. BUILDINGS WITH ZERO DAMAGE
DURING EARTHQUAKE IS
ECONOMICALLY NOT VIABLE.
4. SO BUILDINGS ARE ALLOWED
SOME DAMAGE DURING STRONG
GROUND SHAKING BY DESIGNING
THEM FOR A FRACTION(10%-15%)
OF THE FORCE THEY WOULD
EXPERIENCE DURING STRONG
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operQ
tyUoAfKG
ESS.DMA
 TRADITIONAL EARTHQUAKE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
1. TRADITIONAL EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY REQUIRES THAT
NORMAL BUILDINGS SHOULD BE ABLE TO RESIST
(a) FOR MINOR AND FREQUENT SHAKING –THERE SHOULD BE NO DAMAGE TO THE
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS.

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 TRADITIONAL EARTHQUAKE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
1. TRADITIONAL EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY REQUIRES THAT
NORMAL BUILDINGS SHOULD BE ABLE TO RESIST
(a) FOR MODERATE SHAKING – MINOR DAMAGE TO THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND
SOME DAMAGE TO THE NON STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS.

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 TRADITIONAL EARTHQUAKE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
1. TRADITIONAL EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY REQUIRES THAT
NORMAL BUILDINGS SHOULD BE ABLE TO RESIST
(a) FOR SEVERE SHAKING – DAMAGE TO THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS WITH NO
COLLAPSE . THE BUILDING MAY BE UNUSABLE, BUT MAY SAVE THE LIVES OF THE
RESIDENTS.

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 WE ALWAYS DESIGN
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
AND NOT
EARTHQUAKE PROOF DESIGN

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 WHAT DO WE MEAN ?
• 1 DAMAGE IS EXPECTED DURING EARTHUAKE IN NORMAL CONSTRUCTION.

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 HERE COMES THE DUCTILITY TO SAVE US
• 1. THE BUILDINGS SHOULD BE
DESIGNED FOR FRACTION OF
THE ELASTIC LVEL OF SEISMIC
FORCE.
• BY PROVIDING DUCTILITY,
BUILDINGS CAN WITHSTAND
LARGE DISPLACEMENT
WITHOUT COLLAPSE AND
UNDUE LOSS OF STRENGTH.

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 DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE FORCES ?
• 1. EARTHQUAKE SHAKING REQUIRES THE BUILDING
TO BE CAPABLE OF RESISTING CERTAIN RELATIVE
DISPLACEMENT DUE TO IMPOSED DISPLACEMENT AT
BASE.
• IN SEISMIC DESIGN
• ELASTIC BEHAVIOR IS REQUIRED FOR SPECIAL
BUILDINGS LIKE NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
• INELASTIC BEHAVIOR IS REQUIRED FOR NORMAL
BUILDINGS LIKE RESIDENTIAL OR PUBLIC ACCESS
BUILDINGS.

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 DESIGN FOR WIND FORCES
• 1. WIND REQUIRES BUILDINGS
TO BE CAPABLE OF RESISTING
CERTAIN LEVEL OF FORCES
APPLIED ON IT.

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 CSSD RULE
• THE BASIC MANTRA TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURES ARE FOUR LETTERS.
• C – SEISMIC STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION
• S- LATERAL STIFFNESS
• S- LATERAL STRENGTH
• D – DUCTILITY OF THE STRUCTURE

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1. SEISMIC STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION
• (A) GEOMETRY, SHAPE AND SIZE OF THE BUILDING,
Images Property of GSDMA
1. SEISMIC STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION
(B) LOCATION AND SIZE OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS,
Images Property of GSDMA
 1. SEISMIC STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION
(C) LOCATION AND SIZE OF SIGNIFICANT NON-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

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1. SEISMIC STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION
1. STRUCTURES WITH SIMPLE CONFIGURATION I.E. RECTANGULAR PLANS AND
STRAIGHT ELEVATIONS PERFORM WELL DURING EARTHQUAKE.
2. INERTIA FORCES ARE TRANSFERRED STRAIGHT WITHOUT ANY BENDS .

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1. SEISMIC STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION
1. STRUCTURES WITH COMPLEX CONFIGURATION I.E. SETBACKS AND
GEOMETRIC OPENINGS DO NOT PERFORM WELL DURING EARTHQUAKE.
2. INERTIA FORCES HAVE TO BEND BEFORE REACHING THE GROUND

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2. LATERAL STIFFNESS
• LATERAL STIFFNESS IS THE RIGIDITY OF AN OBJECT — THE EXTENT TO WHICH IT
RESISTS DEFORMATION IN RESPONSE TO AN APPLIED EARTHQUAKE FORCES.
• THE COMPLEMENTARY CONCEPT IS FLEXIBILITY - THE MORE FLEXIBLE AN
OBJECT IS, THE LESS STIFF IT IS.
• STIFFNESS OF THE STRUCTURE DECREASES WITH THE INCREASE IN DAMAGE OF
THE STRUCTURE.

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3. LATERAL STRENGTH
• LATERAL STRENGTH REFERS TO THE MAXIMUM RESISTANCE THAT
THE BUILDING OFFERS DURING ITS ENTIRE HISTORY OF RESISTANCE
TO RELATIVE DEFORMATION.

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4. DUCTILITY OF THE STRUCTURE
• DUCTILITY TOWARDS LATERAL DEFORMATION REFERS THE RATIO OF THE
MAXIMUM DEFORMATION AND THE IDEALIZED YIELD DEFORMATION. THE
MAXIMUM DEFORMATION CORRESPONDS TO THE MAXIMUM DEFORMATION
SUSTAINED BY IT.

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 SUMMARY OF CSSD RULE
GOOD SEISMIC CONFIGURATION – BUILDINGS SHOULD HAVE GOOD
SEISMIC CONFIGURATION WITH NO COMPLEXITIES.
• GOOD LATERAL STIFFNESS - IN BOTH OF THE DIRECTIONS SO THAT IT
DOES NOT SWAY MUCH AND DAMAGE TO BE MINIMUM.
• GOOD LATERAL STRENGTH - IN BOTH OF THE DIRECTIONS TO RESSIT
GROUND SHAKING WITH MINIMUM DAMAGE AND NOT EXCESSIVE
STRENGTH TO KEEP THE STRUCTURE ECONOMICALLY VIABLE. THIS
BAALNCE IS VERY IMPORTANT FOR STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS.
• GOOD DUCTILITY - TO ACCOMMODATE THE LATERAL DEFORMATION
BETWEEN BASE AND THE ROOF ODF THE BUILDING.

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 ALL BUILDINGS
ARE JUST
VERTICAL
CANTILEVERS
PROJECTING
OUT FROM THE
SURFACE OF
THE EARTH.

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 THREE PRINICIPAL BEHAVIOR FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS
• THEY SHOULD BE STRONG ENOUGH TO NOT SUSTAIN ANY DAMAGE
DURING WEAK EARTHQUAKE SHAKING.
• THEY SHOULD BE STIFF ENOUGH TO NOT SWING TOO MUCH, EVEN DURING
WEAK EARTHQUAKES.
• THEY SHOULD NOT COLLAPSE DURING THE EXPECTED STRONG
EARTHQUAKE SHAKING TO BE SUSTAINED BY THEM EVEN WITH
SIGNIFICANT STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.

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A REMARKABLE QUOTE - by Nathan M. Newmark and Emilo Rosenbleuth

• If a civil engineer is to acquire fruitful experience in a brief span of

time, expose him to the concepts of earthquake engineering, no
matter if he is later not to work in earthquake country.”

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 SEVEN STEPS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN
• ADOPT A SIMPLE GOMETRY AND WELL PROPORTIONED STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT.
1.

• ADOPT A STRONG STRUCTURAL SYSTEM THAT CAN RESIST BOTH VERTICAL AND LATERAL LOADS.
2.

• DETERMINE THE PRELIMINARY SIZING OF INDIVIDUAL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS BASED ON THE ACCEPTABLE SLENDERNESS RATIOS AND MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT
3. REQUIREMENTS.

• IDENTIFY A DESIRED COLLAPSE MECHANISM IN WHICH THE BUILDING SHOULD DEFORM IN, UNDER THE EXTREME CONDITION OF COLLAPSE, FOR EXTREME CASE.
4. USUALLY, IN FRAME STRUCTURES, PLASTIC MOMENT HINGES ARE DESIRED AT THE ENDS OF THE BEAMS WITH GOOD ROTATIONAL DUCTILITY.

• PREPARE A BASIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MODEL OF THE BUILDING. IMPOSE A HORIZONTAL DEFORMATION ON THE BUILDING CORRESPONDING TO
5. PERMISSIBLE INTER-STOREY DRIFT AT ALL STOREYS, AND PERFORM AN ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF THE BUILDING

• PERFORM SEISMIC DESIGN OF ALL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF THE BUILDING I.E. SLABS, BEAMS, COLUMNS, STRUCTURAL WALLS, FOUNDATION ETC.
6.
• ESTIMATE THE FUNDAMENTAL TRANSLATIONAL NATURAL PERIOD T OF THE BUILDING, AND CALCULATE THE DESIGN SEISMIC BASE SHEAR VB ON THE
BUILDING.. APPLY THE DESIGN SEISMIC BASE SHEAR VB ON THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MODEL OF THE BUILDING. AND, CHECK THE ADEQUACY OF THE
7. DESIGN OF ALL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS, INCLUDING BEAM-COLUMN AND BEAM-WALL JOINTS.

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ACCELERATION TIME HISTORY AT THE BASE OF A BUILDING IS CONVERTED TO A FORCE TIME HISTORY FOR THE MASS OF THE
BUILDING WITH THE BASE FIXED
 IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN SEISMIC DESIGN CODES
• IN THE FORCE BASED EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN, CODES REPRESENT THE
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED INERTIA FORCES IN THE FORM OF DESIGN EQUIVALENT
STATIC LATERAL FORCE. THIS FORCE IS CALLED AS THE SEISMIC DESIGN BASE
SHEAR VB
• THIS FORCE DEPENDS ON THE SEISMIC HAZARD AT THE SITE OF THE BUILDING
REPRESENTED BY THE SEISMIC ZONE FACTOR Z.
• CODES TEND TO ADOPT THE IMPORTANCE FACTOR I FOR INCREASING THE
ELASTIC RANGE OF THE BUILDINGS.
• THE NET SHAKING OF A BUILDING IS A COMBINED EFFECT OF THE ENERGY
CARRIED BY THE EARTHQUAKE AT DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES AND THE NATURAL
PERIODS OF THE BUILDING. WHICH IS DENOTED BY STRUCTURAL FLEXIBILITY
FACTOR SA/G.
• TO MAKE NORMAL BUILDINGS ECONOMICAL, DESIGN CODES ALLOW SOME
DAMAGE FOR REDUCING COST OF CONSTRUCTION WITH THE HELP OF RESPONSE
REDUCTION FACTOR R, WHICH IS HIGHER FOR DUCTILE BUILDINGS AND
ImSaM
geAsLPLrEoRpeFrO
tyRofBG
RSITDTMLAE ONES.
 INDIAN STANDARD IS
• As per the Indian Seismic Code IS:1893 (Part 1) - 2016, Design Base
Shear VB is given by:
𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴ℎ 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑊𝑊
2𝑅𝑅 𝑔𝑔

• Z = SEISMIC ZONE FACTOR

• I = IMPORTANCE FACTOR
• R = RESPONSE REDUCTION FACTOR
• Sa/g = DESIGN ACCELERATION SPECTRUM VALUE.
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 Sa/g THE DESIGN ACCELERATION SPECTRUM VALUE AS PER IS 1893-2016

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 Seismic Zone Factor Z as per IS:1893 (Part 1) - 2016

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 IMPORTANCE FACTOR I AS PER IS 1893-2016

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 RESPONSE REDIUCTION FACTOR AS PER IS1893-2016

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 DESIGN ACCELERATION SPECTRUM CURVE AS PER IS1893-2016

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 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BUILDING

THE IMPORTANT DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BUILDINGS ARE

MODES OF OSCILLATION AND DAMPING.
A MODE OF OSCILLATION OF A BUILDING IS DEFINED BY ASSOCIATED
NATURAL PERIOD AND DEFORMED SHAPE IN WHICH IT OSCILLATES.

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 WHAT IS NATURAL PERIOD OF THE BUILDING ?
THE TIME TAKEN BY IT TO UNDERGO ONE COMPLETE CYCLE OF OSCILLATION
UNDER THE APPLICATION OF A LATERAL FORCE
IT IS AN INHERENT PROPERTY OF A BUILDING CONTROLLED BY ITS MASS M AND
STIFFNESS K.

TN = SECONDS
M = MASS OF THE BUILDING
K = STIFFNESS OF THE BUILDING
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 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS ,STIFFNESS AND TIME PERIODS

TIME PERIOD IS DIRECTLY

PROPORTIONAL TO MASS
OF THE BUILDING
TIME PERIOD IS INVERSELY
PROPORTINAL TO
STIFFNESS OF THE
BUILDING.
HEAVY AND FLEXIBLE BUILDINGS HAVE LARGER NATURAL PERIOD THAN
LIGHTER AND STIFFER BUILDINGS.

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 WHAT IS THE FREQUENCY OF THE BUILDING ?

FREQUENCY IS THE RECIPROCAL OF

THE TIME PERIOD

1
𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑇
UNIT OF FREQUENCY IS HERTZ (Hz)
THE BUILIDING OFFERS LEAST RESISTANCE WHEN SHAKEN AT ITS NATURAL
FREQUENCY.
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS WORK WITH TIME PERIOD RATHER THAN
FREQUENCY,ALTHOUGH BOTH ARE VERY IMPORTANT.
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 CAN BUILDINGS SHOW RESONANCE ?
• THE ANSWER IS YES ! , BUT VERY RARELY.
• RESONANCE WILL OCCUR IN A BUILDING, ONLY IF FREQUENCY AT WHICH
GROUND SHAKES IS STEADY AT OR NEAR ANY OF THE NATURAL FREQUENCIES
OF BUILDING AND APPLIED OVER AN EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME.
• THEN WHY RARELY ??

1. THE GROUND MOTION CONTAINS A SET OF FREQUENCIES THAT ARE

CONTINUALLY AND RANDOMLY CHANGING VERY FAST. THERE IS NO
GUARANTEE THAT THE GROUND SHAKING CONTAINS THE SAME FREQUENCY
(AND THAT TOO CLOSE TO NATURAL FREQUENCY OF THE BUILDING)
THROUGHOUT OR EVEN FOR A SUSTAINED DURATION.
2. SECOND, THE SMALL DURATION FOR WHICH THE GROUND SHAKING OCCURS
AT FREQUENCIES CLOSE TO FN OF THE BUILDING, IS INSUFFICIENT TO BUILD
R ES O
Images N ANT CONDITIONS IN MOST CASES OF THE USUAL GROUND MOTIONS
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ONE OF FEW CASES OF RESONANCE DURING EARTHQUAKE
SHAKING WAS NOTICED DURING THE
• 1985 MEXICO CITY EARTHQUAKE – THE BUILDINGS HAVING NATURAL PERIODS
IN A SMALL RANGE ALONE COLLAPSED, WHILE THOSE WITH NATURAL PERIODS
OUTSIDE THE RANGE PERFORMED NORMALLY.

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 FUNDAMENTAL NATURAL PERIOD OF BUILDING
• EVERY BUILDING HAS NUMBER OF NATURAL FREQUENCIES AT WHICH IT OFFERS MINIMUM
RESISTANCE OT SHAKING
• EACH OF THESE NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND THE ASSOCIATED DEFORMATION SHAPE OF A
BUILDING CONSTITUTE A NATURAL MODE OF OSCILLATION.
• EACH OF THESE MODE OF OSCILLATION WITH THE SMALLEST NATURAL FREQUENCY AND
LARGEST TIME PERIOD IS CALLED FUNDAMENTAL MODE.
• T1 = FUNDAMENTAL NATURAL
PERIOD
• F1 = 1/T1 = FUNDAMENTAL
NATURAL FREQUENCY

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 FUNDAMENTAL NATURAL PERIOD OF BUILDING

FURTHER, REGULAR BUILDINGS HELD AT THEIR BASE FROM TRANSLATION IN

THE THREE DIRECTIONS, HAVE
(1) THREE FUNDAMENTAL TRANSLATIONAL NATURAL PERIODS,
TX1 = ASSOCIATED WITH ITS HORIZONTAL TRANSLATIONAL OSCILLATION ALONG X
TY1 = ASSOCIATED WITH ITS HORIZONTAL TRANSLATIONAL OSCILLATION ALONG Y
TZ1 = ASSOCIATED WITH ITS HORIZONTAL TRANSLATIONAL OSCILLATION ALONG Z

(2) ONE FUNDAMENTAL ROTATIONAL NATURAL PERIOD Tθ1 ASSOCIATED WITH

ITS ROTATION ABOUT AN AXIS PARALLEL TO Z AXIS.

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 CASE STUDY OF 10 DIFFERENT BUILDINGS
FOR TIME PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

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Building Description Number of Number of bay h
Storeys X-DIRECTION Y-DIRECTION Column dim (mm × mm)

A 2 STOREY BUILDING 2 4 3 400X400

B BENCHMARK 5 STOREY BUILDING 5 4 3 400X400
C BENCHMARK BUILDING WITH 5 4 3 550X300
RECTANGULAR COLUMNS ORIENTED
ALONG X DIRECTION

D BENCHMARK BUILDING WITH 5 4 3 300X550

RECTANGULAR COLUMNS ORIENTED
ALONG Y DIRECTION

E 10-STOREY BUILDING WITH 10 4 3 UPPER 5 STOREYS 400X400

VARYING COLUMN SIZE ALONG BOTTOM 5 STOREYS 600X600
BUILDING HEIGHT

F 10-STOREY BUILDING 10 4 3 600X600

G 25-STOREY BUILDING WITH 25 4 3 Upper 5 storey: 400 × 400
VARYING COLUMN SIZE ALONG
Middle 10 storey: 600 × 600
BUILDING HEIGHT
Images Property of GSDMA Bottom 10 storey: 800 × 800
Building Description Number of Number of bay
Storeys Column dim (mm × mm)
X-DIRECTION Y-DIRECTION

H 25 storey building 25 4 3 800x800

j 25-STOREY BUILDING WITH 25 4 3 800x800

IMPOSED MASS 10% LARGER THAN
BUILDING H

K 25-STOREY BUILDING WITH 25 4 3 800X800

IMPOSED MASS 20% LARGER THAN
BUILDING H

NOTE:

1. BAY LENGTH IN EACH PLAN DIRECTION IS 4M(CENTER TO CENTER)

2. ALL COLUMNS AT EACH STOREY ARE OF THE SAME SIZE.

3. ALL BEAMS IN THE BUILDINGS ARE OF THE SAME SIZE (300MMX400MM)

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STIFFNESS CASE STUDY
 EFFECT OF STIFFNESS
• INCREASING THE COLUMN SIZE INCREASES BOTH STIFFNESS AND MASS OF
BUILDINGS. BUT, WHEN THE PERCENTAGE INCREASE IN STIFFNESS AS A
RESULT OF INCREASE IN COLUMN SIZE IS LARGER THAN THE PERCENTAGE
INCREASE IN MASS, THE NATURAL PERIOD REDUCES.
• THUS, BUILDING F (WITH 600×600 COLUMN THROUGHOUT) IS RELATIVELY
STIFFER THAN BUILDING E AND THE FUNDAMENTAL PERIOD OF THE STIFFER
BUILDING F (1.35 S) IS ONLY MARGINALLY SMALLER THAN THAT OF THE
BUILDING E (1.36 S).
• BETWEEN BUILDINGS G AND H, THE LATTER IS MUCH STIFFER. BUT, WHILE
INCREASING STIFFNESS, THE MASS IS ALSO INCREASED.HENCE TIME PERIOD
INCREASES.

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EFFECT OF MASS OF THE BUILDING
ON TIME PERIOD
 EFFECT OF MASS OF THE BUILDING ON TIME PERIOD

• SEISMIC MASS OF THE BUILDING IS THE MASS OF A BUILDING

THAT IS EFFECTIVE IN LATERAL OSCILLATION DURING
EARTHQUAKE SHAKING . IT IS THE SUM OF ITS SEISMIC
MASSES AT DIFFERENT FLOOR LEVELS.
• SEISMIC MASS AT EACH FLOOR LEVEL IS EQUAL TO FULL
DEAD LOAD PLUS APPROPRIATE FRACTION OF LIVE LOAD.
• AN INCREASE IN MASS OF A BUILDING INCREASES ITS
NATURAL PERIOD

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EFFECT OF THE BUILDING HEIGHT
 EFFECT OF THE BUILDING HEIGHT ON TIME PERIOD
• As the height of building increases, its mass increases but its overall
stiffness decreases.

• HENCE, THE NATURAL PERIOD OF A BUILDING INCREASES

WITH INCREASE IN HEIGHT

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 EFFECT OF COLUMN ORIENTATION ON TIME PERIOD

NATURAL PERIOD OF BUILDINGS ALONG THE LONGER DIRECTION OF

COLUMN CROSS-SECTION IS SMALLER THAN THAT ALONG THE SHORTER DIRECTION
Images Property of GSDMA
 EFFECT OF UNREINFORCED
MASONRY INFILLS:

Property of GSDMA
 EFFECT OF UNREINFORCED MASONRY INFILL WALLS IN RC FRAMES

• THE SPACE BETWEEN THE BEAMS AND COLUMNS OF BUILDING ARE

SOMETIMES FILLED WITH UNREINFORCED MASONRY (URM) INFILLS.
• THESE INFILLS PARTICIPATE IN THE LATERAL RESPONSE OF BUILDINGS AND AS
A CONSEQUENCE ALTER THE LATERAL STIFFNESS OF BUILDINGS. HENCE,
NATURAL PERIODS (AND MODES OF OSCILLATION) OF THE BUILDING ARE
AFFECTED IN THE PRESENCE OF URM.

• SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR OF SHORTER BUILDINGS IS AFFECTED SIGNIFICANTLY AS

COMPARED TO THAT OF TALLER BUILDINGS, WHEN STIFFNESS ENHANCEMENT
DUE TO URM IS CONSIDERED

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 TWO TYPES OF CROSS SECTIONAL Properties(EFFECTIVE STIFFNESS)
GROSS SECTION PROPERTIES CRACKED SECTION PROPERTIES
1. GROSS CROSS-SECTIONAL PROPERTIES ARE 1. EFFECTIVE PROPERTIES REPRESENT REDUCED
COMPUTED USING GROSS SECTIONAL AREA STIFFNESS OF MEMBERS IN THEIR DAMAGED STATE.
WITHOUT CONSIDERING THE STIFFNESS WHEN SECTIONS UNDERGO EXTENSIVE CRACKING
ENHANCEMENT DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF DURING EARTHQUAKE SHAKING.
LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
2. EFFECTIVE PROPERTIES REPRESENT REDUCED
2. THE EXTENT OF CRACKING OF THE MEMBER IS STIFFNESS OF MEMBERS IN THEIR DAMAGED STATE
ASSUMED TO BE MINIMUM AND ARE EXPRESSED AS A FRACTION OF GROSS
STIFFNESS
3. THEY ARE USED FOR ESTIMATING FORCE AND
DEFORMATION DEMANDS ON MEMBERS SUBJECTED
TO GRAVITY LOADING BASED ON LINEAR ANALYSIS.

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EFFECT OF CRACKED SECTIONS ON ANALYSIS OF RC FRAMES
 https://www.udemy.com/etabscourse/
NATURAL PERIOD OF BUILDING ESTIMATED USING
GROSS STIFFNESS IS LOWER THAN NATURAL PERIOD OF
BUILDING ESTIMATED USING EFFECTIVE STIFFNESS.
 SUMMARY
THE NATURAL PERIODS OF BUILDINGS DEPEND ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF MASS AND
STIFFNESS ALONG THE BUILDING (IN ALL DIRECTIONS).

1. NATURAL PERIODS OF BUILDINGS REDUCE WITH INCREASE IN STIFFNESS.

2. NATURAL PERIODS OF BUILDINGS INCREASE WITH INCREASE IN MASS.

3. TALLER BUILDINGS HAVE LARGER FUNDAMENTAL TRANSLATIONAL NATURAL PERIODS.

4. BUILDINGS TEND TO OSCILLATE IN THE DIRECTIONS IN WHICH THEY ARE MOST FLEXIBLE
AND HAVE LARGER TRANSLATIONAL NATURAL PERIODS.

5. NATURAL PERIODS OF BUILDINGS DEPEND ON AMOUNT AND EXTENT OF SPATIAL

DISTRIBUTION OF UNREINFORCED MASONRY INFILL WALLS.
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 MODE SHAPE OF THE Building
• MODE SHAPE OF OSCILLATION ASSOCIATED WITH A NATURAL PERIOD OF A
BUILDING IS THE DEFORMED SHAPE OF THE BUILDING WHEN SHAKEN AT THE
NATURAL PERIOD. HENCE, A BUILDING HAS AS MANY MODE SHAPES AS THE
NUMBER OF NATURAL PERIODS.
• FOR A BUILDING, THERE ARE INFINITE NUMBERS OF NATURAL PERIOD.

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 MODE SHAPES
• THE DEFORMED SHAPE OF THE BUILDING ASSOCIATED WITH
OSCILLATION AT FUNDAMENTAL NATURAL PERIOD IS TERMED ITS
FIRST MODE SHAPE.
• SIMILARLY, THE DEFORMED SHAPES ASSOCIATED WITH OSCILLATIONS
AT SECOND, THIRD, AND OTHER HIGHER NATURAL PERIODS ARE
CALLED SECOND MODE SHAPE, THIRD MODE SHAPE, AND SO ON,
RESPECTIVELY.
• THERE ARE THREE BASIC MODES OF OSCILLATION,
1. PURE TRANSLATIONAL ALONG X-DIRECTION
2. PURE TRANSLATIONAL ALONG Y-DIRECTION AND
3. PURE ROTATION ABOUT Z-AXIS.

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 I AM GETTING CONFUSED ABOUT MODE SHAPES ! PLEASE HELP !
• THE OVERALL RESPONSE OF A BUILDING IS THE SUM OF THE RESPONSES OF
ALL OF ITS MODES.
• IN REGULAR BUILDINGS TOO, LOCATION AND SIZE OF THE STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS SHOULD BE SUCH THAT TORSIONAL AND MIXED MODES OF
OSCILLATION DO NOT PARTICIPATE MUCH IN THE OVERALL OSCILLATORY
MOTION OF THE BUILDING.
• ONE WAY OF AVOIDING TORSIONAL MODES TO BE THE EARLY MODES OF
OSCILLATION IN BUILDINGS IS INCREASING THE TORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF
BUILDING.
• ADDING BRACES OR INTRODUCING STRUCTURAL WALLS IN SELECT BAYS
INCREASES THE TORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF THE BUILDING AND TORSIONAL AND
MIXED MODES DO NOT PARTICIPATE MUCH IN THE OSCILLATORY MOTION OF
THE BUILDING.

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 THREE FACTORS INFLUENCING MODE SHAPES
(1) EFFECT OF FLEXURAL STIFFNESS OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
- The overall lateral translational mode shapes depend on flexural stiffness of beams relative
to that of adjoining columns. The fundamental mode shape of buildings changes from
flexural-type to shear-type as beam flexural stiffness increases relative to that of column
• In pure flexural response (when flexural stiffness of beams is small compared to that of the
adjoining columns), column deformation is
predominantly in single curvature bending leading
to overall flexure-type deformation behavior of
(The cantilever) building

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 FOUR FACTORS INFLUENCING MODE SHAPES
(1) EFFECT OF FLEXURAL STIFFNESS OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
- In pure shear-type deformation behavior (when flexural stiffness of beams is
large compared to that of the adjoining columns), column deformation is
predominantly in double curvature bending within in each storey leading to
overall shear-type deformation behavior of building.
- Often in low-rise and mid-rise buildings that are
designed as per codes, the relative stiffness
of frame members lies in between the
above two extreme cases.

Images Property of GSDMA

 FOUR FACTORS INFLUENCING MODE SHAPES
2. EFFECT OF AXIAL STIFFNESS OF VERTICAL MEMBERS
• Mode shapes depend on axial stiffness of vertical members in a building (i.e.,
of columns or structural walls).
• Small axial stiffness causes significant axial compressive and tensile
deformation in columns in addition to single or double curvature flexural
deformations.
• Additional axial deformation changes the fundamental mode shape from
shear type to flexural type, particularly in tall buildings.
• Pure flexural response is not desirable because of large lateral sway,
particularly at higher floors.
• Hence, designers ensure that the axial areas are large of building columns
and structural walls.

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 FOUR FACTORS INFLUENCING MODE SHAPES
3. EFFECT OF DEGREE OF FIXITY AT MEMBER ENDS
• TWO CONDITIONS DETERMINE THE ROTATIONAL FLEXIBILITY OF COLUMNS AT THE BASE
OF THE BUILDING.
• THE FIRST CONDITION IS WHEN THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING DELIBERATELY
CREATES ROTATIONAL FLEXIBILITY AT THOSE LOCATIONS.
• AND, THE SECOND IS WHEN THE
FLEXIBILITY OF SOIL UNDERNEATH
THE FOOTINGS OF COLUMNS
ALLOWS ROTATION OF THE COLUMNS;
THIS HAPPENS WHEN INDIVIDUAL
FOOTINGS ARE USED.

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 FOUR FACTORS INFLUENCING MODE SHAPES
3. EFFECT OF DEGREE OF FIXITY AT MEMBER ENDS
• HIGHLY FLEXIBLE SOILS MAKE COLUMN BASES AS GOOD AS HINGED,
AND ROCKY LAYERS BELOW AS GOOD AS FIXED.
• LACK OF ROTATIONAL FIXITY AT COLUMN BASE (HINGED CONDITION)
INCREASES THE LATERAL SWAY IN THE LOWER STOREY THAN IN
HIGHER STOREY, AND THE OVERALL RESPONSE OF THE BUILDING IS
MORE OF SHEAR-TYPE.
• ON THE OTHER HAND, FULL ROTATIONAL FIXITY AT COLUMN BASE
RESTRICTS THE LATERAL SWAY AT THE FIRST STOREY AND THUS,
INDUCES INITIAL FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR NEAR THE BASE .
• THE OVERALL RESPONSE OF THE BUILDING IS STILL OF SHEAR-TYPE
DUE TO FLEXURAL STIFFNESS OF BEAMS

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 FOUR FACTORS INFLUENCING
MODE SHAPES
4. EFFECT OF BUILDING HEIGHT

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 FOUR FACTORS INFLUENCING MODE SHAPES
4. EFFECT OF BUILDING HEIGHT
- IN WELL-DESIGNED LOW HEIGHT MOMENT FRAME BUILDINGS, THE
FUNDAMENTAL TRANSLATIONAL MODE OF OSCILLATION IS OF SHEAR-TYPE.
- BUILDINGS BECOME LATERALLY FLEXIBLE AS THEIR HEIGHT INCREASES.
- AS A RESULT, THE NATURAL PERIOD OF BUILDINGS INCREASE WITH INCREASE
IN HEIGHT.
- HOWEVER, THE FUNDAMENTAL MODE SHAPE DOES NOT CHANGE
SIGNIFICANTLY (FROM SHEAR TYPE TO FLEXURE TYPE).
- FLEXURAL TYPE BEHAVIOR IS EXHIBITED ONLY NEAR THE LOWER STOREYS
WHERE THE AXIAL DEFORMATION IN THE COLUMNS COULD BE SIGNIFICANT,
PARTICULARLY IN TALL BUILDINGS.
- HOWEVER AT HIGHER FLOOR LEVELS, THE RESPONSE CHANGES TO SHEAR TYPE
AS THE AXIAL LOAD LEVEL LOWERS.
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 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE MASONRY WALL ?
• URM infill walls are assumed to not carry any vertical or lateral forces,
and hence, declared as non-structural elements insofar as transfer of
forces is concerned between structural elements (e.g., beams and
columns) that are generated in the building during earthquake shaking.
• This assumption causes a large gap between the building that is
considered in analysis and design, and that finally constructed.

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 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE MASONRY WALL ?
• This is attributed to the fact that URM infills participate in lateral force
transfer.

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 TIPS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS

Design engineers need to control

both the mass and stiffness of
buildings.
OK, BUT HOW ???????????

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 TIPS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS
POINT NO. 1

1) THE FUNDAMENTAL MODES OF OSCILLATION SHOULD BE THE

TRANSLATIONAL NATURAL MODES OF OSCILLATION, AND THAT TOO ARE THE
PURE TRANSLATIONAL MODE SHAPES AND NOT DIAGONAL OR TORSIONAL
OSCILLATIONS.

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 TIPS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS
POINT NO. 2
(2) ALL TORSIONAL MODES OF OSCILLATION AND MIXED (TORSIONAL-CUM-
TRANSLATIONAL) MODES OF OSCILLATION, IF ANY, SHOULD PUSHED TO
POSSESS NATURAL PERIODS OUTSIDE THE RANGE 0.04-2.00S, BY INCREASING
THE TORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF THE BUILDING THROUGH THE INTRODUCTION
OF STRUCTURAL WALLS ALONG THE PERIMETER OF THE BUILDING.

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 TIPS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS
POINT NO. 3

• (3) BUILDINGS SHOULD NOT BE MADE STRUCTURALLY BI-SYMMETRIC IN THE

TWO PLAN DIRECTIONS RESULTING IN THE SAME NATURAL PERIOD FOR THE
TWO PURE HORIZONTAL TRANSLATIONAL MODES OF OSCILLATION.
• NO TWO NATURAL PERIODS OF PURE TRANSLATIONAL MODES OF VIBRATION
SHOULD BE WITHIN 15% OF THE LARGER NATURAL PERIOD. THIS 15% LIMIT IS
ARRIVED AT TO ENSURE THAT THE WIDTH OF THE PEAK RESPONSE (TAKEN AS
THAT CORRESPONDING TO 70% OF PEAK RESPONSE AS DEFINED BY HALF
POWER METHOD FOR ESTIMATING DAMPING) AT A CERTAIN NATURAL
PERIOD DOES NOT OVERLAP WITH THAT AT THE ADJACENT NATURAL PERIOD

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GSDMA
 TIPS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS
POINT NO. 4

(4) THE AXIAL STIFFNESS OF THE VERTICAL ELEMENTS SHOULD BE HIGH, TO

ENSURE SHEAR-TYPE LATERAL TRANSLATIONAL MODE SHAPE OF OSCILLATION.
THIS WILL RESULT IN REDUCED OVERALL LATERAL DEFORMATION OF THE
BUILDING.

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 LET’S LEARN ABOUT DAMPING !!!!!

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 DAMPING IN SIMPLE WORDS !!!

• BUILDINGS SET TO OSCILLATION BY EARTHQUAKE SHAKING

EVENTUALLY COME BACK TO REST WITH TIME. THIS IS DUE TO
DISSIPATION OF THE OSCILLATORY ENERGY THROUGH CONVERSION
TO OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY, LIKE HEAT AND SOUND.
• IT IS A PHENOMENON THAT MAKES ANY VIBRATING
BODY/STRUCTURE TO DECAY IN AMPLITUDE OF MOTION GRADUALLY
BY MEANS OF ENERGY DISSIPATION THROUGH VARIOUS
MECHANISMS.

THE MECHANISM OF THIS CONVERSION IS CALLED DAMPING.

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 • Damping is expressed as a fraction of the critical damping (which is
the minimum value of damping at which the building gradually comes
to rest from any one side of its neutral position without undergoing
any oscillation).
• EXAMPLE , Indian seismic codes recommends the use of 5% damping
for all natural modes of oscillation of reinforced concrete buildings,
and 2% for steel structures.

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 THREE TYPES OF DAMPING
1. STRUCTURAL DAMPING
• IN NORMAL AMBIENT SHAKING OF BUILDING, MANY FACTORS IMPEDE ITS
MOTION, E.G., DRAG FROM AIR RESISTANCE AROUND THE BUILDING,
MICRO CRACKING OF CONCRETE IN THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS, AND
FRICTION BETWEEN VARIOUS INTERFACES IN THE BUILDING (LIKE
MASONRY INFILL WALLS AND RC BEAMS AND COLUMNS). THIS DAMPING
IS CALLED STRUCTURAL DAMPING.

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 THREE TYPES OF DAMPING
2. HYSTERETIC DAMPING
• UNDER STRONG EARTHQUAKE SHAKING, BUILDINGS ARE DAMAGED.
• REINFORCEMENT BARS AND CONCRETE OF THE RC BUILDINGS ENTER
NONLINEAR RANGE OF MATERIAL BEHAVIOR.
• THE DAMPING THAT ARISES FROM THESE INELASTIC ACTIONS IS CALLED
HYSTERETIC DAMPING; THIS FURTHER DAMPENS OSCILLATIONS OF THE
BUILDING.

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 THREE TYPES OF DAMPING
3. RADIATION DAMPING

• ANOTHER FORM OF DAMPING IS ASSOCIATED WITH SOIL. THIS DAMPING

OCCURS WHEN THE SOIL STRATA UNDERNEATH THE BUILDING IS FLEXIBLE AND
ABSORBS ENERGY INPUT TO THE BUILDING DURING EARTHQUAKE SHAKING,
AND SENDS IT TO FAR OFF DISTANCES IN THE SOIL MEDIUM. THIS IS CALLED
RADIATION DAMPING.

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 EXPLAIN ABOUT EARTHQ
• EARTHQUAKE ORIGINATES BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH DUE TO
RUPTURE OF BED-ROCK. THIS IS ASSOCIATED WITH RELEASE OF STORED
STRAIN ENERGY THAT SPREADS OUT IN ALL DIRECTIONS FROM THE FAULT
REGION IN THE FORM OF SEISMIC WAVES THAT TRAVEL THROUGH THE
BODY AND ALONG THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
• THESE SEISMIC WAVES, PRIMARILY OF TWO TYPES CALLED THE BODY
WAVES AND SURFACE WAVES, TOGETHER CAUSE SHAKING OF THE GROUND
(SURFACE OF THE EARTH) ON WHICH THE BUILDINGS ARE FOUNDED. THE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUND SHAKING CONTROL EARTHQUAKE
RESPONSE OF BUILDINGS, IN ADDITION TO THE BUILDING
CHARACTERISTICS.

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 WHAT ARE WAVES IN EARTHQUAKE !!
• THE GROUND MOTION CAN BE MEASURES IN THE FORM OF ACCELERATION,
VELOCITY OR DISPLACEMENT.
• ACCELEROGRAPH SUCCESSFULLY CAPTURE THE GROUND SHAKING EVEN IN
THE NEAR FIELD OF THE EARTHQUAKE FAULTS, WHERE THE SHAKING IS
VIOLENT.

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 • THE RECORD OBTAINED FROM AN ACCELEROGRAPH, I.E., THE VARIATION
OF GROUND ACCELERATION WITH TIME RECORDED AT A POINT ON
GROUND DURING AN EARTHQUAKE, IS CALLED AN ACCELEROGRAM.
• THREE ACCELEROGRAMS ARE RECORDED SIMULTANEOUSLY ALONG THREE
MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR DIRECTIONS TO CAPTURE THE COMPLETE
OSCILLATION OF THE GROUND AT A LOCATION (CALLED A STATION).
• THESE THREE RECORDS OF THREE MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR
CORRESPOND TO TWO ALONG THE HORIZONTAL DIRECTIONS AND ONE
ALONG THE VERTICAL DIRECTION.

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 WHAT IS PEAK GROUND ACCELERATION !
• Accelerograms Carry distinct information regarding ground shaking,
namely peak amplitude, duration of strong shaking, frequency
content .
• Peak amplitude, representing the peak ground acceleration (PGA), is
an important design parameter.
• For instance, a horizontal PGA value of 0.6g (i.e., a peak ground
acceleration of 0.6 times the acceleration due to gravity g) suggests
that the shaking of the ground can cause a rigid building to sustain a
maximum horizontal inertia force of 60% of its weight.

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Images Property of GSDMA
 RESPONSE SPECTRUM OF GROUND MOTION – BASICS

• A BUILDING CAN BE MATHEMATICALLY CONCEIVED TO BE A

COLLECTION OF EQUIVALENT SIMPLE STRUCTURES EACH HAVING
ONLY ONE NATURAL PERIOD OF OSCILLATION, CORRESPONDING TO
ONE OF THE MODES OF OSCILLATION OF THE BUILDING. THESE ARE
CALLED THE EQUIVALENT SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM (SDOF)
STRUCTURES CORRESPONDING TO EACH MODE OF OSCILLATION OF
THE ORIGINAL BUILDING

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GSDMA
 • A single-degree-of-freedom structure has mass m, stiffness k and
associated structural damping ξ.
• Thus, all the single-degree-of-freedom structures with same
proportion of mass and stiffness have the same natural period.
• Such a set of structures with same natural period (or frequency) of
oscillation and same structural damping ξ exhibit same time history of
response (i.e., acceleration, velocity and displacement), when
subjected to the same earthquake ground shaking.

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GSDMA
 ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRUM of ground motion
Usual seismic design of structures is performed using the maximum force induced
in the structure due to earthquake shaking.
Force can be defined in two ways:
• (i) mass m times acceleration a, representing inertia force, or
• (ii) stiffness k times displacement x representing elastic force, i.e.,
F = ma or F = kx
As the absolute maximum of such response is useful in design, a graph of the
maximum response is generated for a spectrum of SDoF structures with different
natural periods T and the same damping under the same earthquake ground
motion. This graph is called the Response Spectrum of the particular earthquake
ground motion.
One such response spectrum corresponding to the acceleration of the building,
called the acceleration response spectrum for 5% damping under the action of
1940 Imperial Valley earthquake ground motion.
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GSDMA
 • In real buildings, it is easier to compute the mass of the building that is effective
during earthquake shaking, called seismic mass (equal to seismic weight divided
by acceleration due to gravity g), than to evaluate overall stiffness.
• Thus, once the natural period associated with each mode of oscillation is
estimated, the corresponding seismic lateral force is obtained by multiplying the
acceleration response spectrum value (from the acceleration response
spectrum) with the mass associated to each mode of oscillation.
• In the design of buildings, seismic design codes provide a design response
spectrum and the corresponding force obtained is called the design seismic
lateral force of the building or the design seismic base shear of the building.

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 Elastic earthquake behavior of buildings is primarily controlled by four virtues of

CONFIGURATION,
STIFFNESS,
STRENGTH AND
DUCTILITY.

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 CONFIGURATION
• Configuration is critical to good seismic performance of buildings. The
important aspects affecting seismic configuration of buildings are

OVERALL GEOMETRY,
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS, AND
LOAD PATHS
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 OVERALL GEOMETRY
1. AVOID COMPLEX PLAN SHAPES
• The influence of plan geometry CONVEX CONCAVE
GEOMETRY GEOMETRY
of the building on its seismic
Buildings with Buildings with
performance is best understood convex plan concave plan
shape have shape
from the basic geometries direct load paths necessitate
for transferring indirect load
of convex- and concave-type lenses seismic inertia paths that result
forces to its base, in stress
concentrations at
points where
load paths bend.

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Property of GSDMA
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Property of
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GSDMA
 WHAT IS THIS DOG TAIL WAGGING MODE !!
• Buildings with complex shapes, particularly with projections or re-entrant
corners, exhibit special modes of oscillation, in addition to translatory (pure or
diagonal) or torsional modes.
• These include an opening-closing mode, and the unique local-high-frequency
oscillatory mode like, that of the wagging of a dog’s tail.
• Dog tail wagging mode of oscillation is interesting because in this mode, only a
slender or long projection oscillates and the remaining part of the building
almost remains still, just like the dog’s body remains still when its tail wags
• The effect of these special modes of oscillation is to induce high stress
concentration at the re-entrant corners that may cause significant structural
damage

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Only a projection oscillates significantly, while the
rest of the building remains almost still
 STRESS CONCENTRATION AT RE-ENTRANT CORNERS

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 AVOID LONG PROJECTIONS !!
• Projections, if required, must be short, although they still offer stress concentration at their
re-entrant corners. Consider buildings with U-plan shape, but with different length of
projections
• The first three modes of oscillation in all the three buildings are same – two lateral
translations and torsion, with similar natural periods (between 0.92s to 0.89s).
• However, the periods of oscillation of the fourth mode, that of opening-closing one, are
significantly different – 0.77s, 0.63s, and 0.42s in the buildings with 48m, 32m and 16m
projections, respectively.
• This signifies that the contribution of the opening-closing mode of oscillation in the overall
response of the building with 16m projecting arms is least and will ensure better seismic
behavior of the building than buildings with 32m and 48m projecting arms.

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Property of
Torsional mode of oscillation in buildings with complex
shape contribute significantly to overall building response if it has
large natural period
DOG-TAIL-WAGGING MODE OF OSCILLATION IN BUILDING
WITH X-PLAN SHAPE CAUSE SIGNIFICANT STRESS
CONCENTRATION AT RE-ENTRANT CORNERS
 SUMMARY OF WHAT WE JUST LEARNED ABOUT BUILDING PLAN SHAPES
• In summary, the important observations are
(1) Torsional modes of oscillations are predominant in buildings with L-, X- and Y-plan
shapes, which should be avoided with suitable choice of structural configuration;
(2) Diagonal translation modes of oscillations are predominant in buildings with L-
and X-plan shapes, which should be avoided with suitable changes in structural
configuration;
(3) Opening-closing and dog-tail-wagging modes of oscillation are predominant in
buildings with
large projecting arms;
(4) Opening-closing and dog-tail-wagging modes of oscillation cause significant stress
concentrations at re-entrant corners and can cause structural damage; and
(5) It is prudent to not use buildings with complex plan shapes, or if compelled,
ensure that their natural periods are small (outside the range of natural periods with
significant earthquake energy).
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 OVERALL GEOMETRY
2. AVOID LARGE PLAN ASPECT RATIO
• It is not good to have buildings with large plan aspect ratio, just like it is not good to
have buildings with large projections.
• During earthquake shaking, inertia force is mobilized in the building, usually at the
floor levels where the mass is large. The inertia force then is distributed to different
lateral load resisting systems (columns and/or structural walls). It is preferred to
distribute this lateral inertia force to various lateral load resisting systems in
proportion to their lateral load resisting capacities
• This is achieved when the floor slabs do not deform too much in their own
(horizontal) plane. This condition, when floor slab helps in distributing the inertia
force to different lateral load resisting systems in proportion to their stiffness, is
known as rigid diaphragm action.
• However, the inertia force is distributed based on tributary area when floor slabs
deform in their plane. This leads to overloading of members with less capacity and
thus causing undue damage to buildings. Floor slabs in buildings with large plan
aspect ratio (>4) may not provide rigid diaphragm action.
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 OVERALL GEOMETRY
3. AVOID LARGE SLENDERNESS RATIO
• It is not desirable to have buildings with large slenderness ratio, just
like it is not good to have buildings with large projecting arms and
large plan aspect ratio.
• During earthquake shaking, buildings ,ay sway laterally and excessive
lateral displacement is not desirable.
• Large lateral displacements cause significant non-structural damage,
structural damage and even second order P-Δ effects that lead to
collapse of buildings.
• Design codes recommend that inter-storey drift under design
earthquake forces be restricted to 0.4 percent of storey height.(As per
Indian Codes)

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Property of
 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
• Using an appropriate structural system is critical to good seismic
performance of buildings. While moment-frame is the most commonly used
lateral load resisting structural system, other structural systems also are
commonly used like structural walls, frame-wall system, and braced-frame
system. Sometimes, even more redundant structural systems are necessary,
e.g., Tube, Tube-in-Tube and Bundled Tube systems are required in many
buildings to improve their earthquake behavior.

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 WHAT ARE MOMENT FRAMES building system
• Moment frames consist of a grid of vertical (i.e., columns) and horizontal (i.e.,
beams) members
• They resist lateral loads through axial forces, bending moment and shear
force generated in both beams and columns .
• Beam and column sections should be designed as under-reinforced sections,
and thereby, can be expected to undergo ductile behavior; brittle shear
failure must be prevented through capacity design procedures.
• While deciding the structural configuration of the building, predominant
flexural behavior in beams and columns should be facilitated.
• This can be achieved by using relatively long frame members; short beams
and columns attract large forces and are susceptible to fail in a brittle
manner.

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 Distance between Beta and L/D ratio

• The ratio β is the ratio of pure flexural translational stiffness to pure

shear translational stiffness
• With increase in L/D ratio, flexural stiffness of the member decreases
and hence β decreases. Thus, the deformation is primarily dominated
by flexural action in members with large L/D ratios.
• On the contrary, flexural stiffness of a member increases significantly,
and hence β increases rapidly, with decrease in L/D ratio below 1.0.
• In this range (L/D < 1.0) the deformation is governed by shear action .
Thus, load transfer mechanism changes from flexure-type (Bernoulli’s
Beam type) to shear-type (strut and tie type) with decrease in L/D
ratio.

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 WHAT ARE STRUCTURAL WALL-FRAME SYSTEMS
• Earthquake resistant buildings should possess, at least a minimum lateral
stiffness, so that they do no swing too much during small levels of shaking.
• Moment frame buildings may not be able to offer this always. When lateral
displacement is large in a building with moment frames only, structural walls,
often commonly called shear walls, can be introduced to help reduce overall
displacement of buildings, because these vertical plate-like structural
elements have large in-plane stiffness and strength. Therefore, the structural
system of the building consists of moment frames with specific bays in each
direction having structural walls

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 WHAT ARE STRUCTURAL WALL-FRAME SYSTEMS
• Structural walls resist lateral forces through combined axial-flexure-
shear action.
• Structural walls help reduce shear and moment demands on beams
and columns in the moment frames of the building, when provided
along with moment frames as lateral load resisting system.
• Structural walls should be provided throughout the height of
buildings for best earthquake performance.
• Structural walls offer best performance when rested on hard soil
strata.

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 WHAT SHOULD BE THEIR LOCATIONin a building

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OPTION 1-STRUCTURAL WALL
OPTION – 2 STRUCTURAL WALLS

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OPTION – 3 STRUCTURAL WALLS IN CORE
OPTION -4 TWO SEPARATE STRUCTURAL WALL
 OPTION – 5 COMBINED LONG STRUCTURAL WALLS

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CONCLUSION -LONG STRUCTURAL WALLS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN A
NUMBER OF SHORT ONES
 WHAT ARE BRACED FRAME SYSTEMS
• This structural system consists of moment frames with specific bays provided with
braces throughout the height of the building.
• Braces are provided in both plan directions such that no twisting is induced in the
building owing to unsymmetrical stiffness in plan.
• Braces help in reducing overall lateral displacement of buildings, and in reducing
bending moment and shear force demands on beams and columns in buildings.
• The earthquake force is transferred as axial tensile and compressive force in the
brace members.
• Various types of bracings can be used including global bracing along the building
height.
• Consider the five-storey benchmark building with three types of local bracing
systems namely, X-, Chevron and K-bracing systems. X- and Chevron braces
effectively reduce bending moment, shear force and axial force demands on the
beams and columns of the original frame and are commonly used.
• But, K-braces increases shear demand on columns and can cause brittle shear
failure. Thus, some design codes prohibit use of K-braces in earthquake resistant
design.
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WHY BRACINGS ARE USED AND WHAT IS THEIR IMPACT ON STRUCTURAL FORCES ?

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 BENDING MOMENTS PROFILE IN VARIOUS STUCTURAL SYSTEM

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 SHEAR FORCE PROFILE IN VARIOUS STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

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 AXIAL FORCE PROFILE IN VARIOUS

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DISPLACEMENT PROFILE IN VARIOUS
 WHAT ARE TUBE SYSTEM
• For tall buildings, use of braced frames and structural walls alone (even
though of reasonably sized members) may be insufficient to control their
overall lateral displacement as well as the force demands on various
structural members.

•In such cases, more rigid structural

systems are required, like Tube, Tube-in-
Tube and Bundled Tube systems,
depending on the size and loads on the
building are suggested.
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 • Closely-spaced heavy columns forming a closed loop inter-connected with
beams, together called the tube, forms the first part of the lateral load
resisting system.
• Heavy reinforced concrete structural walls together creating a closed shaft,
called as the core, form the other part.
• The Tube System consists of one perimeter tube with a central core.
• The inter-connection is important between the perimeter tube and the
central core.
• A system of grid beams is used for this purpose, consisting of primary beams
(those running between the perimeter columns and central core), secondary
beams (those running between columns such that no column is left without
being connected to the rest of the system), and tertiary beams (those
running between beams and not connected to any column)

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GSDMA
 • This aspect of the Tube System that the perimeter draws most of the lateral force
induced in the building during earthquake shaking, is in contrast to the normal building
frame with a central core, In the traditional frame building with the central core, most of
the lateral forces are carried by the central reinforced concrete core.
• The load transfer path carries the forces to the concrete core. As the lateral force travels
down towards the base of the building, the force flows towards the more stiffened
corners of the core in the form of axial tension and compression.
• Thus, the corners of the core at the base of the building carry larger axial force than the
mid sides of the core.
• By introducing a perimeter tube consisting of closely spaced columns interconnected
with beams, this concentration of the force in the core is relieved but the same behavior
is shifted to the perimeter tube.
• Since the lever arm between the perimeter column pairs (located on two parallel faces of
the tube) is large, the axial stresses induced in the columns are smaller than those
induced in the core of the traditional frame building.

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• By introducing a perimeter tube

consisting of closely spaced columns
interconnected with beams, this
concentration of the force in the core
is relieved but the same behavior is
shifted to the perimeter tube.
Since the lever arm between the
perimeter column pairs (located on
two parallel faces of the tube) is large,
the axial stresses induced in the columns
are smaller than those induced in the core
of the traditional frame building.

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 WHAT IS SHEAR LAG EFFECT IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS ?
• Under the earthquake induced lateral inertia forces, there is difference in
axial forces amongst columns on the leeward and on the windward faces;
the corner columns have larger axial force than the interior columns.
• In addition, farther the spacing of columns, the larger is the difference in
column axial forces.
• Thus, buildings with traditional frame structural system have larger shear
lag effect than buildings with tube structural system.
• The earthquake induced lateral inertia force is carried most by the stiffer
frames. In a tube system, the closely spaced columns makes the two
perimeter planes of the tube stiffer in the direction of inertia force.
• Hence, the less stiff frames move more than these and thereby induce
deformation in beams.

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GSDMA
 WHAT IS TUBE-IN-TUBE

When the plan size of the building increases, additional columns may be
required to support the gravity loads between the outer tube and inner
core, and prevent the slab from bending too much.
• These columns are not part of the main lateral load resisting system, and
therefore are not intended to carry any lateral loads; they are called gravity
columns.
• When the building plan is large, sometimes, many columns may be required
to support the gravity loads.
• Then, it may be beneficial to create a second tube of columns
interconnected with beams inside the perimeter tube of columns
interconnected with beams. This system is called the Tube-in-Tube System
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 HOW TUBE IN TUBE SYSTEM WORKS ?
• In the Tube-in-Tube system, the tubes
should be tied together with a stiff and
strong grid of beams.
• This also helps in uniform distribution of
forces to the perimeter tube columns.
• If the distance between the two tubes is
large, intermediate secondary beams, along
with additional gravity columns, may
become necessary for effectively
transferring lateral forces to the tubes
• The additional gravity columns keep the
intermediate beams from deflecting too
much and thereby make them capable of
transferring axial compression without
much out-of-plane deformation.
• More uniform distribution of gravity forces
is achieved with closely spaced beam grids
between the tubes.
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 WHAT IF TUBE IN TUBE SYSTEM ALSO FAILS TO WORK ?
• In large plan area buildings, when even
the Tube-in-Tube system fails to control
the lateral deformation of the building, an
even stiffer lateral force resisting system
is required.
• One system that can offer this is the
Bundled-Tubes System; as the name goes,
here a set of Tube Systems are stacked
together to form the overall lateral load
resisting system. The closely-spaced
columns of the different tubes are placed
in line to form an overall tube system.

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 STRENGTHEN THE BUNDLED TUBE SYSTEM
• The RC cores of the tubes are connected to each other with beams that span
directly between these stiff vertical elements; these beams are called primary
beams. As in Tube and Tube-in-Tube Systems, additional gravity columns,
secondary beams and tertiary beams may be employed when the span
between the tubes and the cores are large, to improve the distribution of
gravity loads to the tubes.

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 THE TESSERACT OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS FOR TALL BUILDINGS

• The outrigger truss is a simple trusses

spanning over the full height of that storey
and across the full width of building.
• The role of the outrigger trusses is to make
the columns act together in resisting
overturning moments acting on the
building.
• The pairs of columns generate couples of
axial tension and axial compression to
counter the overturning moments; this
reduces the overall bending effects in
columns.

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Images Property
Images
 • The presence of a stiff wall on one side alone does not help, even if the
axial and flexural stiffness of the outrigger truss members are large.
• This confirms that using outrigger trusses in Tube and Tube-in-Tube
Systems is not beneficial.

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Images Property
 • The presence of a stiff wall on either side helps immensely,
especially when the axial and flexural stiffness of the outrigger truss
members are large.
• THIS SUGGESTS THAT USING OUTRIGGER TRUSSES IS BENEFICIAL IN
BUNDLED-TUBE SYSTEM.

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 WHAT IS FLAT SLAB STRUCTURA
• When the slabs rest directly on
columns or walls (with or
without drop panels) without
employing any beams. This
system is called flat slab
construction.
• Flat slab building has a column-
slab system, which is expected
to resist both gravity loads and
earthquake-induced lateral
inertia loads.

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 IS FLAT SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM SAFE FOR EARTHQUAKES ?
• Flat slab buildings have low lateral
stiffness, and hence swing by large
amounts elastically even during low
level earthquake shaking owing to
little/no rotational flexibility offered
by the thin slabs inter-connecting
the columns.
• Since the column-slab system has
small lateral stiffness and lateral
load resistance, this large overall
lateral drift of the flat slab building
makes the columns incapable of
accommodating the additional
secondary moments generated by
the lateral deformations. Thus,
there are serious concerns on the
use of flat slab buildings in seismic
regions.

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 IS FLAT SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM SAFE FOR EARTHQUAKES ?

YES, BUT IF DESIGNED PROPERLY AND ONLY FOR

LOW SEISMIC REGIONS .

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 HOW FLAT SLAB STRUCTURAL SYSTEM IS
SAFE FOR EARTHQUAKES ?
• Flat Slab Structural System can
be provided by reducing overall
lateral deformation and thereby
to improve their overall lateral
resistance by adding a
supplemental lateral load
resisting system (LLRS) in the
form of structural walls.
• Lateral drift is minimized by
adding structural walls to flat
slab buildings.
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Images Property of GSDMA
 WHAT MAY EXACTLY HAPPEN IN EARTHQUAKES IN FLAT SLAB SYSTEM
• Under increasing levels of overall lateral
drift on the building during seismic
action, shear stresses in the flat slab
increase.
• Even with the large lateral stiffness
provided with supplemental lateral load
resisting system (i.e., structural wall)
and the overall lateral drift of the
building controlled, this unsymmetrical
shear stress cannot be prevented from
being generated owing to the
displacement compatibility between
structural wall and flat slab – column
system.
• Hence, flat slab building with structural
walls are at best suitable ONLY for low
seismic regions.
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 UNSYMMETRICAL FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESSES IN FLAT SLAB OF RC FLAT
SLAB BUILDING UNDER LATERAL DRIFT

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 WHY GOOD LOAD PATH IS IMPORTANT ?
• Inertia forces mobilized in
buildings during earthquake
shaking travel towards the
foundations.
• These forces travel through
structural members, and thus,
the choice and location of
structural members greatly
affect the seismic performance
of buildings.
• A smooth path of least
resistance needs to be
provided for efficient transfer
of forces up to the foundation.
Images Property of GSDMA
 https://www.udemy.com/etabscourse/
BRACES OFFER DIRECT LOAD PATHS
• Inertia forces mobilized in
buildings during earthquake
shaking travel towards the
foundations.
• These forces travel through
structural members, and thus,
the choice and location of
structural members greatly
affect the seismic performance
of buildings.
• A smooth path of least
resistance needs to be
provided for efficient transfer
of forces up to the foundation.
Images Property of GSDMA
 DISCONTINUITY IN LOAD PATH
DUE TO FLOATING COLUMNS

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 DISCONTINUITY IN LOAD PATH DUE TO FLOATING COLUMNS
WHAT ARE FLOATING COLUMNS ? WHY ARE THEY AVOIDED ?
• A common form of discontinuity
in load path in moment frames
arises with a floating columns,
i.e., when a column coming from
top of the building is
discontinued at a lower level,
usually at the ground storey.
• In such cases, loads from the
over hanging portions take a
detour and travel to the nearest
column that is continuous till
the foundation. This leads to
increased demand on the
columns in the ground storey
and can cause failure of these
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 DISCONTINUITY IN LOAD PATH DUE TO SETBACK COLUMNS
WHAT ARE SETBACK COLUMNS ? WHY ARE THEY AVOIDED ?
• Another common discontinuity in load
path in moment frames arises with set-
back columns, i.e., when a column
coming from top of the building is moved
away from its original line, again usually
at the ground storey.
• In such cases, loads from the over
hanging portions take detour and cause
severe stress concentration at the re-
entrant corners while traveling to the
nearest set-back column.
• In addition, the set-back divides the span
of beams into smaller segments, and
thereby, pushes these beams into shear
action. These beams then draw large
amount of shear force, and can fail in
brittle shear mode.
• As a consequence, set-back columns
subjected to large axial force, become
vulnerable to combined axial-moment-
shear failure
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 DISCONTINUITY IN LOAD PATH DUE TO IMPROPER GRIDS

• Discontinuity of load path in the horizontal

direction (in plan) occurs from lack of grid in
the moment frame.
• Here, lateral load resisting columns are not
aligned along a straight line in plan, but are
inter-connected by beams that are at right
angles to each other.
• Building A has columns not aligned along
straight lines due to functional requirements
but building B has all columns placed along
proper grid in both directions.
• Such lack of grid (as in Building A) causes (i)
torsion of the building (the first two modes
of oscillation are torsional followed by
translation in Y direction), and (ii) increase
in shear in short span beams and
consequently increase in axial load on
columns
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 THIS NON-UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION OF
LOADS TO DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL
MEMBERS CAN INITIATE
LOCALIZED FAILURES THAT IN TURN, CAN
COMPROMISE THE STRUCTURAL
INTEGRITY OF THE BUILDING, OR, EVEN
TRIGGER GLOBAL COLLAPSE OF THE
BUILDING.

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 DISCONTINUITY IN LOAD PATH DUE TO STRUCTURAL WALLS
• Discontinuity in load paths in buildings with Structural Walls occurs due to
openings in the wall; openings are required for doors and windows.
Structural walls carry significant lateral load and help reduce demands on
regular frame members, i.e., columns and beams.
• However, openings, particularly of large sizes, in these walls affect the load
path and alter structural response of buildings.

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• With reduction in opening, i.e., with increase in
depth of the coupling beams (as in building B), the
overall lateral deformation is reduced, and the
predominant action in the coupling beams
changes from flexure to shear behavior. In such
cases, special diagonal reinforcements along with
confining reinforcement are to be provided in the
coupling beams to resist the shear.
• With very small openings (as in building C), the
coupling beams form a part of the entire wall and
more uniform distribution of stresses is obtained
in the wall.
• The lateral deformation is reduced with reduction
in opening size; hence, large openings should not
be provided in structural walls.

Images Property of GSDMA

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Property of GSDMA
 WHY STRUCTURAL WALL SHOULD BE PROVIDED THROUGH OUT THE HEIGHT OF
THE BUILDING ?

Images Property of GSDMA

 WHY STRUCTURAL WALL SHOULD BE PROVIDED
THROUGH OUT THE HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING ?

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 WHY STRUCTURAL WALL SHOULD BE PROVIDED THROUGH OUT THE HEIGHT OF
THE BUILDING ?

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 WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL MASS IN PLAN ?
• It is a common practice to have water
tanks at roof top. But usually, water
tanks with large mass of water are
placed at corners of buildings.
• This affects the distribution of mass in
plan, at least at the roof level.
• This asymmetry in mass in plan causes
twisting of buildings during
earthquake shaking due to mismatch
of center of mass and center of
rigidity.

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WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL STIFFNESS IN PLAN ?
• Irregularity in stiffness in plan occurs
due to
• (a) use of columns of different sizes,
• (b) presence of structural wall on one
side of buildings, or
• (c) presence of staircase or elevator
core at one corner of buildings
• Stiffness irregularity in plan causes
twisting of buildings under lateral load.

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WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL STIFFNESS IN ELEVATION ?
(A) OPEN OR FLEXIBLE STOREY IN BUILDINGS

• Lateral stiffness irregularity occurs

in elevation when
• (a) sizes of lateral load resisting
elements are varied along the
height of buildings, and
• (b) additional elements are added
or existing elements are removed

HENCE, MODELING OF UNREINFORCED MASONRY INFILLED FRAME BUILDINGS FOR STRUCTURAL

ANALYSIS SHOULD INCLUDE MASONRY INFILLS AS DIAGONAL COMPRESSION-ONLY STRUT MEMBERS.

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Images Property of GSDMA
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Images Property of GSDMA
WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL STIFFNESS IN ELEVATION ?
(B) PLINTH BEAMS
• Plinth beams are structural members (beams) and reduce the effective length of ground storey column which
are generally longer than those in the upper storey.
• As a result, the stiffness of the ground storey columns is altered by the addition of plinth beams.
• The deformation demand on the building without plinth beam is largely concentrated at the ground storey level
because of low lateral stiffness of the longer columns; this is reduced significantly by the addition of plinth
beam. But, shear force increases with addition of plinth beam, particularly in the ground storey columns due to
the short column effect.

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 WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL STIFFNESS IN ELEVATION ?
(C) LINTEL BEAMS

• Lintel beams introduce local deformation restraint at

locations, when they frame into columns. The level of
restraint depends on the relative stiffness of the lintel
beam and the column.
• With increase in lintel size, deformation restraint
offered increases, and the column region between
the lintel and roof beam exhibits short column effect.
• The shear demand imposed on columns increases
with increase in size of lintel.

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 WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL STIFFNESS IN ELEVATION ?
(C) BUILDINGS ON SLOPE

• Buildings are constructed on slopes in hill

regions.
• Typical features of these buildings
include columns of unequal lengths along
the slope, and lack of proper foundation
well embedded into the soil underneath
to provide adequate translational fixity
under lateral earthquake shaking.
• Two basic types of fixity conditions are
achieved depending on construction type
and local soil/rock strata;
• one that provides full translational and
rotational restraints,
• and the other that do not provide the
same.
• Lack of translational and rotational fixity
occurs due to slope subsidence
particularly during strong earthquake
shaking. Actual degree of fixity
(translational and rotational) varies
Images Property of GSDMA
 WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL STIFFNESS IN ELEVATION ?
(C) BUILDINGS ON SLOPE

Images Property
 WHY SHOULD WE WORRIED ABOUT THE ASSYMETRICAL STIFFNESS IN ELEVATION ?
(C) SETBACK IN BUILDINGS
• Irregularity in overall geometry of the building in
elevation also is detrimental to good earthquake
behavior of buildings.
• The common types of overall geometric
irregularities include set-back buildings and step-
back buildings.
• These geometric forms arise largely from
architectural extravaganzas, and result in concave
geometries that have a number of re-entrant
corners at which load paths are disturbed requiring
sharp bends.

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 SETBACK BUILDINGS

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STEP BACK BUILDINGS

STEP BACK BUILDINGS

 https://www.udemy.com/etabscourse/
• Both mass and stiffness
distribution changes along
the height; the center of
mass and center of
stiffness of different storey
do not lie along the same
vertical line, as is the case
in buildings with regular
overall geometry. This
results in twisting of
buildings

Images Property of GSDMA

 WE SHOULD ALWAYS AVOID POUNDING OF BUILDING WITH ADJACENT BUILDINGS ?

• it is possible that the adjacent buildings or parts

may collide with each other during earthquake
shaking.
• Hence, at least a minimum design separation
distance needs to be provided to avoid pounding
of two adjacent buildings or parts of a building
during earthquake shaking.
• Thus, when a designer is compelled to build close
to an adjacent building or make a building in two
parts, there is a need to recognize the actual
lateral displacement of each building or part of
the building, and provide calculated amount of
gap that they need between them.
• When this is done, the junction of the two
buildings or two parts of the same building is
called a Seismic Joints.

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Property of GSDMA
https://www.udemy.com/etabscourse/
Property of GSDMA
 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF SOIL ON THE STRUCTURE
• Flexibility of soil on which buildings are founded greatly affects earthquake behavior of buildings. Besides,
the choice of foundation system also contributes to overall response of buildings.
• For understanding effect of soil flexibility on earthquake behavior of buildings, the following are considered:
• (a) Three types of soil (flexible, medium and stiff); (b) Three types of foundations (isolated footings, pile and
raft)

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 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF SOIL ON THE STRUCTURE
Results of the analyses of these nine building-soil systems indicate that:
(1) Buildings with isolated footings perform poorly when rested on flexible soil systems, especially
in high seismic zones, and hence, should be avoided. Preferably, such buildings should be
rested on raft foundations;
(2) Columns, and the building, are close to being hinged in flexible soils at the base
(3) Large stresses are generated in soils at the windward and leeward edges of the building, when
buildings are subjected to large lateral forces, especially when the soil is stiffer

Images Property of GSDMA

WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF SOIL ON THE STRUCTURE
Results of the analyses of various building-soil systems indicate that:
(1) Buildings with isolated footings perform poorly when rested on flexible soil systems, especially
in high seismic zones, and hence, should be avoided. Preferably, such buildings should be
rested on raft foundations.
 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF SOIL ON THE STRUCTURE

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 EARTHQUAKE CAPACITY OF BUILDINGS – INELASTIC
BEHAVIOUR – MOST IMPORTANT CONCEPT
• Some structural damage is allowed during strong earthquake shaking in normal
buildings, even though no collapse must be ensured.
• This implies that nonlinearity will arise in the overall response of buildings, which
originates from the material response being nonlinear.
• This nonlinearity arising from the material stress-strain curve is called material
nonlinearity.
• But, sometimes, the stress-strain curve may be nonlinear and also elastic,
whereby on unloading, the material retraces the loading path.

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 EARTHQUAKE CAPACITY OF BUILDINGS – INELASTIC
BEHAVIOUR – MOST IMPORTANT CONCEPT
• Structural steel has definite yield behavior and does not retrace its loading path
when unloaded after yielding. Such a response is more commonly referred to as
inelastic response.
• When an inelastic material is subjected to reversed cyclic loading (of
displacement type) which takes the material beyond yield, hysteresis takes place,
i.e., the material under the applied loading absorbs/dissipates energy.
• Reinforced concrete and structural steel are candidate materials for inelastic
behavior. Under strong earthquake shaking, normal reinforced concrete and steel
buildings experience inelastic behavior.
• Inelasticity is the basis for the second two of the four virtues of earthquake-
resistant buildings, namely strength and ductility.
• In this chapter, these are discussed to present the basic concepts related to the
inelastic behavior of buildings. It is not possible to discuss strength only without
discussing ductility, and vice-versa.
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 STRONG COLUMN WEAK BEAM CONCEPT
• The load path in a moment frame building starts from the slabs, and goes
along beams, beam-column joints, columns and foundations to the soil
underneath. Strength hierarchy is essential along the load path, and follows
the load path.
• Structural elements that are supporting (other structural elements and items
of the buildings) are required to be stronger than those that are being
supported by them.
• The only exceptions are the connections, especially the beam-column joints.
• Connections should be made stronger than the column members below it.
This is a special situation, because in the aftermath of an earthquake, it is not
easy to strengthen the beam-column joint; especially reaching its interiors is
particularly difficult. And, often the damage accrued in such connections is of
brittle type no matter what the material of construction is.

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 STRONG COLUMN WEAK BEAM CONCEPT
Hence, the items to be checked in an earthquake resistant building are :
(1) Beams stronger than adjoining braces, if any;
(2) Beam-column joints stronger than the adjoining beams;
(3) Columns stronger than adjoining beams;
(4) Beam-column joint stronger than the adjoining columns;
(5) Foundations stronger than adjoining columns; and
(6) Soil strata underneath stronger than foundations.

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BUILDING RATHER THAN BEING CONCENTRATED IN ONE FLOOR.
THE BUILDING HAS DAMAGE OF THE DUCTILE TYPE DISTRIBUTED AT MANY LOCATIONS; EACH OF
THESE LOCATIONS ABSORBS GOOD AMOUNT OF ENERGY OUT OF THE INPUT ENERGY RECEIVED
FROM THE GROUND.
THUS, THE TOTAL ENERGY ABSORBED BY THE WHOLE BUILDING BECOMES LARGE (AND OF
DUCTILE TYPE),
AND THE BUILDING IS SAVED FROM BRITTLE COLLAPSE.
ALSO, NOW ENERGY IS ABSORBED PRIMARILY BY THE BEAMS AND NOT THE COLUMNS. THIS IS
THE IDEAL SITUATION BECAUSE BEAMS, WITH NO/RELATIVELY LESS COMPRESSION LOADS ON
THEM, INHERENTLY CAN BE DESIGNED AND DETAILED TO BE MORE DUCTILE THAN COLUMNS,
AND ABSORB LARGE AMOUNTS OF ENERGY THROUGH INELASTIC ACTIONS

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 DESIRABLE MECHANISM UNDER EARTHQUAKE
• The combination of inelastic hinges at
the ends of beams and columns, which
when formed in a building eventually
makes it unstable and causes its
collapse, is called the collapse
mechanism.
• Good ductility is achieved in a building
when the collapse mechanism is of the
desirable type

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 DESIRABLE MECHANISM UNDER EARTHQUAKE – SWAY MECHANISM
• Good ductility is achieved in a building
when the collapse mechanism is of the
desirable type.
• In such a case, the hysteretic loops of its
load-deformation curve are stable and
full. These type of hysteretic loops imply
good energy dissipation in the building
through each of the inelastic hinges at
the beam ends.
• Such a behavior is observed in buildings
that fail in Sway Mechanism, which
ensures that beams yield before columns,
and ductile flexural damages occur at
beam-ends; this happens when the
building has strong column – weak beam
(SC-WB) design (in which beams are
made to be weaker in bending moment
capacity and ductile links, and columns
stronger in bending moment capacity)

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 DESIRABLE MECHANISM UNDER EARTHQUAKE – SWAY MECHANISM
• On the other hand, in buildings that fail
in Storey Mechanism, damages are
concentrated in the columns and that too
of a single storey.
• Here, the ductility demand on the
columns is large.
• This situation arises when the building
has weak column – strong beam (WC-SB)
design (in which columns are weaker in
bending moment capacity and beams
stronger in bending moment capacity)
• This collapse mechanism dissipates less
energy in the building and that too all of
that energy in one storey.

Images Property of GSDMA

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 STRENGTH DISCONTINUITY
• Strength discontinuity or sudden reduction in lateral strength of the building is
more serious when along the height of the building than in plan.
• This discontinuity or reduction causes large inelastic demand at the junctions
where this discontinuity or reduction is present.
• Performances during past earthquakes have shown how sudden changes in
configuration leads to concentration of damage and ductility demand in a few
adjoining regions

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Images Property of GSDMA
 WHAT IS SHORT COLUMN EFFECT ?
• Short column effect arises when a column in a RC frame building is restricted
from moving owing to any obstruction. The obstruction can be:
(1) Presence of unreinforced masonry infills of partial height of adjoining RC
column.

Images Property
 WHAT IS SHORT COLUMN EFFECT ?
• Short column effect arises when a column in a RC frame building is restricted
from moving owing to any obstruction. The obstruction can be:
(1) Conditions arising from sloping ground, when some basement columns are
shorter than others.

Images Property of
 WHAT IS SHORT COLUMN EFFECT ?
• Short column effect arises when a column in a RC frame building is restricted
from moving owing to any obstruction. The obstruction can be:
(1) Presence of a mezzanine slab (which meets the columns at an intermediate
height between the usual beam-slab system of the floors in RC buildings);

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 WHAT IS SHORT COLUMN EFFECT ?
• Short column effect arises when a column in a RC frame building is restricted
from moving owing to any obstruction. The obstruction can be:
(1) Presence of a staircase beam/slab or K-braces on building columns (which
meets the columns at an intermediate height between the usual beam-slab

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 WHAT IS SHORT COLUMN EFFECT ?
• Short column effect arises when a column in a RC frame building is restricted
from moving owing to any obstruction. The obstruction can be:
(1) Presence of a plinth beam making the height of the column below it to be
shorter than that of the column above

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 WHAT IS DUCTILITY IN A STRUCTURE ?
• Ductility of a building is its capacity to accommodate large lateral
deformations along the height.
• It is quantified as the ratio μ of maximum deformation Δmax that can be
sustained just prior to collapse (or failure, or significant loss of strength) to
the yield deformation Δy. Thus, a ductile building exhibits large inelastic
deformation capacity without significant loss of strength capacity.
• The state of the building prior to collapse or at failure is called the plastic
condition of the building.
• Through seismic design, buildings are designed and detailed to develop
favorable failure mechanisms that possess specified lateral strength,
reasonable stiffness and, above all, good post yield deformability.

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• In a ductile building, the structural members and the materials used
therein can stably withstand inelastic actions without collapse and
undue loss of strength at deformation levels well beyond the elastic
limit.
• Ductility helps in dissipating input earthquake energy through
hysteretic behavior
 • Making individual members of the frame ductile earthquake resistant design and
construction.
• Making a RC member ductile is challenging, because most of the volume of
the material in reinforced concrete is concrete, which is extremely brittle in
comparison to reinforcing steel.
• The concrete inside the lateral ties is confined by the closed loop lateral
ties with 135° hook ends; this prevents the failure of concrete during cyclic
earthquake loading.
• Steel by nature is far more ductile than even confined concrete

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• Material ductility is directly reflected in section ductility through the cross-section property
• of the member, namely moment-curvature relationship.
• With under-reinforced flexural behavior of the section, good section ductility can be achieved through use of
proper choice of quantity and distribution of steel, grade of concrete, and geometry of cross-section.
• Good member ductility (member-end moment versus rotation relationship) is then a direct consequence of
good section ductility (moment versus curvature relationship) and is reflected in structure ductility (say, total
seismic force versus roof displacement).

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• Section ductility increases as flexural yielding increases, concrete grade
increases, steel grade decreases, tension reinforcement decreases,
compression reinforcement increases, and axial force in the member
decreases.
• Thus, beams are more ductile than columns.

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• RC frame members fail owing to a number of
deficiencies. These failures manifest as shear
failure (diagonal tension and diagonal
compression), bond slip failure, flexural over-
reinforced failure, flexural under-reinforced
failure, and torsional failure.
• Of these, the preferred failure mode is the
flexural under-reinforced failure.
• When this happens, the RC member stretches
in flexure on the tension side (without any
failure in the concrete on the compression
side) and exploits the ductility of the steel
bars.
• This condition of the RC member is called the
plastic hinge; typically, this plastic action
spreads over a small length of the member,
called plastic hinge length.

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• Seismic design codes recommend the use of closely spaced
transverse reinforcement at all locations where plastic hinges are
likely to be formed. This increases confinement of concrete that is
one of the main contributors to ductility.

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