FOOD IRRADIATION

Radiations

• Radiation is an energy form travelling through space (radiant energy) in a wave pattern and
can be either naturally occurring (e.g. from the sun or rocks) or produced by man made
objects (e.g. microwaves and television sets).
• Waves produced by different sources distinguishes the different types and functionality of
radiation, with high frequency radiation of UV, X-rays and gamma-rays posing the most
significant risk to human health

Ionising and Non-ionising radiations

➢ Radiation is called ionising radiation when it is at a sufficiently high frequency (gamma rays
and X-rays) that it results in the production of charged particles (ions) in the material that it
comes in contact with.
➢ Ionising radiation has higher energy high enough to change atoms by knocking an electron
from them to form an ion, but not high enough to split atoms and cause exposed objects to
become radioactive. Therefore, the sources of radiation allowed for food processing cannot
make food radioactive.
➢ Non-ionising radiation, such as that from microwaves, does not produce ions but can create
heat under moist conditions and is routinely used for purposes such as cooking and re-
heating of foods.
➢ Electric power, radio and television, microwaves, and light have lower energies. They cause
molecules to move, but they cannot structurally change the atoms in those molecules.

Irradiation

➢ Food irradiation facilities that are built and maintained to accepted standards are no more
hazardous than hospitals that carry out numerous X-rays each day and as such do not pose
a significant exposure risk.
➢ This energy can be in the form of Cobalt 60 sourced gamma rays, machine generated X-rays,
or an electrically generated electron beam.

Radiation Sources

Only certain radiation sources can be used in food irradiation.

Energies from these radiation sources are too low to induce radioactivity in any material, including
food. These are :-
1. Accelerated electron machines having a maximum energy of 10 MeV.
2. Gamma rays using the radionuclides cobalt-60(used commonly) or cesium-137 (used very
rarely);
3. X-ray machines having a maximum energy of 5million electron volts (MeV)
1. Accelerated electron beams (E-beams)

✓ The electron beam is a stream of high energy electrons, propelled out of an electron gun.
✓ The electron gun apparatus is a larger version of a standard television tube.
✓ The electron beam generator can be simply switched on or off. There are no radioactive
materials in the process.
✓ The electrons can penetrate food only to a depth of 3-5 cm, so the food to be treated must be
no thicker than that to be treated all the way through. Two opposing beams can treat food
that is twice as thick.
✓ E-beam medical sterilizers have been in use for at least 15 years

2. Co-60 gamma radiation

The most common source of ionizing energy.

➢ The radioactive material is contained in two sealed stainless steel tubes (one inside t e other
– double encapsulated) called "source pencil.

➢ These are placed in a rack and the entire rack is immersed in a water chamber underground
when not in use. W en irradiation takes place, the rack is raised.

Radiation unit

➢ Radiation dose is the quantity of radiation energy absorbed by the food as it passes through
the radiation field during processing.
➢ It is measured in Gray ( Gy) [1 Gy equals one Jo ule of ener gy absorbed per kilogram of food
being irradiated] or in rad (1 Gy = 100 rads).
➢ Practical range for food use: 50-10,0 00 Gy
➢ International health and safety authorities have endorsed the safety of irradiation for all
foods upto 10,000 Gy

Applications of irradiation

✓ Radiation pasteurisation (sanitary treatment)

✓ Radiation sterilisation
✓ Replacing chemical fumigation of food
✓ Sprout inhibition
✓ Enhancing food quality
✓ Eliminating certain parasitic hazards in food

1. Sterilisation or pasteurisation

➢ Irradiation is sometimes referred to as “cold pasteurisation” since the result achieved is

similar to heat-based pasteurisation but without the heat.
➢ Low to medium doses of irradiation successfully reduce bacterial contamination but are not
sufficient to affect viruses or toxins.
➢ Higher radiation doses can be used to kill all living contaminants creating sterile foods. Such
foods are necessary for people with reduced immunity such as AIDS or cancer patients, but
are also used to feed astronauts and some armed forces.
2. Radiation sterilisation

✓ Sterilisation by irradiation can be applied to foods a relatively high dose of irradiation

(above 10 kGy), together with a mild heat treatment and proper packaging, can kill all
microorganisms and allow foods to be kept for long periods at room temperature.
✓ This process is analogous to canning, which uses heat treatment to achieve the same
preservation status.
✓ Meat, poultry, some types of fish and shellfish, some vegetables and entire meals are
suitable for radiation sterilization
✓ Radiation sterilization has been used in the U.S. to sterilize food for NASA’s astronauts and
for some patients with impaired immune systems.
✓ Radiation sterilization of food/meals could help outdoor enthusiasts (campers, mountain
climbers, sailors, etc.) carry safe, nutritious and ready to eat food that requires no
refrigerated storage.

3. Replacing chemical fumigation of food

➢ Irradiation can kill insects and microorganisms in cereals, legumes, spices and dried
vegetable seasonings, as well as other stored foods.
➢ Irradiation could be used in place of chemical fumigation with ethylene dibromide (EDB,
now banned in the U.S. and most other countries), ethylene oxide (banned in the European
Union and Japan) and methyl bromide (MB).

4. Sprout inhibition

➢ Very-low-dose irradiation treatment inhibits the sprouting of vegetables such as potatoes,

onions and garlic.
➢ Irradiation can replace the chemicals currently used for this purpose.
➢ The US and many other nations have approved this use of irradiation for several types of
roots, tubers, and bulbs.
➢ Currently, irradiation is used extensively to control sprouting of garlic and potatoes in China
and Japan, respectively

5. Enhancing food quality

➢ Low-dose irradiation also delays ripening and therefore extends the shelf-life of some fruits,
including bananas, mangoes, papayas, guavas and tomatoes.
➢ Medium doses can be used to control mould growth on strawberries, raspberries and
blueberries, thereby extending their shelflife.
➢ Cap opening of mushrooms can also be delayed by relatively low dose irradiation and cool
storage.
➢ Irradiation can produce desirable physical changes in some foods.
➢ Bread made from irradiated wheat has greater loaf volume when certain dough
formulations are used,
➢ Irradiated dehydrated vegetables reconstitute more quickly than non-irradiated vegetables,
➢ When fruits such as grapes are irradiated they yield more juice than non-irradiated ones.
6. Eliminating parasite hazards in foods

➢ A low dose of radiation can eliminate the hazards of humans contracting trichinosis and
toxoplasmosis from consumption of fresh foods such as pork without significantly affecting
the flavour or texture of the meat.
➢ Irradiation treatment works by impairing the development of these parasites
(Trichinellaspiralis , Toxoplasma gondii) so that they cannot mature, complete their life
cycles or cause human diseases.

Labelling Irradiated foods

Any irradiated food, or food containing an irradiated ingredient must carry the word “Irradiated” in
a prominent position either as part of the main label or next to the ingredient that has been
irradiated. It m ay also (optional) show the international icon for irradiated food called the “Radur”
symbol:
FOOD PRESERVATION
UNIT 4 – DIELECTRIC HEATING
 INTRODUCTION
 Radio frequency and microwave heating are electroheating techniques that can be utilized to heat materials
that are poor electrical conductors.
 They are often also poor conductors of heat. In general, these materials are known as dielectric materials or
dielectrics.
 When a dielectric material is brought into a rapidly altering electrical field, heat is generated inside the material.
This is known as heating by dielectric hysteresis or, in short, dielectric heating.
 Radio frequency and microwave heating are both applications of this principle.
 In technological terms, however, there is a clear distinction between the two techniques. The essential
advantage of dielectric heating resides in the generation of heat within the material to be heated. In
comparison with more conventional heating techniques (hot air, infrared, et cetera) in which the material is
heated via the outer surface, dielectric heating is much more rapid and energy efficient. This is because
electrically insulating materials are mostly also poor conductors of heat.
 It induces molecular friction in water molecules to produce heat Therefore it is determined in part by the
moisture content of food to preserve foods
DIFFERENCES IN FREQUENCY, PENETRATION POWER AND POWER
DENSITY
DIFFERENCES IN POLARIZATION

1. RF energy is mostly used to

heat or evaporate moisture
from a product;
2. Higher frequency MWs are
used for defrosting & low
pressure drying
MICROWAVE HEATING
 Microwaves cause molecules in food to vibrate. This creates
heat that cooks the food. Heat from the food warms the
container that the food is in.
 Some areas get more microwaves, resulting in uneven
cooking—hence rotating disk helps cook evenly
 Microwaves are attracted to water, fat, and sugar molecules
causing them to vibrate and heat
 Microwaves cannot go through metal, but they do pass
through glass, ceramic, plastic, or paper.
 Hence glass, ceramic, or plastic dishes (microwave safe) are
safe in the microwave oven.
 RADIOFREQUENCY HEATING

 Operating principle = MW heating, but at lower

frequencies
 Food is passed between electrodes & a RF
voltage is applied across the electrodes.
 Changes the orientation of water dipoles in a
similar way to MWs but very rapid heating.
 RF heating allows greater concentration of heat
energy, selectivity in the location of heating &
accuracy in control of heating duration.
 Thickness of food is restricted by the distance
between the capacitor plates.
EQUIPMENTS USED

 MW equipment:  RF heaters consist of banks of capacitor

plates, most often located at the end of
– a MW generator (magnetron), bakery tunnel ovens or conveyor driers with
– aluminium tubes (wave guides), the conveyor band passing between the
plates.
– a metal chamber (batch) or a tunnel
fitted with a  Electrical circuit is arranged so that food
becomes an essential electrical component.
 Conveyor belt (continuous).
 A risk of leaking radiation causing injury
to operators, particularly to eyes.
 Chambers & tunnels are sealed to
prevent the escape of microwaves.
APPLICATIONS

 Thawing and Tempering

 Dehydration
 Baking
 Blanching
 Pasteurization
 Sterilization
FOOD PRESERVATION
UNIT 4 – OHMIC HEATING
OHMIC HEATING

 Ohmic heating, a thermal electrical heating method, is also termed as resistance

heating.
 Ohmic heating is direct heating method where food is in contact with the electrodes.
 The concept of ohmic heating is quite simple. The passage of electric current
through an electrically conductive food material obeys Ohm’s law (V = IR); and heat
is generated due to the electrical resistance of the food.
 Almost all electric power is transformed into heat.
 It is possible to heat the product containing large particles upto 2.5 cm in size which
would be damaged in conventional equipment, to sterilization temperature of upto
140°C in less than 90 sec.
 It is regarded as Green process.
PRINCIPLE

 Ohmic heating works on the principle of

 Ohm’s law of electricity.

 Where V is the voltage (volts)

 I is the amperage (amperes)
 R is the resistance (ohms)
IMPORTANT PARTS OF OHMIC HEATING SYSTEM

Contains mainly 3 parts:

 1. Power supply
 2. Heater assembly
 3. Control panel
OHMIC HEATING PROCESS DIAGRAM
MICROORGANISMS INACTIVATION BY OHMIC HEATING

 Like thermal processing, ohmic heating inactivates

microorganisms by heat
 Causes Electroporation at low frequency (50-60Hz) , when
electrical charges build up and form pores across the cell.
ADVANTAGES OF OHMIC HEATING

 Temperature required for UHT processing can  Large-scale process can be carried out in heavy-
be achieved. duty ohmic cookers or batch ohmic heaters.
 No problem of surface fouling or over heating  It has a high solid-loading capacity.
of the product.
 Causes less nutrient loss.
 Useful in pre-heating products before canning.
 It provides rapid, uniform treatment of liquid
 Energy conversion efficiencies are very high. and solid phases with minimal heat damage.
 Suitable for continuous processing.  Less maintenance cost.
 Lower capital investment as compared to  Eco-friendly.
microwave heating and conventional heating.
APPLICATIONS

The ohmic heating system allows for

the production of new, high-added-
value, shelf-stable products with a
quality previously unattainable with
alternative sterilization techniques,
especially for particulate foods.

Ohmic methods offer a way of

processing particulate food at the rate
of HTST processes, but without the
limitation of conventional HTST on
heat transfer to particulates.
SPECIFIC FOOD PRODUCTS
DISADVANTAGES

 Lack of generalized information.

 Requested adjustment according to the conductivity of dairy products.
 Narrow frequency band.
 Difficult to monitor and control.
 Complex coupling between temperature and electrical field distribution.
 Limited to DC current.
FOOD PRESERVATION
UNIT 4
HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING HPP

 High Pressure Processing (HPP) is a cold pasteurization technique by which products,

already sealed in its final package, are introduced into a vessel and subjected to a high level of
isostatic pressure (300–600MPa/43,500-87,000psi) transmitted by water
 HPP also tackles specific product quality and productivity issues without the use of flavor-
altering additives or methods.
 It meets consumer demand for freshness without the negativity often associated with other
methods such as irradiation.
 It is a non-thermal preservation and pasteurization technique that causes little or no change
in the organoleptic and nutritional attributes of the product being processed, unlike most
conventional heat treatments.
 PRINCIPLES OF HPP

 A number of physical and chemical changes result from the use of pressure. Physical pressure throughout
pressure processing brings about a volume decrease and an increment in temperature and energy.
 The rationale for the use of HPP is in conformity with the three elements of physical and chemical principles.

LE CHATELIER'S PRINCIPLE: ISOSTATIC PRINCIPLE:

“any phenomenon such as chemical “the food items are condensed by even
reaction, conformational change, pressure from each angle and after that
PRINCIPLE OF MICROSCOPIC
stage transition, that is conducted came back to their unique shape when
ORDERING:
by a decline in volume is improved the pressure is discharged. The items
“at consistent temperature, an
by pressure”. are condensed freely of the item size
expansion in pressure expands the
and geometry in light of the fact that
degrees of ordering of molecules of a
transmission of pressure to the center
particular substance. In this manner
is most certainly not mass and time
pressure and temperature apply
dependant therefore the procedure is
opposed forces on molecular structure
minimized”.
and chemical reactions”.
OPERATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
 According to Pascal’s law, pressure acts instantly, isostatically and homogenously, independently of the
size and shape of the material.
 In HPP of foods, pressures between 100 and 1,000 MPa are used. This is higher than pressures present
in deep sea.
 In general, the process is batch operated and applied to several liquid and semisolid prepacked foods
and food ingredients. HPP is carried out in three steps as follows: an initial period required for
reaching the treatment pressure or come-up time, the time of processing at the desired pressure or
holding time, and finally, a short time necessary for releasing the pressure or release time.
 During HHP, the food packed in a flexible packaging material is put in a high pressure cylindrical vessel
where it is surrounded by a non-compressible pressure-transmitting medium, usually water.
 The transmitting medium is pressurized up to the treatment pressure.
 This pressure is kept constant from a few minutes to multiples of times for 10 min and immediately
release
TYPICAL PROCESSING CYCLE

Packaged food items are placed in the pressure vessel

Vessel is sealed and filled with water

A pump (with intensifier) forces more water in to the vessel, creating hydrostatic pressure.
Pressure is isostatically transmitted by the fluid medium. A small temperature increase may
occur in the product, depending up on the product composition.

Vessel pressure is maintained for a predetermined period of time (usually between 30

seconds and 15 minutes), during which time pathogens and spoilage bacteria are in activated.

When the cycle is complete, the vessel is quickly depressurised, and temperatures return to
the starting temperature.
 ADVANTAGES

High pressure is not dependent of size and shape of the food.

High pressure is independent of time/mass, that is, it acts instantaneously thus reducing the processing time.

It does not break covalent bonds; therefore, the development of flavors alien to the products is prevented,
maintaining the natural flavor of the products.

It can be applied at room temperature thus reducing the amount of thermal energy needed for food products
during conventional processing.

Since high pressure processing is Isostatic (uniform throughout the food); the food is preserved evenly
throughout without any particles escaping the treatment.

The process is environment friendly since it requires only electric energy and there are no waste products.
LIMITATIONS

Food enzymes and bacterial spores are very resistant to pressure

and require very high pressure for their inactivation.

The residual enzyme activity and dissolved oxygen results in

enzymatic and oxidative degradation of certain food components.

Most of the pressure-processed foods need low temperature storage

and distribution to retain their sensory and nutritional qualities.
EFFECT ON MICRO-ORGANISMS

 High Pressure can kill Microorganisms by in

interrupting their cellular function without the
use of heat that can damage the taste, texture
and nutrition of food.
FOOD PRESERVATION
UNIT 4
PULSED ELECTRIC FIELD
 Pulsed electric fields PEF is a non-thermal method of food preservation that uses short pulses of
electricity for microbial inactivation and causes minimal detrimental effect on food quality attributes.
 PEF technology involves the application of pulses of high voltage to liquid or semi-solid foods placed
between two electrodes.
 Electric fields in the range of 5-80 kV/cm generated by the application of short high voltage pulses
(μs) between two electrodes cause microbial inactivation at temperatures below those used in
thermal processing.
 Application of pulsed electric fields of high intensity and duration from microseconds to milliseconds
may cause temporary or permanent permeabilization of cell membranes.
 These pulses induce poration of plant, animal and microbial cells, leading to cell disintegration and
microbial inactivation.
 As bacterial spores are resistant to pulsed electric fields, applications of this technology mainly focus
on food-borne pathogens and spoilage microorganisms, especially for acidic food products.
 PRINCIPLES OF PULSED ELECTRIC FIELD

 The basic principle of the PEF technology is the application of short pulses of high electric fields with
duration of microseconds to milliseconds and intensity in the order of 5- 80 kV/cm.
 The processing time is calculated by multiplying the number of pulses times with effective pulse duration.
 The process is based on pulsed electrical currents delivered to a product placed between a set of
electrodes; the distance between electrodes is termed as the treatment gap of the PEF chamber.
 The electric field may be applied in the form of exponentially decaying, square wave, bipolar, or oscillatory
pulses and at ambient, sub-ambient, or slightly above-ambient temperature.
 Food is capable of transferring electricity because of the presence of several ions, giving the product in
question a certain degree of electrical conductivity. So, when an electrical field is applied, electrical current
flows into the liquid food and is transferred to each point in the liquid because of the charged molecules
present
PROCESS

 The equipment consists of a high voltage pulse generator and a treatment chamber with a suitable
fluid handling system and necessary monitoring and controlling devices.
 Food product is placed in the treatment chamber, either in a static or continuous design, where two
electrodes are connected together with a nonconductive material to avoid electrical flow from one to
the other.
 Generated high voltage electrical pulses are applied to the electrodes, which then conduct the high
intensity electrical pulse to the product placed between the two electrodes. The food product
experiences a force per unit charge, the so-called electric field, which is responsible for the
irreversible cell membrane breakdown in microorganisms.
 APPLICATIONS

APPLICATION
 For the pasteurization of foods such as juices, milk, yogurt, soups, and liquid eggs.
 Application of PEF processing is restricted to food products with no air bubbles and with low
electrical conductivity.
 The maximum particle size in the liquid must be smaller than the gap of the treatment region in the
chamber in order to ensure proper treatment.
 PEF is a continuous processing method, which is not suitable for solid food products that are not
pump able.
 PEF is also applied to enhance extraction of sugars and other cellular content from plant cells, such as
sugar beets.
 PEF also found application in reducing the solid volume (sludge) of wastewater.
 PEF processing has been successful in a variety of fruit juices with low viscosity and electrical
conductivity such as orange, apple, and cranberry juice.
 Plant oil extraction, Oil recovery from Olives, Meat and Fish Preservation and Sugar processing
ADVANTAGES

 Less treatment time.

 Low treatment temperature.
 Substitute for conventional heat pasteurization or it can operate at room temperature to retain
quality and heat sensitive vitamins.
 Increase shelf life and maintain food safety with low processing costs.
 The sensory attributes of juices are reported to be well preserved, and the shelf life is extended.
 Minimally processed foods of fresh quality, which have higher nutritional value because of color and
flavor retention
 PEF inactivates vegetative micro-organisms including yeasts, spoilage micro-organisms and pathogens.
 Reduction in microorganisms: 4-6 log
 It can be used to pasteurize fluids such as juices, milk and soups without using additives.
ADVANTAGES – CONTINUED…

 PEF causes the formation of large, permanent pores in cellular tissues, which can be used to improve
juice yield, increase concentrations of functional components and enhance the characteristics of dried
produce.
 It can support or replace conventional processing techniques such as enzymatic maceration and
mechanical disintegration.
 Low electric field strength and/ or pulse number causes reversible cell rupture stimulating a stress
reaction in plants or cell cultures and allowing enzymes or proteins with potential health benefits to
be harvested.
 PEF can be used as batch and continuous process.
 Used for pretreatment applications for improvement of metabolite extraction.
LIMITATIONS

 High capital cost.

 PEF treatment is effective for the inactivation of vegetative bacteria only.
 Micro-organisms are destroyed by PEF but spores, with their tough protective coats, and dehydrated
cells are able to survive.
 Refrigeration is required to extend shelf-life.
 Treatment does not inactivate enzymes
 PEF treatment has considerable added value for specific product ranges.
 PEF is a continuous processing method, which is not suitable for solid food products that are not
pump able.
 PEF processing is restricted to food products with no air bubbles and with low electrical conductivity.
FOOD PRESERVATION
UNIT 4
HURDLE TECHNOLOGY

 Hurdle technology is the combined use of several preservation methods to make a product shelf-stable, to improve
quality and to provide additional safety.
 Also known as “combined method technology”.
 Leistner in 1976, introduced the term “hurdle effect”. A new concept for the production of stable, safe, nutritious,
tasty and economical foods.
 It advocates the Intelligent combination of different preservation factors or techniques in order to achieve multi-target,
mild but reliable preservation effects.
 It advocates the deliberate combinations of existing and novel preservation techniques in order to establish a series of
preservation factors that any MO present should not be able to overcome.
 These hurdles may be temperature, pH, water activity, oxidation reduction potential and so on.
 It requires a certain amount of effort by MO to overcome each hurdles. The higher the hurdle, greater the effort.
PRINCIPLE OF HURDLE TECHNOLOGY

 Preservative factors or hurdles disturb the homeostasis of microorganisms.

 Microorganisms should not be able to “jump over” all the hurdles present in the food product.
 Preservative factors prevents microorganisms from multiplying and causing them to remain inactive or even die.
 The hurdle concept illustrates that complex interactions of temperature, water activity, pH etc are significant to
the microbial stability.
FACTORS CONSIDERED AS HURDLE TO MO

 High temperature
 Low temperature
 Water activity
 Reduction potential
 pH
 Preservatives
REDUCED WATER ACTIVITY (AW) – AS A POTENTIAL HURDLE
 aw is water "availability"
 water is required for microbial growth, enzyme/chemical reactions
 Pathogenic microorganisms cannot grow at <aw 0.86
 Yeast & Molds cannot grow at aw <0.62
 Free water can be removed by concentration, dehydration and freeze drying
 In general, the lower the aw, the longer the storage
 Substances that can reduce water activity – can be used as preservatives, additives (Brine solution)
 Glucose
 Fructose
 Sucrose
 Sodium chloride
 Potassium chloride
INCREASED ACIDITY (LOWERED PH) –AS A POTENTIAL HURDLE

 Acidity slows down growth of spoilage organisms and

pathogens
 Pathogens won't grow, spores won't germinate at
pH<4.5 (e.g., fruit juices, sauerkraut)
 Above pH 4.5, must sterilize for shelf stability
 Below pH 4.5, can pasteurize
 Substances that can increase acidity when used as
preservative
 Organic acids
 Benzoic acid
 Citric acid
 Lactic acid
 Malic acid
 Propionic acid
 Tartaric acid
 Inorganic acids
 Fermentation by- products
CONTROLLING OXYGEN – AS A POTENTIAL HURDLE

 Low oxygen inhibits growth of many spoilage organisms but anaerobic conditions
required by some pathogens (e.g., C. botulinum)
 Preservatives inhibit bacteria, yeasts, molds used at low levels (mg/kg) for specific
applications e.g., benzoate (soft drinks), propionate (baked goods), nitrites (meats),
sulfites (wine), ascorbate (juices) Sulphur dioxide and Sulphites
 Nitrites and Nitrates
 Sorbates
 Propionates
 Sodium benzoate
SOME EXAMPLES
 Canning
Hurdles : High heat treatment, anaerobic conditions, asepsis
Techniques : Sterilization, Evacuation,Aseptic packaging

 Canning of F/V in brine solutions

Hurdles : High heat treatment, anaerobic conditions, asepsis, antimicrobial actions
Techniques : Sterilization, Evacuation,Aseptic packaging, preservatives

 Vacuum packaged frozen foods

Hurdles : Low temperature treatment, anaerobic conditions, asepsis,
Techniques : Freezing, Evacuation,Aseptic packaging,

 Wine processing
Hurdles : High heat treatment, low pH, anaerobic conditions, antimicrobial actions, Low temperature storage
Techniques : Sterilization, natural production of acids (tartaric, citric, acetic, malic acid), Preservatives(sugar) alcohol, Chilling