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Published on Explorable.com (https://explorable.com)

Science Projects for Kids

Table of Contents
1 Kids' Science Projects
2 How to Conduct Science Experiments
3 Experiments With Food
3.1 Mold Bread Experiment
3.2 Experiments with Popcorn
3.3 Salt Water Egg Experiment
3.4 Corrosiveness of Soda Experiment
3.5 Egg in a Bottle Experiment
3.6 Fruit Battery Experiment

4 Science Experiments
4.1 Pendulum Experiment
4.2 Paper Towel Experiment
4.3 Paper Airplane Experiment
4.4 Charge a Light Bulb Experiment
4.5 Lifting Ice Cube Experiment
4.6 Magic Egg Experiment
4.7 Magic Jumping Coin Experiment
4.8 Invisible Ink Experiment
4.9 Making-a-Rainbow-Experiment
4.10 Oil Spill Experiment
4.11 The Balloon Rocket Car Experiment
4.12 Build an Electromagnet
4.13 Create a Heat Detector
4.14 Creating a Volcano Experiment
4.15 Home-Made Glue Experiment
4.16 Home-Made Stethoscope
4.17 Magic Balloon Experiment
4.18 Make a Matchbox Guitar
4.19 Make Your Own Slime Experiment

5 Historic Experiments
5.1 Heron’s Aeolipile

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5.2 How to Make an Archimedes Screw
5.3 Build an Astrolabe
5.4 Archimedes Displacement Experiment
5.5 Make Heron’s Fountain
5.6 Create a Sundial

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 1 Kids' Science Projects

Here are a few suggestions on how to construct kids' science projects.

Ideas for Science Projects

Paper Towel Experiment
Which paper towel are more absorbent?
Mold Bread Experiment
Does Mold grow quicker at higher temperatures?
The Pendulum Experiment
What goes up must come down!
Popcorn Experiments
Experiments with popcorn are a fun way to test a scientific theory with the added bonus
of having some tasty food to eat afterwards.
Paper Airplane Experiment
This experiment, as well as being great fun, is a chance for us to study something called
‘The Laws of Aerodynamics.’
Charge a Light Bulb Experiment
Charge a light bulb with the use of comb with the Charge a Light Bulb Experiment. In
this experiment, we will charge a light bulb just with the use of a comb and no other
means of electricity.
The Lifting Ice Cube Experiment
The Lifting Ice Cube experiment is a trick that will let you lift ice cubes without getting
your hands wet or making use of a spoon!
The Magic Egg Experiment
Did you know that you could make an egg bounce? Try the Magic Egg experiment and
see how it works.
The Magic Jumping Coin Experiment
If you want to learn a magic trick on thermal expansion, try the Magic Jumping Coin
Experiment!
The Salt Water Egg Experiment

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The Salt Water Egg Experiment explains why materials (such as an egg) float more in
salt water than in fresh water.
The Invisible Ink Experiment
Have you ever tried making invisible ink? The Invisible Ink experiment shows you how to
do it.
The "Making a Rainbow"-Experiment
With this Making a Rainbow experiment, you’ll be able to understand how rainbows are
formed because you are going to make one yourself.
The Oil Spill Experiment
This Oil Spill experiment will help you understand the detrimental effects of oil spills to
the marine ecosystem.
The Balloon Rocket Car Experiment
Creating your own Balloon Rocket Car has got to be one of the most exciting
experiments that you can do at home, with your friends and family.
How to Build an Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet that attracts metals with the help of electricity.
The Corrosiveness of Soda Experiment
In this experiment, we will be investigating the corrosiveness of soda. If you are one of
those people who can’t last a day without drinking soda, read on.
How to Create a Heat Detector
In this experiment, you will learn how to create your very own heat detector. By creating
a heat detector, we will demonstrate the effect of heat to different kinds of materials.
The "Volcano Experiment"
In the Volcano Experiment, you will learn how different substances react when they are
mixed with each other.
The Egg in a Bottle Experiment
This experiment illustrates the effects of air pressure.
The Fruit Battery Experiment
Ever heard of a fruit battery? In this simple experiment, we will be creating our own
battery with the use of citrus fruits, with a power that is strong enough to make a small
bulb light up.
The Home-made Glue Experiment
Have you ever tried creating home-made glue? By performing this experiment, you will
learn different ways on how you can create glue and what materials can be used to
create one!
Home-made Stethoscope
A stethoscope is a medical instrument used for listening to the sounds of the body.
Usually it is used to listen to the sounds made by the heart, breathing, among others.
The Magic Balloon Experiment
Have you ever heard of magic balloons? In this experiment, you will witness a balloon
inflating without you blowing it up!
How to Make a Matchbox Guitar
If you are into music then you will definitely love this matchbox guitar project! A guitar is
a string musical instrument that you pluck in order to create a sound.
Make Your Own Slime - Experiment
Have you ever played with slime? Do you even know what that gooey brightly coloured

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 material is actually made of?

Some Famous Ancient Experiments are Easy Replicate!

Heron's Aeolipile Experiment
A steam engine that worked on exactly the same principle as the great machines of the
industrial revolution and many modern electricity-generating turbines.
Archimedes Screw Experiment
A device still used around the world as a simple and efficient method of moving liquids
and solid particles.
Build an Astrolabe - Navigation and Mapping the Stars
The astrolabe is an instrument that allows observers to measure the position of celestial
bodies relative to the horizon, which allows accurate star mapping.
Archimedes Displacement Experiment
Repeat the experiment that made a naked man run down the street shouting ‘Eureka!
Eureka!’
Make Heron’s Fountain
How potential energy can provide power, using water and gravity, and air and
compression
Sundials
An Ancient Estimate the Time of the Day

Conducting an Experiment
Conducting science experiments isn't as hard as you think, the problem is often to come up
with the idea for the project.

After you've conducted the experiment, you've still got to write a paper about the experiment
afterward.

How to cite this article: 

Oskar Blakstad (Nov 17, 2008). Kids' Science Projects. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/kids-science-projects

7
 2 How to Conduct Science Experiments

Understanding on how to conduct science experiments is crucial for understanding

how knowledge is created.

Since before the time of the Ancient Greeks, thousands of years ago, people have tried to find
out more about the world around them, wondering how and why things work.

Scientists come up with many great ideas to show how things work, but for an idea to become
accepted, it has to be tested.

The tool scientists use to test their theories is called the scientific method. Whether you are
studying stars, caterpillars or medicines, this method remains the same.

If you have an idea, or a question, you have to be able to prove it and give evidence so that
other scientists can check and test your results.

Here we are going to show you the best way to design and conduct science experiments.

Always check with your teacher exactly what needs to be included but if you follow these
steps, you will not be far wrong.

Steps
Research
Problem
Hypothesis
Experiment
Results
Discussion and Conclusion

Research
The first step in any investigation is to research your topic. This can be done in a variety of
ways.

The experiment you are trying to perform might be building upon ones you have done earlier

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or be a result of something you have noticed in everyday life.

You might, for example, have noticed that mold seems to grow quicker in hot temperatures
and want to know if this is true.

You can use the internet, books, magazines or talking to knowledgeable people to try and find
some details.

You can then do more research into the project because other people may have performed
similar experiments. It is always a good idea to make a list of where you found each piece of
information because you may need to use this in your report.

Problem
Now you must try to narrow down your research into one, easily testable, problem. For
example, you might decide to find out whether mold grows quicker at higher temperatures. It
is much easier to test one thing at a time.

If you wanted to test mold growth with different types of bread or varying amounts of light, it
becomes complicated. The scientific way is to test one thing and get the results. Once you
have the results for this experiment, you can always test other variables.

Hypothesis
This is where we really start going. The hypothesis is one statement of fact that you are going
to try and prove or disprove. It could be

"Mold grows quicker at higher temperatures." (example)

"More expensive paper towel brands absorb more water." (example)

It is always a good idea to say why you have picked this hypothesis.

Write down your hypothesis. This is what your experiment is designed around. It must never
be changed even if it is wrong. Science is not about right and wrong, just coming to an answer.

Experimentation
There are three important variables you have to remember when you are designing your

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experiment.

Independent variable - this is what you change in order to provide a result. In the case of the
mold bread experiment, it is temperature. In the case of the paper towel experiment it is the
brand.

Controlled variables - these are the things that never change.

Dependent variable - this is what you are measuring, how much water the towel absorbs or
how much mold grows on the slice.

It is important to make sure that you perform experiments in batches. One result can always
be an accident but if you have 3 or more samples for each test under the same conditions
then you can take a mean or average for your results.

As much as is possible, you must try and keep everything else the same. The bread you use
for the mold bread experiment should be from the same loaf. The plastic bags should be the
same. Be careful to make sure that you keep a list of the exact details of everything you use.

For experiments where you took samples outside, it is a good idea to give a map reference
and even draw a small map, or use Google maps. Photographs of your methods and
apparatus can also be excellent ways of describing your experiment.

Results
Here is where you show your results and let the whole world know what you found at the end
of the experiment.

You do not need to show all of your calculations; most people know how to take a mean, but
you must make it clear that you did use a mean.

In this section describe what you found. Graphs and tables are good ways to present your
findings. Other scientists find it a lot easier to study your data by looking at diagrams than at
huge blocks of text.

Graphs and tables are fine with pen and paper if they are neat. If you know how to use
computer programs to draw these, even better.

Discussion / Conclusion
In the discussion, you assess how the results answer the hypothesis and discuss its
relevance to the existing knowledge in the field.

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When writing a conclusion, you should try to answer a your hypothesis, as succinctly as
possible.

You will have already answered some of these in your discussion, but the key is to leave
some questions that another can expand upon for their research project.

Writing the Report

The next stage is taking all of your results and constructing a report paper.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Mar 19, 2008). How to Conduct Science Experiments. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/conduct-science-experiments

11
 3 Experiments With Food

3.1 Mold Bread Experiment

What Makes Mold Grow?

We are going to perform a mold bread experiment to grow our own mold and find out
whether mold does indeed grow faster at higher temperatures.

In ten days you will be able to answer this important question and make a contribution to

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science!

But what is mold? What makes it grow?

What is Mold?
Mold is something that we often take for granted, as something that makes us have to throw
the bread away or the cheese smell bad.

Mold is, in fact, a fascinating organism which has had many different uses over the years and
our lives would not be the same without it.

Most of us know that food seems to become moldy more quickly in the summer than in the
winter when it is colder. Food in refrigerators seems to keep longer than food left out in the
sun. Is this true? Does temperature really affect the rate at which mold grows?

Important Note

Please note that some people are allergic to mold; ask your doctor or parents. If this is the
case, do not pick the Mold Bread Experiment. Always wear gloves and a mask, wash your
hands, and don’t eat or drink whilst you are performing this study.

Performing the Mold Bread Experiment

Hypothesis

In the Mold Bread Experiment we are trying to prove that;

"Mold grows quicker at higher temperatures."(Hypothesis)

What You Need for the Mold Bread Experiment

15 slices of bread. Any sort will do but it is perfectly fine to use cheap white sliced bread
as then you will know that all of the slices are a similar size, weight and thickness. You
must make a note of the brand and use-by date so that anybody else wanting to repeat
the Mold Bread Experiment can use the same type.
15 sealable sandwich bags
1 piece of film or clear plastic with a 10x10cm grid drawn onto it
Q-Tip
Clean knife
Chopping board

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 Sticky labels
Marker pen
Mold Spores - if you can’t get these from your school don’t worry. There are mold spores
all around us in the air which will eventually grow on the bread but your experiment will
take longer.
Mask
Gloves

Method

1. Using the sticky labels and the marker pen label the bags. Mark 5 bags as ‘A’, 5 as ‘B’
and 5 as ‘C’. You also need to label each set of bags 1 to 5.
2. Cut the bread into 10 x 10 squares using the chopping board and knife.
3. Inoculate the bread thoroughly with the mold solution. Try to coat each slice with a
similar amount of the culture although this can be difficult.
4. Put one slice of this bread into each bag and seal the bags tightly.
5. Put the 5 ‘A’ bags into the freezer, the 5 ‘B’ bags into the refrigerator and the 5 ‘C’ bags
somewhere safe in a warm room. Because the bags in the freezer and fridge will not be
getting much light it is best to cover the ‘C’ bags to make sure that light is a constant.
6. Every 24 hours, preferably at exactly the same time every day, using the plastic grid,
count the number of square centimeters of mold on each slice of bread. If the mold
covers more than half a square, count it as 1cm, if less than half a square, count as 0
cm. You must never open the bags.
7. You should repeat these counting processes for 10 days or until there are significant
measurable results.
8. Keep a careful note of your results for each slice of bread for the entire duration of the
experiment. You can even take pictures or draw the slices if you want to be really
scientific!
9. Average the results for sample types A, B and C.
10. Once you have finished, throw out all of the bags without opening them.

Results

Because each square of bread is 100 cm2, you can express your results as a percentage. For
each of the bread types, A, B or C average the amount of mold grown over the ten days and
write these figures into a table.

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You can then plot this information onto a graph and begin to explore your results. You can plot
the amount of mold on each bread sample and compare it to the number of days, like in the
diagram below. This can be done with a sheet of graph paper and colored pens or on a
computer.

Is the Graph Correct?

Could you replicate the graph below or is your graph different? We have done this, but will not
give you our answer, so you can test for yourself!

Why are the Results Important?

The food industry spends millions of dollars every year on refrigeration and it is very important
that they know what temperature they need to stop mold from growing. Moldy food must be
thrown away and this costs restaurants and manufacturers a lot of money.

For companies using mold to make food or medicine they need to know at which temperature
mold grows best. The faster the mold grows, the quicker they can sell their product and make
money.

Further Experiments
Now that you have finished and obtained some results, maybe you want to see if other

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variables affect the rate at which mold grows. Maybe you could keep the temperature the
same for all of the samples but use different types of bread.

You could try adding moisture to the slices or putting different amounts of sugar or lemon juice
onto the slices. As long as you only vary one thing at a time, you can make some interesting
studies about mold.

Temperature is not the only thing that affects the rate of mold growth so feel free to try and
find out more about this interesting organism.

Facts About Mold

Mold is not a plant but a fungus like mushrooms and toadstools. It grows on food and
other organic matter, breaking it down into slime and extracting nutrients for growth.
Alexander Fleming discovered that a common type of mold fungi kills germs. From this,
he made a medicine called penicillin which has saved millions of lives over the last 80
years. Many other life-saving drugs are made from chemicals obtained from mold.
Mold is one of nature’s cleaners. It breaks down dead organic material and recycles the
nutrients back into the soil. It is essential in nearly every ecosystem in the world.
We use molds for flavor in some foods such as blue cheese, soy sauce and Quorn(TM).

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Nov 24, 2008). Mold Bread Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/mold-bread-experiment

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 3.2 Experiments with Popcorn

Experiments with popcorn are a fun way to test a scientific theory with the added
bonus of having some tasty food to eat afterwards.

Popcorn Experiments, jayneandd

Popcorn is a food that has been around for many thousands of years, ever since people in
America discovered that if corn (maize) was left next to a fire, it would 'pop' into fluffy and
delicious shapes.

Ever since then, popcorn has become one of the most popular foods on earth, with movie-
goers everywhere tucking into huge bucketfuls of the stuff.

There is a little more to popcorn than that, and we are going to design some experiments
which will allow us to find out a little more about this fascinating food.

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For these experiments with popcorn, it is best if you have a hot air-popper. If not, you will
need to use a pan on the cooker (stovetop), so it is important to have an adult helping you.

You must also remember that popcorn is very hot when it comes out of the popper so handle
with care. If you want to eat the popcorn afterwards, make sure that all your equipment and
your hands have been washed properly.

Experiment 1 - Are Yellow or White Kernels the Best?

Equipment

A good supply of both yellow and white popcorn kernels.

A hot air popper or a pan, a 30 ml oil and a stove

A large bowl
A tablespoon
A large measuring jug
Chart for recording your results.

Hypothesis

White kernels pop better than yellow kernels.

Manipulated (independent) Variable

The type of popcorn kernel.

Measured (dependent) Variable

The number of popped kernels and the volume after popping.

Method

1. First, you need to make yourself a data chart, like in Figure 1. You will use this to record
the results of your experiments with popcorn.
2. Count out 100 kernels of white popcorn, and heat until you can no longer hear any
popping.
3. Let everything cool down and then count the number of popped kernels. Record this on
your chart. Because we counted 100 kernels, we can write this number down as a
percentage.
4. Tip the popped corn into a measuring jug and measure the volume in ml. Record these
numbers on your chart.

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 5. Repeat two more times for the white popcorn. In the same way, test the yellow kernels
three times

Results

You can take an average of your results for the percentage of popped kernels and the
volume. Which color kernel pops better?

You can draw your results onto a couple of bar graphs and discuss your important findings
with the rest of the class.

Follow Up Experiments

Maybe you could test different brands of popcorn to see which the best are. Does a hot-air
popper do a better job than a pan? There are many ways you can design more experiments
with popcorn.

Experiment 2 - Which is the Tastiest Popcorn?

For this experiment you will be trying to find out which brand of popcorn people like to eat
most. You will be using a 'blind tasting' technique to find out which popcorn people like the
most.

Hypothesis

Brand 'X' is the best tasting popcorn.

Equipment

Five different brands of popcorn - it is best to stick to the same type e.g. all salted or all
sweet to prevent personal taste becoming an issue.
Some popcorn-loving volunteers
Five labels, brand A, brand B etc
Five bowls
A blindfold

Method

1. Tip a little of each popcorn into a bowl and make a note, with the labels, of which is
which.
2. Take one of your volunteers and blindfold them in case they recognize any of the
brands. You must be very careful and make sure that they cannot trip over anything.

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 3. Let them try each brand of popcorn, in turn, and give marks out of ten for how tasty it is.
4. Make a note of your results in a table and add up the results for each brand of popcorn.

Results

You can then plot a simple graph and you will know which brands are the tastiest!

There are many other experiments with popcorn you can do with this method. Maybe you
could study whether more expensive brands taste better. Does the cost of the popcorn make
a difference?

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 NUMBER OF POPPED KERNELS (%)VOLUME OF POPCORN (cm3)
 
White Yellow White Yellow

TRIAL 1        

TRIAL 2        

TRIAL 3        

AVERAGE       

Figure 1 - Table for Experiment 1

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jun 17, 2008). Experiments with Popcorn. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/experiments-with-popcorn

21
 3.3 Salt Water Egg Experiment
Will it Float or Sink?

The Salt Water Egg Experiment explains why materials (such as an egg) float more in
salt water than in fresh water.

Eggs Experiment with Salt Water, Waleed Alzuhair

Have you ever tried swimming in the sea? Did you notice that you could float more easily in
the open waters than when you're swimming in fresh water or even in a swimming pool? This
experiment will help you understand why!

Materials
For the Salt Water Egg experiment you will need the following materials:

Table salt
Two containers
Tablespoon
Tap water
Two raw eggs

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Procedures
1. Fill the two containers with tap water.
2. Add about 6 tablespoons of salt in one container and stir it well with a tablespoon until
the salt has completely dissolved in the water.
3. Place one egg in each of the containers and observe which one of the eggs float in the
container and which one sinks.

Discussion
The explanation behind this phenomenon is simple - DENSITY! In the Salt Water Egg
experiment, you have observed that the egg placed in saltwater floated and the one in tap
water didn't. Because saltwater is denser than fresh water, the egg does not end up sinking
like it usually does!

Why is this so? Let's first discuss the definition of density and why objects sink. Density refers
to the amount of matter contained in a given space or volume. When there's more amount of
matter in a given space or volume, the object is then considered denser and at the same time
heavier. However, this doesn't mean that density and weight is the same and can be used
interchangeably.

Weight refers to the vertical force exerted by a mass of object when subjected to gravity.
Unlike density, weight is dependent on the amount of gravity in a particular place. To make it
clearer, let's take the egg as an example. The egg's density remains the same no matter
where you bring it, whatever the amount of gravity is in that place. However, if you bring the
same egg to space, where there is no gravity, it loses its weight! But its density remains the
same. That's the difference between density and weight - gravity.

Why Objects Float or Sink

Now let's go back to the question of why objects float or sink. Placing an object that's denser
than fresh water automatically sinks. In our Salt Water Egg experiment, because the egg is
denser than tap water, it pushes away water particles so it can make space for itself hence
the sinking motion. But in the case of the salt water, since it is heavier than ordinary tap water,
it is more capable of holding the egg up - hence the egg floating. In easier words, objects sink
when their own density is greater than the liquid's density.

Now you must be wondering what's in the salt that makes water denser when mixed with it?
When salt is added and dissolved in water, it breaks down into ions that are then attracted to
the water molecules. This attraction causes them to bind tightly, increasing the amount of

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matter per volume (density). Instead of just having the molecules hydrogen and oxygen in the
water, sodium and chlorine joins the equation (since salt is made up of sodium and chlorine
particles). Saltwater now has more particles in it compared to the ordinary tap water we
started with. This is why saltwater is denser than tap water.

So next time you go to the beach or swim in the ocean, you already know the reason why it's
so much easier to float in the open waters. In fact, an average person can float like a log with
much less effort in saltwater than in fresh water. The key is, the denser the liquid the easier
you'll float in it! Amazing huh?

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Jan 20, 2011). Salt Water Egg Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/salt-water-egg-experiment

24
 3.4 Corrosiveness of Soda Experiment

In this experiment, we will be investigating the corrosiveness of soda. If you are one of
those people who can't last a day without drinking soda, read on.

Corrosiveness of Soda, Daniel Oines

You are probably already aware of the bad effects of drinking too much soda but seeing the
effects of soda first hand will probably be enough to convince you that the bad effects you
have been hearing about are all actually true.

One of the negative effects of too much soda, relative to our experiment, is its effect to our
tooth enamel. In this activity, you will not only discover the extent of the corrosiveness of soda
but also which type of soda is the most corrosive.

Materials
To perform this activity, make sure you have all of the following materials:

1 small bottle each of Coca Cola, Pepsi, Dr. Pepper, Sprite, Mountain Dew and Distilled
water
6 plastic cups
6 tarnished pennies
Notepad

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 Measuring cup
Marker for creating cup labels

This experiment is expected to take about one week before you get to see and assess the
results. The longer it takes, the clearer the results will be.

Procedure
Take all the 6 plastic cups and label each using the marker. Assign one cup for each drink -
one for Coca Cola, one for Pepsi, one for Dr. Pepper, one for Sprite, one for Mountain Dew
and the last one for the distilled water. Pour each liquid into the designated cup and drop one
tarnished penny for each labelled cup.

Observe what happens to each penny each day. Take note and record these observations in
your notepad. You may pick the penny out of the cup to look at them closely but make sure
you return them back inside after observing.

When noting your observations, try to observe whether the darker coloured sodas remove the
tarnish from the pennies faster than the lighter-coloured ones. Also take note if the lighter
coloured sodas change colour as they remove the tarnish. Do not forget to compare these
observations to that of the penny soaked in the distilled water. Continue doing this for a week
and assess the trend if there is any.

Discussion
You must have noticed, as days passed by, that the darker-coloured sodas removed the
tarnish from the coins quicker than the lighter coloured ones. This means that the darker-
coloured sodas are stronger and are more corrosive compared to the lighter colour sodas.

The American Dental Association or the ADA has warned people that too much soda could
damage their teeth particularly their tooth enamel. This Corrosiveness of Soda experiment
only proves and supports ADA's position on the said issue. So before you drink another bottle
of soda, think again. You do not have to completely shun sodas from your diet. Just consume
in moderation and this will save you from weakening your teeth or worse!

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Aug 17, 2011). Corrosiveness of Soda Experiment. Retrieved from

Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/corrosiveness-of-soda-experiment

26
 3.5 Egg in a Bottle Experiment

The Egg in a Bottle experiment illustrates the effects of air pressure. Air pressure is
manifested in different phenomena, so are its effects.

Egg in a Bottle Experiment, Weird Science for Kids

When it comes to weather, air pressure plays a big role too. Most of the changes in a
particular place's weather are governed by air pressure.

In this experiment, you will learn more about air pressure and its behaviour by putting an egg
into a bottle and taking it out again without destroying the egg.

Materials
For the Egg in a Bottle experiment, you will need the following items:

hard boiled egg

bottle with an opening narrower than the size of the egg
match sticks
newspaper

Procedure
Get an egg and hard boil it. Make sure that you cool it down before proceeding. Seek help
from an adult or at least their supervision while you cook the egg. After setting it aside to cool
down, start peeling off its shell.

Now, take the newspaper and tear one page into strips. It is recommended that you perform
the following procedure with the supervision of an adult. Insert the strips of newspaper into the
bottle, and take your match to light it. Drop the lit matchsticks into the bottle so it burns the
newspaper strips inside. Quickly take the egg and place it in front of the opening of the bottle.
Watch what happens!

And to take it out? Put your mouth on the bottle opening and blow air into the mouth of the
bottle. Be aware that the egg will pop right out of the bottle again when you do this!

27
Discussion
Amazing huh? You just managed to insert a hard-boiled egg into a bottle with a narrower
opening and you were even able to take it back out without destroying it! How is this possible?
Air pressure is the answer! The experiment just showed you the behaviour of air pressure.

In our Egg in a Bottle experiment, after setting the newspapers on fire with the use of the lit
matchsticks, the oxygen in the bottle is used up. When you placed the egg in front of the
opening, the air inside creates a vacuum sucking the egg into the bottle.

The burning newspapers heats the air trapped inside the bottle causing it to expand. After a
short while, the fire inside the bottle dies, thus causing the air inside to cool down then
resulting in a lower pressure inside the bottle. The egg is forced into the bottle because there
is a lower pressure inside, and a greater pressure outside the bottle.

Now, after turning the bottle upside down and blowing air into the bottle, the air pressure
inside the bottle increases then pushing the egg back out its opening while at the same time
keeping it intact!

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Aug 13, 2011). Egg in a Bottle Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/egg-in-a-bottle-experiment

28
 3.6 Fruit Battery Experiment

Ever heard of a fruit battery? Who knew we could make our own batteries? Batteries
are the most common source of electricity especially for smaller gadgets and devices
that need electric power to work. It comes in different forms, in varying voltages; again
depending upon the power requirement of the gadget or device we will be using them
for.

Fruit Battery Experiment, Travis V.

Batteries store chemical energy and transform this energy into electricity. This is how batteries
make gadgets and electronic devices work, like mobile phones, MP3 players, flashlights, and
a whole lot more.

There are two main types of batteries based on the type of electrolyte it uses. There is what
we call the wet cell, which makes use of liquid electrolytes in the form of a solution, and there
is also what we call dry cell, which makes use of electrolytes in the form of paste. There are
many more types of batteries available on the market now, like carbon-zinc cell, alkaline cell,
nickel-cadmium cell, Edison cell and mercury cell.

In this simple experiment, we will be creating our own battery with the use of citrus fruits, with
a power that is strong enough to make a small bulb light up. Later on, we will discuss how
citrus fruits work as batteries.

29
Materials
To make our fruit battery work, we have to secure the following materials:

citrus fruits such as lemons, limes, oranges, etc

copper nail (recommended size in length is 2 inches or longer)
small light bulb (preferable coloured or opaque with a 2-inch lead with enough wire to
connect it to the nails)
electrical tape
zinc nail or galvanized nail (also 2 inches or longer)
micro ammeter (optional)

Procedure
The estimated experiment time for this activity is about five to ten minutes. It does not take
long to create your fruit battery!

Now, the first step is to take your citrus fruit of choice in hand, and squeeze it on all sides with
your hands without breaking the skin. Your aim is to soften the citrus fruit enough to extract its
juices. 

The next step is to puncture the citrus fruit with the nails. Insert the nails into the fruit about 2
inches away from each other, in such a way that the two nails stop at the centre of the fruit
without touching. Be careful inserting each nail. Go slowly, being sure not to go through the
fruit completely.

With the nails inserted into the citrus fruit, it is time to prepare your bulb. Take your bulb and
peel off its plastic insulation, expose the wire underneath. Wrap the exposed wires around the
head of the 2 nails. Use the electrical tape to secure each end of the wire on the nails.

With the bulb's wires attached securely to both the copper nail and the galvanized nail, your
coloured bulb will light up!

Discussion
Citrus fruits have an acidic content, and the more acidic it is, the better it is for conducting
electricity. This is the reason why even though the nails were not touching each other, your
fruit battery still worked! The fruit contains positively charged ions. When you inserted the
galvanized or zinc nail into the fruit, the negatively charged ions or the electrons started to
move from the fruit to the zinc nail thus leaving the protons in the fruit. This transfer of

30
electrons generates electricity as soon as you attach the wires to the nail, and the bulb lights
up! Amazing huh?

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Jan 15, 2011). Fruit Battery Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/fruit-battery-experiment

31
 4 Science Experiments

4.1 Pendulum Experiment

The Pendulum Experiment is an experiment about gravity. Pendulums (or pendula if we

are being exact!) are a fascinating scientific phenomenon.

For many years they have been used for keeping time. If you pull back a pendulum and then
let it go, the time it takes to swing over and then return back to its starting position is one
period.

32
They follow some simple mathematical rules and we are going to find out how they work.

We are going to do a series of three experiments to see what effect changing things has on a
pendulum.

Please note that this experiment is probably easier with more than one person.

Facts About Pendulums

Pendulums have been around for thousands of years. The ancient Chinese used the
pendulum principle to try and help predict earthquakes.

Galileo Galilei was the first European to really study pendulums and he discovered that
their regularity could be used for keeping time, leading to the first clocks

In 1656, the Dutch inventor and mathematician, Huygens, was the first man to
successfully build an accurate clock.

What You Will Need for the Pendulum Experiment

A long piece of string, at least 1 meter long.

One piece of metal wire to bend into a hook.

Some nuts from a toolbox - they must all be the same weight and must fit onto the hook.

A large piece of paper to put behind the pendulum or a wall that nobody minds you
drawing on.

A pencil.

Some tape.

A stopwatch.

Initial Setting Up the Pendulum Experiment

To do this experiment requires a little building work but nothing too complicated.

1.
The pencil should be firmly taped to the top of the tabled, leaving about 4cm hanging

33
 over the edge.

2.
Next make a loop in your string to fit on the end of the pencil but do not make it too tight
fitting.

3.
At the other end of your string tie your hook and slide one of the nuts onto the hook.

4.
Put your piece of card flat behind the pendulum and you are ready to go.

5.
Before performing the pendulum experiment, make sure that everything swings freely
without sticking.

Experiment One - Changing the Weight

In this experiment we are going to find out what effect changing the mass on the end of the
string makes

1.
Take your string back about 40 - 50 cm. You must make a mark on the wall or your
piece of paper to make sure that you let it go from the same place every time.

2.
As you let it go, start the stop-watch, and count the number of oscillations in one minute

3.
Repeat the experiment 5 times and calculate an average

4.
Put another weight on the hook

5.
Release the weight from exactly the same place. Calculate the period as before.

6.
Repeat 5 times and average the results

7.
Try the same procedure with after adding another weight

You may be surprised by your results!

34
Experiment Two - Changing the Angle
1.
Go back to just one weight on the string

You have the results from the first mark in your last experiment so you can use these
results again.

2.
Now, take the string back only about 20cm and make a mark as before

3.
Let go and count the number of periods for one minute

4.
Repeat 5 times and then work out an average

5.
Try exactly the same thing but now let go from 10cm.

What difference does the angle of swing make?

Experiment Three - Changing the Length of the String

You already have your results from the first experiment and can use these again.

1.
Take the string of the pendulum and cut off about 20cm. If you are really organized, you
can use another length of string from the same roll to make a shorter one.

2.
Take back to the same angle and let it fly.

3.
Take another 20cm off the string, replace and try again.

What effect does changing the length of the string have on a pendulum?

Conclusion
As you can see from your results, changing a few things on a pendulum can have some
unexpected effects.

There are still more questions about pendulums. What makes them slow down and stop? How

35
does a pendulum in a grandfather clock keep swinging for a long time?

Maybe your next experiment could answer some of these questions.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Feb 25, 2008). Pendulum Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/pendulum-experiment

36
 4.2 Paper Towel Experiment
Which is the Most Absorbent?

The Paper Towel Experiment is a project about which type of paper can absorb more
water.

In every store, big or small, there are numerous brands of paper towels available, each
claiming to be the best, the most absorbent or the cheapest. How do we prove or disprove
these claims? How do we work out which paper towels are truly great and which are almost
entirely useless?

We have all seen advertisements where two brands of paper towels are compared by
observing how quickly or thoroughly they suck up a mysterious blue liquid or by wiping up

37
some muddy footprints from their kitchen floor.

This, as we know, is not very scientific - there are no figures, no proof and little truth.

Here we are going to show you how to conduct an experiment to test one of these claims: the
absorbency of paper towels.

Some Facts About Kitchen Towel

Paper towels were invented by Arthur Scott in Philadelphia, USA, in around 1900. From
humble beginnings, paper kitchen towels have become a billion dollar industry.
Paper towels are often made from post consumer recycled paper fiber, requiring fewer
trees being cut down and using up to 50% less energy.

Performing the Paper Towel Experiment

Hypothesis

“More expensive brands of paper towel are more absorbent.”

What You Will Need for the Paper Towel Experiment

At least four brands of absorbent paper towel

A stopwatch
A beaker
A graduated cylinder
A funnel

Method

1. Fill the beaker up with exactly 200 ml of water

2. Take a sheet of the first brand of towel.
3. Fold and insert into the water. As you dip the towel into the water, start your stopwatch.
4. After 20 seconds, remove the towel from the beaker and squeeze as much water as you
can out of the towel in to the graduated cylinder using the funnel. Make a note of the
volume extracted
5. Repeat 5 times for each brand and note the results in your data table. You must make
sure that each sheet is folded in exactly the same way for the experiment to be constant
and correct.

38
 6. Write down the results for each brand in your notebook.

Results

Work out an average for each result and write down in a table.

Plot all of your results onto a simple bar graph like the one below; you can do this on a
computer or you can use graph paper and pencils.

This will allow you to show which brand of paper towel is the most absorbent and which is
truly awful.

Problems and Further Experimentation

Of course, this is a very simple experiment and it does have some limitations; you are testing
only one reason why people choose a certain brand.

Some brands might be excellent at soaking up spills but are very expensive. Maybe some
brands are not as good at soaking up water but are better at soaking up other liquids like milk
or cooking oil.

When a consumer buys paper towels, they are not just looking for absorbency. Price,
softness, availability, number of sheets on a roll, and strength are all important factors when
buying a roll of kitchen towel.

Perhaps you could design an experiment to rate the strength and softness, or try and
calculate how much each towel costs per sheet.

Paper towel manufacturers spend millions of dollars every year but, with a few simple
experiments, you can find out which brands truly are the best.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Sep 21, 2008). Paper Towel Experiment. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/paper-towel-experiment

39
 4.3 Paper Airplane Experiment

The paper airplane experiment, as well as being great fun, is a chance for us to study
something called 'The Laws of Aerodynamics'.

When you throw a flimsy paper dart across a room, you might not realize that it follows the
same laws of flight as a Jumbo Jet!

With just a few pieces of paper and a little patience, you can explore these laws and find out
how a big piece of metal manages to stay in the air.

For this experiment, we are going to chose five different designs of plane. One place to look is
www.paperairplanes.co.uk, for instructions on how to make these. You can use any design
you like, as long as they are different and you don't use any scissors or tape to make them.

In the paper airplane experiment, we are going to test which designs fly the furthest. Some of

40
the designs have a sharp point so do not throw them at anybody's face!

Equipment
Lots of copy paper to make your planes.
Loads of space - if your school has a large gym or hall, then great. You can fly them
outside but it must be on a day with no wind.
A long tape measure - 50 or 100 meters long
A chart to record your results in

Methods
1. Make a chart to record your results, like in Figure 1.
2. Next, make a lot of paper airplanes of each type. Take your time to make sure that the
planes are as similar as possible. You should practice throwing each type to make sure
that you are throwing with the same amount of force and speed.
3. Do this five times for each type of plane and note the results on your chart.
4. Try to use the same plane for all five throws, but if it gets damaged, use another.

Results
You should work out an average distance flown for each type of plane in your paper airplane
experiment.

However, we are going to use something called an adjusted average. Do not use the lowest
and highest figures to work out your average, just the three in the middle. This is because; in
an experiment like this, a gust of wind or a bad throw can make one or more of your results
wrong. This is called an outlier-data.

After you have worked out the average for each, you can plot a bar chart and discuss the
results with your class. Which planes flew the furthest? Why do you think they were the best
fliers?

For some tips, please see the NASA site for some advice on the Laws of Aerodynamics.

There are many more experiments you can perform with paper airplanes. Maybe this is the
first step on you journey to being an airplane engineer or designer!

41
Throw PAPER AIRPLANE DISTANCE (meters)
Design 1 Design 2 Design 3 Design 4 Design5
Throw 1          
Throw 2          
Throw 3          
Throw 4          
Throw 5          
Adjusted Average          

Figure 1 - The distance flown by paper airplanes.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Sep 21, 2008). Paper Airplane Experiment. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/paper-airplane-experiment

42
 4.4 Charge a Light Bulb Experiment

Charge a light bulb with the use of comb with the Charge a Light Bulb Experiment.
Electricity is generated when there is a flow of electric charge through a material,
usually with conducting property.

In this experiment, we will charge a light bulb just with the use of a comb and no other means
of electricity.

Materials
In this experiment you will need:

Light bulb
Comb
Woollen scarf

Procedures
Go to a dark room and bring all the materials with you - the light bulb, the comb and the scarf.

43
Rub the comb thoroughly against the woollen scarf for 5 to 10 minutes. If you do not have a
woollen scarf around, you may just run the comb through your hair in at least 30 strokes to
achieve the same effect. After doing such, quickly stick the comb to the metal end of the light
bulb and observe the filament of the bulb light up! Magic!

Discussion
Didn't think that this was possible? Electricity is generated not only by plugging an appliance
in an outlet or with the use of dry cell batteries. Electricity can also be generated by rubbing
two things against each other such as the comb and the woollen cloth or even your hair.
Rubbing the two materials against each other thoroughly creates friction, which then allows
the electrons from your hair or cloth to travel to the comb, making the comb negatively
charged and the other material positively charged as it loses its electrons in the process.

Now that the comb is charged, sticking it to the metal end of the light bulb makes its filament
emit small pulses of light!

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Jul 7, 2011). Charge a Light Bulb Experiment. Retrieved from

Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/charge-a-light-bulb-experiment

44
 4.5 Lifting Ice Cube Experiment

The Lifting Ice Cube Experiment is a trick that will let you lift ice cubes without getting
your hands wet or making use of a spoon! You don't believe it is possible? With
science, nothing is impossible!

Ice Cube Experiment, Kyle May

The Lifting Ice Cube experiment demonstrates the melting and freezing properties of water,
which results to another property of matter called adherence. Adherence refers to close
physical attachment or union of two objects. To further understand this phenomenon, let us do
an experiment!

Materials
In this experiment, you will need the following materials:

Glass of water
Ice cubes

45
 String
Salt

Procedure
Drop an ice cube in the glass of water. Take the string and dangle the end of it on the ice
cube, and then keep it still.

While the string is dangled down onto the ice cube, sprinkle a bit of salt on the ice cube.  Set
aside for a few minutes. After some time, try to lift the string and observe what happens to the
ice cube.

Discussion
In the Lifting Ice Cube experiment, notice that adding salt onto the ice cube caused it to attach
itself to the string, allowing you to lift it out of the glass just with the use of the string; like
fishing! Read on to find out how this happened.

Before we explain how this happened, let us talk about the freezing point of water first, and
the melting point of ice. The freezing point of water and the melting point of ice under normal
conditions is 0°C or 32°F.

How it Happens
When you placed the ice cube in the glass of water, two processes started to occur: the ice
started melting into the water and the water started to freeze. Because the two processes
have been happening simultaneously, we can say that the ice and the water are in dynamic
equilibrium. Here, the rate of freezing and the rate of melting is the same. As ice melts, the ice
molecules begin to escape into the water. On the other hand, when the water freezes, its
molecules are captured on the ice surface. With this happening at the same time, it is safe to
say that there are no changes created in either the ice or the water. This state of equilibrium
shall stay as long as the water keeps its temperature of 0°C (32°F).

When we sprinkle salt on to the ice cube, the state of equilibrium is disrupted. The salt
molecules dissolve and join the water molecules thus changing the water's rate of freezing.
The rate of melting is now much faster than freezing hence causing the ice to melt. However,
to be able to restore equilibrium, the water's freezing point drops causing the ice to freeze out
of the salt water. The salt starts to crystallize and ice refreezes around the string. This causes
the ice cube to stick to the ends of the thread enabling you to pick it up just by lifting the string!

46
How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Nov 3, 2011). Lifting Ice Cube Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/lifting-ice-cube-experiment

47
 4.6 Magic Egg Experiment

Did you know that you could make an egg bounce? Try the Magic Egg Experiment and
see how it works.

Egg Bounce Experiment, Woody Thrower

Yes, we know that an egg is so fragile you cannot knock it too hard or it will break. But there is
actually a way you can make an egg bounce without breaking it.

Materials
Are you ready to make an egg bounce? You will need the following materials for the
experiment:

White vinegar
Boiled egg
Glass jar

Procedures

48
Take a raw egg and boil it. Place the boiled egg inside the glass jar and pour white vinegar
into the jar until the boiled egg is fully immersed in it. Put the lid back on and close the jar
tightly. Set it aside and away from direct sunlight for a full day and observe what happens to
the egg. Leave it for another week before you drain the egg from the vinegar. Rinse the egg in
tap water and dry it.

Discussion
What did you observe when you placed the egg into a jar of vinegar? What did you see after
leaving it for one whole day?

If you noticed small bubbles forming around the egg, that is completely normal. After some
time you will notice that the bubbles grow bigger and eventually rise to the surface of the white
vinegar. After some time, the egg will start to float due to the bubbles that have gathered
around it. The shell of the egg then starts to decompose because of the vinegar. After a week
has passed, notice that the eggshell has decomposed completely. Once you take it out, feel
the texture of the egg. It feels leathery doesn't it? Now, what's even more exciting is that it will
bounce if you try to bounce it against the floor. Try it!

What is Happening?
Now what is the explanation behind this? The Magic Egg experiment actually demonstrates
the process of osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of liquid from a solution of lower
concentration to a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable substance.
Permeable means fluids or gases are able to pass through the material. In the Magic Egg
experiment, the vinegar slowly diffuses through the eggshell until it dissolves it completely
leaving the egg rubbery or leathery in texture.

So what is in the vinegar that gives it the ability to dissolve the eggshell? Vinegar is an acid.
Specifically, it contains acetic acid, which reacts with calcium - the primary component of
eggshell. As the eggshell breaks down, carbon dioxide is produced which appears in the form
of bubbles. Leaving the egg immersed in the vinegar will cause its shell to dissolve completely.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Apr 25, 2011). Magic Egg Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/magic-egg-experiment

49
 4.7 Magic Jumping Coin Experiment
A Magic Trick On Thermal Expansion

If you want to learn a magic trick, try the Magic Jumping Coin Experiment! Gather your
friends and show them something their eyes might not be able to believe but science
can explain!

Magic Jumping Coin Experiment, jin.thai

Here's what you'll need to do the trick:

Cold water in a container

Glass soft drink/soda bottle with a small mouth
Coin slightly bigger than bottle opening

Procedure
Allot 15 to 20 minutes to complete the Magic Jumping Coin experiment.

First, fill a container with ice cold water. Put the bottle in the water upside down, so the
bottleneck is in the ice cold water. Put the coin in with the bottle. Chilling both the glass bottle
and the coin in the ice cold water is important, do not fill the bottle with water. Chilling the

50
bottleneck and the coin will allow the top of the bottle to have that airtight seal when you place
the coin on the mouth of the glass bottle.

Next, wrap both your hands around the body of the bottle and observe the behaviour of the
coin. Afterwards, release the bottle from your grip and observe what happens to the coin.

Discussion
As observed, the coin began to jump up and down about 15 seconds after you wrapped your
hands around the body of the bottle. Even after you removed your hands, notice that the coin
still vibrated and jumped up and down on the opening of the bottle.

The behaviour of the coin can be explained by the concept of thermal expansion. Thermal
expansion happens when heat is applied to matter. When subjected to heat, the matter
changes in volume as its particles begin to move around. This is when we notice that matter
expands.

In the beginning of the Magic Jumping Coin experiment, both the air and the bottle are cold
because of the cold water. As soon as you placed your hands around the body of the bottle,
the air started to heat up causing thermal expansion to take place. As the air molecules
expand, it pushes its way out of the bottle thus causing the cover, in this case the coin, to
vibrate or jump up and down. This is what makes your coin magically jump! The coin will only
stop jumping when the air inside the bottle eventually cools down.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Apr 19, 2011). Magic Jumping Coin Experiment. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/magic-jumping-coin-experiment

51
 4.8 Invisible Ink Experiment

Have you ever tried making invisible ink? The Invisible Ink experiment shows you how
to do it.

Invisible Ink Experiment, CherryPoint

Would it not be cool to pass on secret messages only you and your friends can read? Invisible
ink is fascinating, not just for kids but for everyone who is young at heart! You can actually get
them from kiddie stores and other fun prank stores. But few people know that we can make
invisible ink just by using materials that can be found in our very own kitchen!

Materials
There are a lot of ways on how we can create invisible ink. But for this Invisible Ink
experiment, we will make use of the following materials:

Milk
Paper
Clean paintbrush or cotton swab
Desk lamp shade/light

52
Procedure
This experiment is very simple, yet very fun to do! Make sure you brought with you your
friends so you can all try making invisible ink and at the same time exchange invisible
messages!

First step is to get milk and dip your clean paintbrush or cotton swab in it, and using this as
your ink. Write on the clean sheet of paper with the 'inked' paintbrush or cotton swab and
allow it to dry. To read the hidden message, you'll have to apply heat to the paper. Turn on
your desk lamp and hold the paper close to the light bulb, allowing the light bulb to heat the
paper. The heat from the light bulb will cause the writings to darken, allowing you to read the
invisible writings!

Discussion
There are several other materials you can use in the absence of milk. You can use lemon or
lemon juice, baking soda mixed with water, vinegar or even grape juice. Basically, just
anything acidic can be used as invisible ink. Also for the heating agent, you can make use of
other heat sources such as sunlight or gas stove. However, you'll need the supervision of your
parents if you are to make use of a gas stove as source of heat for this experiment.

Milk, lemon, vinegar, grape juice or any other acidic liquid, weakens the paper when applied.
When you apply heat to it, the portion where you wrote your message oxidises and burns
faster than the surrounding paper dry from the ink. The said portion will turn brown, thus
revealing your secret message.

Decoding
There is another way to decode the secret message and make it appear, without having to
apply heat. You can do this by putting salt on the ink after writing on the paper. Wait for about
60 seconds before you wipe the salt off the paper and then colour over the writing with a
crayon. See the message appear!

You can also reveal the message by applying grape juice over the message. Notice that the
writings will change in colour when grape juice is applied!

How to cite this article: 

53
Explorable.com (Jan 22, 2011). Invisible Ink Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/invisible-ink-experiment

54
 4.9 Making-a-Rainbow-Experiment

With this "Making-a-Rainbow"-Experiment, you'll be able to understand how rainbows

are formed because you are going to make one yourself.

Make a Rainbow Experiment, Laurence & Annie

Rainbows are undeniably adorable and just amazing to look at, especially for kids. Seeing the
7-band coloured arc in the sky makes them wonder how it was formed and what caused it to
look that way.

Materials
To create your own rainbow, you will need the following materials:

Water
Mirror
Scissors
Dark room
Flashlight/torch

55
Procedure
Position your glass of water on a table and then place the mirror inside it at an angle. Make
sure that the room is completely dark. Close all the curtains and the blinds so it gets pitch
dark. Take the flashlight or your torch and aim the light towards the mirror that you placed
inside the glass. Watch a rainbow appear from the angle of your mirror. Adjust the angle of
the mirror as you wish!

Discussion
You have just made your own rainbow, but do you know the explanation behind your
creation? A rainbow is an optical phenomenon that appears as a band of colours in an arc,
resulting from the refraction of the sun's light rays by the rain. When the sun shines on the
droplets of water in the atmosphere, a rainbow, as people see it, is formed.

A rainbow displays the colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet in respective
order. Its formation can be caused by other things as well just like mist, dew and spray. To
explain it further, when light strikes the surface of a water drop, it changes speed thus causing
it to bend. It is refracted as it enters the water and then refracts again as it leaves the droplet.
The outcome is light being reflected in varying angles, creating a rainbow.

Light travels in varying waves where the length of each would depend upon the colour. When
light retracts, the different colours refract and bend in different amounts as well. This is the
reason why we see different colours in a spectrum when there is a rainbow.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Jul 11, 2011). Making-a-Rainbow-Experiment. Retrieved from

Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/making-a-rainbow-experiment

56
 4.10 Oil Spill Experiment

This oil spill experiment will help you understand the detrimental effects of oil spills to
the marine ecosystem.

Oil Spill Experiment, Mary Austin

We have all heard about the news on oil spills and the devastating effects of this on Mother
Earth and the marine life it supports. But we, who do not get to witness these effects on a first
hand basis, do not understand the degree of impact of such incidents.

Materials
In this experiment, you will be mimicking an oil spill to demonstrate the impact of this on
ocean life. You will need:

Large glass jar

57
 1 litre distilled water
Food colouring
Cooking oil
Notepad
Rubber duck, whale, fish or any marine life bath tub toy

Procedure
Get the large glass jar and half fill it with distilled water. Add the food colouring, preferably
blue to mimic the colour of the ocean, and stir thoroughly to disperse the colouring. Put your
marine life bath toys into the jar and let them float freely. These will mimic the marine life living
in the ocean. The next step is to pour cooking oil into the jar, avoiding the marine life bath
toys. Observe what happens. Move the jar in a swirling motion, as if there are waves in your
ocean. Observe what happens.

Discussion
Notice that when you poured the cooking oil into your ocean, the oil started to gather on the
surface of the water because it is less dense than ordinary water. It does not mix in with the
water unlike the food colouring you added earlier on because the water molecules are more
attracted to each other than they are to the molecules of the oil. This is also the reason why,
no matter how hard you stir or try to mix oil and water, it simply does not work.

Now, let us pay attention to your marine life bath toys. What did you notice? The rubber toys
were easily coated by the oil, all around, especially when you made waves by swirling the jar.
Can you imagine how terrible this would be in the case of real animals? When marine animals
swim to the surface of the ocean to catch some air, they will instantly be coated by the toxic oil
and it will eventually damage their health.

Oil Spills

Oil spills are products of human mistakes and carelessness. Usually oil spills happen when
ships carrying large oil tanks sink in the ocean, causing the oil to leak out of its containers and
contaminate the ocean, killing thousands of marine lives.

When this happens, people should take responsibility and take actions to clean up the ocean
to minimize its deadly effects to the marine life. Oil spill clean ups may cost a lot. And it may
also take a long time before oil is removed from the ocean.

How to cite this article: 

58
Explorable.com (Aug 7, 2011). Oil Spill Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/oil-spill-experiment

59
 4.11 The Balloon Rocket Car Experiment

Creating your own Balloon Rocket Car has got to be one of the most exciting
experiments that you can do at home, with your friends and family.

Balloon Rocket Car Experiment, NASA/Carla Cioffi

You could also make a game out of it by asking all your friends to make one of their own and
then set up a balloon rocket car race!

In this experiment, you won't just be having fun. You will also learn about the laws of motion
and how it makes your balloon rocket car work.

Materials
To create a balloon rocket car, you will need the following items:

plastic water bottle, about 16-20 oz.

4 plastic bottle caps
flexi drinking straws
duct tape or masking tape

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 4 pins
party balloon
hammer and nails
wooden skewers

Procedures

The Car

The very first thing you'll have to do is to create the car itself. Take the plastic water bottle.
This will serve as the body of the car. Next is to attach its wheels on each side using the bottle
caps. You do this by taking the flexi drinking straws and cutting them in two. Use the duct tape
or the masking tape to attach them to the body. The 4 pins will serve as the wheel axles. Run
them through the straws to prevent the wheels from being crooked.

Get a hammer and nail to create holes through the centre of all the 4 bottle caps. Part the
wooden skewer in two, approximately 1.5 inches longer than the cut straws. Insert the
wooden skewers through the centre holes of the bottle cap. Test your car to make sure the
wheels roll smoothly.

The Balloon Rocket

Now that you have created your car, it is time to create the balloon rocket that we will be
attached to the bottle car. Take the party balloon and inflate it. Create a nozzle by taping 4
drinking straws to each other. Insert the straw in the opening of the balloon and put masking
tape around it to secure the position of the straw to the balloon opening. Make sure that there
is no other room for air to exit through than the straw you have just inserted. The size of the
nozzle is important as creating a very narrow one will prevent the air from freely escaping
from the balloon thus affecting the speed of your balloon rocket car. On the other hand, if the
nozzle is too wide, the air will escape too quickly, affecting the running distance of your car.

Attach the Balloon to the Car

The next procedure is to attach the balloon to the bottle car. You can do this by cutting an X
shape on top of the car with the use of a knife. Make sure an adult is watching you perform
this step, or you can ask the adult to do it for you to avoid accidents or any form of injury. After
cutting the X shape on top of your car, thread the nozzle through the opening and out the
opening of the plastic bottle. Allow one inch of the nozzle to stick out of the opening of the
bottle. Now you're done!

Place your car on a long flat and hard surface to test that your balloon rocket car is working.

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Inflate the balloon using the straw protruding out of the bottle opening. Hold the base of the
balloon so it stops the air from being released. Let your car zoom away by letting go of your
grip, allowing the air to exit through the straw nozzle!

Discussion
As soon as you release your grip, the car starts running forward, thus illustrating Newton's
Third Law of Motion called Action and Reaction. This law states that "Every action has an
equal and opposite reaction". Look at the balloon rocket car experiment and notice that as
soon as you let go of your grip the air escapes through the straw nozzle, propelling the car
across the flat surface in the opposite direction because the balloon air is under pressure.
Here, the air escaping the balloon is the action, while the car moving towards the other
direction illustrates the reaction.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Aug 7, 2011). The Balloon Rocket Car Experiment. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/balloon-rocket-car-experiment

62
 4.12 Build an Electromagnet

An electromagnet is a type of magnet that attracts metals with the help of electricity.
Professor Hans Christian Oersted coined the term electromagnetism in 1820, which
refers to the ability of a wire to carry electric current to produce a magnetic field.

Build an Electromagnet, Gina Clifford

Electromagnets are widely used in motors and generators, magnetic locks, loudspeakers,
magnetic separation of materials and a whole lot more. To better understand the concept of
electromagnetism and how its whole mechanism works, let us create our own electromagnet!

Materials
To create your own electromagnet, you will need the following materials:

Large iron nail (approximately 3 inches in length)

Thin coated copper wire
Dry cell batteries
Electric tape
Iron fillings, paper clips and other magnetic items

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Procedure
Take the 3-inch nail and the thin covered copper wire, and wrap the copper wire around the
nail, leaving at least 10 inches of it at the end. Make sure you don’t overlap the wires when
you wrap it around the nail. Take your scissors or cutter, and cut the wire allotting about 8 to
10 inches on the other end too.

The next step is to attach the wires to the terminals of the battery. Do this by first peeling the
plastic covering off the copper wire, and attach one end to the positive terminal of the dry cell
battery, and the other end to the negative terminal of the battery. Get your electric tape and
tape both ends of the wire to the battery terminals to keep them in place.

Source: sciencebob.com

Get your iron fillings, paper clips and other magnetic items available at your place then test
your electromagnet.

Discussion
Electromagnets work as long as there is electricity running through a wire, as this will
automatically allow you to generate a magnetic field. You must be wondering how
electromagnets are different to the ordinary magnets that we have lying around in our house.
Unlike these ordinary magnets, the magnetic field the electromagnet creates is only
temporary. As long as there is a continuous flow of electrons, the electromagnet will work. The
ordinary magnets on the other hand do not need electric current to work.

Do you know what else is cool? Get a paper and put the iron fillings on it, while holding the
electromagnet underneath the paper. Watch the iron fillings arrange themselves, forming the

64
shape of the electromagnet’s magnetic field! Amazing huh?

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Jul 15, 2011). Build an Electromagnet. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/build-an-electromagnet

65
 4.13 Create a Heat Detector

In this experiment, you will learn how to create your very own heat detector.

If you are a big fan of spy gadgets and stories of mystery, you will sure find this project very
interesting! You will be surprised that it is not that hard making your own heat detector that
actually works!

Materials
In creating your own heath detector, you will need the following materials:

Rubber band
Wooden block (it is recommended to use a block that is large enough for the rubber
band to stretch around the edge of it without snapping the rubber band)
Thin nail
Cardboard
Scissors
Heat source like matches, lighter or candle

Have you got all the materials needed yet? Great! Now you are ready to make your heat
detector!

Procedures
By creating a heat detector, we will demonstrate the effect of heat to different kinds of
materials. The estimate time needed for this experiment is 15 minutes.

The first step in this activity is to create your heat gauge. Take the cardboard and cut it into an
arrow shape. The length of the arrow should follow the length of your wooden block. Now, get
the rubber band and fit it around the wooden block.

After this, take the thin nail and insert it through the central base of the arrow cardboard.
Position the thin nail under the rubber band, at the centre of one side of the block. By then,
your project should look like this:

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Source: sciencefairadventure.com

Now, you are finished! All you need to do is to try whether your heat detector actually works.
You can do this by taking whatever heat source is available, be it a candle, match or a lighter.
Light it and bring it near the rubber band close to the pin. Notice that your cardboard arrow will
start moving in a counter clockwise direction.

Now, position the heat source on the opposite side. Observe in which direction the cardboard
starts rotating.

Discussion
The Creating a Heat Detector experiment aims to illustrate the expansion and contraction of
materials when heat is applied to them. In this case, the material we are trying to heat is the
rubber band.

When heat is applied to matter, its particles start to move around in an increasing speed
resulting to greater average particle separation. When matter changes volume due to this,
thermal expansion will be observed - matter expands. The degree of expansion depends on
the level of temperature applied to the matter. It can be calculated by dividing the degree of
expansion of matter by the change in temperature applied to it.

Looking at our heat detector, as soon as we applied heat on the rubber, the rubber band
started to contract causing the thin nail to rotate thus moving the arrow. After positioning the
source of heat on the other side, the heated portion of the rubber band is changed, and the
former side cools down. We noticed that the arrow started moving the opposite direction as
well. What actually happens is that, the rubber band contract when heat is applied to it and
then expands as soon as the same area cools down. This explains the movement of the arrow.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (May 3, 2011). Create a Heat Detector. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

67
https://explorable.com/create-a-heat-detector

68
 4.14 Creating a Volcano Experiment

In this Volcano Experiment, you will learn how different substances react when they
are mixed with each other.

Volcano Experiment, Jinx!

Even though this experiment is called 'creating a volcano' it does not follow how real
volcanoes are really formed. We will however, be mimicking the volcanic activity.

Materials
The materials for this volcano experiment are simple and can be found in your very own
kitchen! The items you need are the following:

Tablespoon
Baking soda
Vinegar
Flour
Warm water
Plastic bottle

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 Dishwashing soap
Food dye
Pan
Salt
Cooking oil
Cup

Procedure
You must be excited to perform this volcano experiment. It is like witnessing a real volcano
erupt right before your very eyes! But this version is much smaller! It is recommended that you
perform this activity outdoors because it could get a little messy. Now, let's get started…

The first thing you have to do is make the volcano itself. Create the volcano by taking the cup
and tablespoon for measuring the ingredients and mix together 6 cups of flour, 2 cups of salt,
2 cups of water and 4 tablespoons of cooking oil. Start moulding the mixture into a cone
shape once the mixture is smooth and firm. Feel free to add more water into the mixture if the
resulting material is not smooth enough. Place the soda bottle in the baking pan before you
start forming your volcano. You will be moulding the cone shape around the bottle, allowing
the mouth of the bottle to function as the mouth of your volcano.

Now that you are done with your volcano, it is time to add some fun to it! Fill the bottle halfway
with warm water and a few drops of food dye, preferably red. Then, put about 6 drops of the
dishwashing soap into the mixture, 2 tablespoons of baking soda and lastly, vinegar.

Congratulations, you just created an erupting volcano!

Discussion
Most probably your first question about the activity is "what makes it behave that way?" It is
not just random mixing of substances and voila, you made it erupt. There is actually a deeper
explanation to that.

In a nutshell, the primary explanation to the chemical reaction you have just witnessed is that
mixing vinegar, which is acid, and baking soda, which is base, results in the formation of
carbon dioxide gas, forcing the contents of the bottle out of the volcano.

When an acid and a base are mixed together, they react to neutralize each other resulting in
production of salt and also in the process, produce carbon dioxide. In real volcanoes, carbon
dioxide is also present when they erupt!

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How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Apr 15, 2011). Creating a Volcano Experiment. Retrieved from

Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/creating-a-volcano-experiment

71
 4.15 Home-Made Glue Experiment

Have you ever tried creating home-made glue? By performing this experiment, you will
learn different ways on how you can create glue and what materials can be used to
create one!

You are probably wondering why you should create your own when you can just get a cheap
one from the store anyway. That would save you all the work and effort. But is it not more
exciting when the glue you are using is actually one of your own works?

Materials
Get yourself and these materials ready for we are about to create our very own, home-made
glue! This glue we are going to create is certified non-toxic, light and environmentally safe!

Get the following materials:

All purpose flour

Water
Jar with cover
Spoon
Newspaper
Brush

Procedure
Creating your home-made glue is very easy. It will only take you about 5 minutes to make one
and approximately 15 minutes to let it dry after you apply it.

Now, to start the experiment, take the all purpose flour and measure a cup of it. Pour it in the
jar, and mix it with half cup of water. Use the spoon to stir the mixture. Make sure you mix the
two well. Voila! This is now your glue!

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Test your glue with the use of the newspaper, or in this case, just any other type of paper you
wish to apply your glue on. Take the brush to collect some of the glue from the jar, and brush
it onto the paper. Put the paper aside for a couple of minutes until it dries.

Did it work?

Discussion
There are so many types of glue available in the market nowadays; its strength mostly
depending upon the type of materials you will be using the glue for. There are some glue
types that are extra strong and meant for gluing materials like cloth, wood or even tiles. Other
glue types are on the other hand weaker, just like the Elmer’s glue which is primarily used for
gluing papers together. Most glue though is chemical based and therefore could be harmful to
our health and even the environment.

Soon as you mixed the all purpose flour with water, a chemical reaction occurs. When you
applied the glue to the paper and set it aside to dry, the water in the mixture evaporates,
making the paper with glue hard. The same process happens in ordinary glue. Setting it aside
causes it to dry out, letting the water evaporate which in turn causes the glue to toughen.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Mar 23, 2011). Home-Made Glue Experiment. Retrieved from

Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/home-made-glue-experiment

73
 4.16 Home-Made Stethoscope

Do you know what a stethoscope is? I’m sure you have been to the doctors when you
were once sick or even just for a check up. That instrument doctors wear on their ears,
like earphones, with another extension placed on the patient’s body, is the stethoscope.

Stethoscope, comedy_nose

A stethoscope is a medical instrument used for listening to the sounds of the body. Usually it
is used to listen to the sounds made by the heart, breathing, among others.

Historical Account

The first ever stethoscope was invented by Rene-Theophile-Hyacinthe Laennec, a French

physician, in 1816. It was made of a wooden cylinder and was 25 cm by 2.5 cm in size. The
idea of creating a stethoscope came to him when he saw children playing with long chunks of
wood that transmitted sounds from pins scratching a surface. He tested this idea by first
making a funnel shape by rolling up a piece of paper and then used it to listen to his patient’s
chest. Because his mini-experiment worked, he later substituted this with the wooden
cylinders. Afterwards, he replaced the wood with other detachable parts. He first called this
instrument “the cylinder”.

74
In this experiment, we will create our very own stethoscope. Now, you can play doctor and
actually be able to apply the concept of sound transmission with your homemade stethoscope.

Materials
To make your own stethoscope, you will need the following materials:

2 funnels
Old garden hose
Scissors
Modelling clay
Drawing material (pen or pencil)
Notepad for note taking

Give yourself approximately 15 minutes to finish the activity.

Procedures
First step is to take the old garden horse and use your scissors to cut a piece that is about 16
inches long. Now, take your funnels and place each of them on both ends of the hose. If the
funnels do not fit the end of the hose tightly, make use of the modelling clay to keep the hole
fit and snug.

To test your stethoscope, place one end of the funnel on your chest and the other end on your
ear. Do you hear anything? To complete the picture, perform physical exercises for 5 to 10
minutes. Now, place one of the funnels on your chest and the other on your ear like you did
earlier. Do you hear any changes in your heart beat? Take note of your observations.

Discussion
This activity aims to illustrate the concept of sound transmission through enclosed spaces -
the hose. It just demonstrated how sound waves were amplified by the stethoscope we have
made.

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Nov 5, 2011). Home-Made Stethoscope. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/home-made-stethoscope

75
 4.17 Magic Balloon Experiment

Have you ever heard of magic balloons? In this experiment, you will witness a balloon
inflating without you blowing it up!

Magic Balloon Experiment, Jerry Downs

Instead, we will make use of yeast and allow it to inflate the balloon. How is this possible?
Here is how!

Materials
Observe the magic balloons inflate! In this experiment, you will need the following materials:

A pack of dried yeast (you can get this from any grocery store)
Clear plastic soda bottle (must be clean and small)
Teaspoon
Sugar
Party balloon
Warm water

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Procedure
Begin the experiment by taking the packet of dried yeast and pour its contents into your small,
clear plastic bottle. Next step is to add a bit of warm water into the bottle filling a quarter of it.
Next, take your teaspoon and measure one teaspoon of sugar and then put it into the mixture.
Shake and swirl the bottle to mix its contents smoothly. Before this, when the yeast was still
dry, it was said to be resting. But now that it is wet and has already dissolved in warm water, it
becomes active.

After this, take one balloon and place its opening around the mouth of the bottle. Take the
bottle and place it in a warm area, such as a windowsill. If you cannot find any area that is
warmer than room temperature, you can place it in a bowl of warm water. What happens to
the balloon?

Discussion
This experiment illustrates how yeast can inflate a balloon by activating it. Yeast is actually a
fungus organism but its movement can only be seen under a microscope. However, you can
tell that it is active and moving in so many ways.

There are more than hundreds of species of yeast all belonging to the Fungi Kingdom. The
yeast that we use for baking and fermenting of alcohol is the Saccharomyces cerevisiae, more
commonly known as the S minor or the baker's yeast. Aside from baking and fermentation,
yeast nowadays can also be used to generate electricity and also to produce biofuel in the
form of ethanol.

As mentioned before, letting the yeast dissolve in water makes it active. Just like any other
living thing, it needs a source of energy or food to stay active. This is why we added sugar.
Sugar served as its food, letting the yeast eat it.

Now, as soon as you place the bottle in a warm area, you notice that the balloon starts to
inflate itself. This is because during the whole process, a gas is produced in the form of
carbon dioxide. Since the balloon restricts the release of this gas, it is then trapped inside the
bottle. Its build up inside the bottle causes it to fill the balloon and eventually inflate it! Now
you have just created a magic balloon!

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Mar 24, 2011). Magic Balloon Experiment. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/magic-balloon-experiment

77
 4.18 Make a Matchbox Guitar

If you are into music then you will definitely love this matchbox guitar project! A guitar
is a string musical instrument that you pluck in order to create a sound.

The vibrations of the strings when you pluck or strike them are the sounds that we hear when
the instrument is being played.

The matchbox guitar, though it will only serve as a miniature of a real one, is meant to
demonstrate to us how string musical instruments work. Now, get the materials ready and
start building your very own matchbox guitar!

Materials
You will need the following items for this activity:

Matchbox
Rubber bands
Wood that can be carved (recommended wood is balsa wood because it is light and soft
and has a coarse open grain)
Carving knife

Procedures
Give yourself about 15 to 30 minutes to complete your miniature guitar.

To start off, take your balsa wood and carving knife to make the body of the guitar. Slice the
wood into a flat triangle so that the length of its longest side is a few units longer than the
width of the matchbox. Empty the matchbox and then place the wooden triangle across the
width of the matchbox, allowing the corner to protrude on one side. Trim the side that
protrudes from the box. Now, put the remaining wood onto the matchbox and then slide the
box open, leaving a quarter of it closed.

Now, fit the rubber bands around the matchbox on the long side. Make sure you arrange the
rubber bands evenly, as these will serve as the strings of your miniature guitar. To keep the
strings tight and snug, pull the matchbox open just a little bit more.

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Try it out by playing your miniature guitar! Your matchbox guitar should in the end look like
this:

Source: sciencefairadventure.com

Discussion
The activity is pretty much straight forward and it functions just like a real guitar does! You
create a sound by plucking the strings. Furthermore, pinching the strings on one end while
plucking them at the same time allows you to change the pitch of the sound. Try it out yourself!

Aside from guitars, other string musical instruments include violin, cello, mandolins, bandurria,
ukulele and a lot more!

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Sep 15, 2011). Make a Matchbox Guitar. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/make-a-matchbox-guitar

79
 4.19 Make Your Own Slime Experiment

Have you ever played with slime? Do you even know what that gooey brightly coloured
material is actually made of?

Make Your Own Slime Experiment, Aaron Jackson

In this experiment, you will discover what slime really is, what its components are and how it is
made!

Materials
You will be surprised that you can actually make your own slime by just using materials that
can be found in our homes. By mixing just two chemicals together, you can actually create
your own slime!

To start, you will need the following materials:

White wood glue

Borax powder (can be bought from the laundry detergent aisle at the grocery store)
Food colouring (any colour of your preference)
Water
Measuring spoon
Two containers
Airtight container where you can store your slime

Procedures
This experiment takes no more than 10 minutes! It is that quick and easy.

To start off, get your container and put one tablespoon of glue in it and mix it with another
tablespoon of water and a tiny drop of the food colouring. Stir it with a stick or another spoon.

In another container, put one teaspoon of borax powder and mix it with one tablespoon of
water. Stir the mixture until the borax powder dissolves, creating a borax solution.

Now that your two solutions are ready, pour the borax solution into the other container, and
mix it with your coloured glue mixture. Mix the two solutions together. You can do this using

80
your hands. Notice that slime starts to form. Voila! You have just made your very own slime!

Now, try doing other clusters but use a different colour of food colouring. Get creative with all
the colours and have some slime fun! Do not forget to place your slime inside an airtight
container to prevent it from growing mould.

WARNING: Borax powder is poisonous and may cause serious problems when ingested.
Make sure you wash your hands thoroughly after you perform this experiment. It would also
be great if an adult is around for supervision.

Discussion
Slime is a viscous liquid matter similar to a glutinous mud. It borders liquid and solid which
makes it very fun to play with. Looking back at our experiment, the slime was created by
mixing glue and borax solution together. Now the question is, what's in glue and borax that
caused them to behave this way, and producing a slime?

The glue mixture is expected to behave like liquid and is therefore likely to flow. When we
included borax in the mixture, the borax prevents the glue from flowing like normal. The result
is then a material that is liquid like, but does not flow. We call this kind of material a polymer.

Polymer

A polymer possesses qualities present in a solid and in a liquid matter. This means it can
behave like a liquid, in the sense that it can follow the shape of its container but can at the
same time be picked up just like a solid. If you recall the properties of matter, the particles of a
solid are very intact and compact while those of the liquid are slightly more spread out causing
it to break apart. However, particles in a polymer behave in a way where they chain
themselves together causing it to behave like liquid but not too loose to break apart or flow.

Other examples of polymer substances are gums, rubber bands and jell-o!

How to cite this article: 

Explorable.com (Nov 3, 2011). Make Your Own Slime Experiment. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/make-your-own-slime-experiment

81
 5 Historic Experiments

5.1 Heron’s Aeolipile

Science Fair Experiment

Probably the most famous invention of the great Heron of Alexandria (10 CE – 70 CE)
was his aeolipile, a steam engine that worked on exactly the same principle as the
great machines of the industrial revolution and many modern electricity-generating
turbines.

Aeolipile, Daniel Hopton

His machine consisted of a water reservoir with a heat source located underneath, and copper
tubing extended upwards from this, acting as the pivot for a rotating sphere. To the outside of
the sphere, two nozzles were created from tubing bent out from the surface of this sphere,
making an L-shape.

The principle behind the machine relied upon steam from the heated water rising through the
copper tubing into the sphere. This steam escaped through the nozzles at high speed,
generating thrust according to Newton’s 2nd and 3rd laws of motion, causing the sphere to
rotate on its axis.

Simpler versions of Heron’s aeolipile dispensed with the boiler and simply heated the water in
the sphere; this was much easier to build but would not operate for long before the water
boiled away.

Replicate Heron’s Aeolipile

Unless you have access to a metalworking shop and the ability to shape and braze copper,
building an exact replica of Heron’s aeolipile is impossible. However, you can build a device
that works upon exactly the same principle, generating thrust and allowing a vessel to rotate.
We have two options, one using liquid and one using steam, both fairly easy to build with
everyday items.

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Using the Power of Water
A safe way to replicate the work of heron of Alexandria is to take a drinks carton or aluminum
can, and use water instead of steam. The principles are exactly the same, although the effect
a lot less dramatic!

This experiment is best performed outside if you don’t want to get into trouble for making the
floor wet. Otherwise, use a large basin to collect the worst of the water and have a couple of
old towels handy.

For this experiment, you need:

A milk carton
String
A frame to hang the apparatus from, or you can hold it if you don’t mind getting wet
Scissors, knife or a bradawl for making holes in the carton
Waterproof tape
A basin, or somewhere to perform the experiment where it doesn’t matter if the floor
gets wet

To recreate a version of Heron’s aeolipile:

Illustration of the Aeolipile (Public Domain)

1. Poke a hole in all four faces of the drinks carton, making sure that they are all near the
bottom left corner.
2. Make a hole in the top of the carton and suspend the carton from the string, over the

83
 bowl, making sure that it can rotate freely
3. Place a piece of tape over the holes
4. Half fill the carton with water
5. Remove the tape
6. Watch what happens.

You can also do this experiment with an aluminium drink can. Make four holes near the
bottom with a nail and, in each case, lay the nail over, so the water will squirt sideways. Cut
the top off the can carefully with scissors or a knife (ADULT SUPERVISION REQUIRED) and
hang the can, using fishing line and a fishing swivel, under a flow of water.

How does it Work?

This experiment shows one on the basic principles of physics, that for every action, there
must be an equal and opposite action, and this simple principle lies at the root of modern
society. Combustion engines, turbines, lawn sprinklers, and rockets are just some of the
machines relying upon the principles shown by Heron.

Newton's Third Law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction and, as water
shoots out of the holes, it pushes back on the carton with equal force. A turbine is formed as
the energy of the moving liquid is converted into rotational energy. This principle was well
known to Heron of Alexandria (also known to us as Hero of Alexandria).

Advanced Experiment

Heron’s Engine Blowtorch (Creative Commons)

This experiment uses a heat source and steam. Steam can cause very nasty scalding, so this
experiment requires adult supervision to prevent nasty accidents.

To perform this version of the experiment, you will use a soda can, as with the water-based
version of the experiment but, rather than cut the top off the can, you drain the drink through
the holes.

84
 1. Lay the unopened soda can on its side and pierce a hole through one side, near the top,
with a nail. This hole must be off-center for the experiment to work.
2. Flip the can over, allowing the drink to start draining, and pierce again, in the opposite
place to the first hole.
3. Force the rest of the drink out of the can, blowing into the hole gently, if required.
4. Submerge the can and ¼ fill with water
5. Turn the ringpull of the can through 180 degrees, covering the part of the can that
usually opens, and connect the twine, either by tying it directly with a paper clip, or
preferably with a fishing swivel.
6. Hang the apparatus from a wooden frame or scientific clamp, with the stove or Bunsen
burner beneath
7. Light the stove and watch what happens as the water heats ands releases steam.

Heron’s Aeolipile
These experiments are a great way to explore the sophisticated knowledge of Heron and the
other Greek thinkers of the time. Their work lies at the foundation of much of our modern
knowledge and, by emulating the work of Heron; you are paying homage to a truly great
inventor and mathematician.

Soda Can Aeolipile

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szGPVvZoI-I

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jun 2, 2011). Heron’s Aeolipile. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/herons-aeolipile

85
 5.2 How to Make an Archimedes Screw

Archimedes of Syracuse has entered the history of science as a great mathematician

and inventor, his work still influencing modern life. His studies included studying the
mathematics behind pulleys and levers, and his work on the properties of solids earns
him a place alongside.

Archimedes Screw, Steve Snodgrass

Archimedes Screw (Chambers Encyclopedia: Public Domai

86
The scattered records paint the thinker as an enigmatic genius, famous for his Eureka
moment or for the legendary siege machines with which he helped to defend his home city of
Syracuse. However, his greatest invention is perhaps one of the most understated, a device
that does not carry the notoriety of running down the street naked or destroying Roman
galleys in a burst of flame.

This invention is the Archimedes Screw, a device still used around the world as a simple and
efficient method of moving liquids and solid particles. From sewage plants and pumping
stations, to grain silos and cement factories, the Archimedes screw is indispensible. Here, we
will show you how to make an Archimedes Screw for a science fair project.

The History of the Archimedes Screw

According to the historical documents, the King of Syracuse asked Archimedes to build a
huge and luxurious ship, designed to display the power and majesty of his hometown.
Archimedes, with his sophisticated understanding of the principles of buoyancy, duly complied
but his design was not without problems. The main concern was that the ship was leaky and
took on huge amounts of water, threatening the seaworthiness of the vessel.

Applying his creativity and knowledge to the problem, Archimedes came up with the screw, a
device that is elegant in its simplicity. The screw, operable by a single person, was the perfect
way to pump water from the bilge and the device soon became common in agriculture for
pumping irrigation water up a gradient. Since then, it has found many other applications, with
many historians arguing that this device led to the development of the augured drill bit, an
integral part of any constructor's tool kit.

Make an Archimedes Screw

Archimedes Screw (Vaxjo, Sweden: Public Domain)

The Archimedes Screw is a positive displacement pump, which takes fluid from a source and
forces it to another location, where it is discharged. The pump consists of an auger (helix)
contained within a tight fitting cylinder, and the blades of the helix create individual pockets

87
between the auger and the wall of the cylinder.

One end of the device sits in a pool of fluid or particles and turning the handle to rotate the
screw scoops up a small amount of fluid. As the screw rotates further, this fluid is transferred
to the next pocket while the screw scoops up more fluid from the source. Eventually, this
creates an almost uninterrupted discharge of fluid at the other end.

What You Need to Make an Archimedes Screw

A length of PVC pipe - 60cm / 2 feet should be enough, although you can make a longer
device if you wish
Clear plastic flexible tubing - this should be about 2 cm / ¾" outer diameter and 1.25 cm
/ ½" inner diameter, although it does not matter if it is a little wider or narrower. You can
find this in a hardware store or aquarium store.
A basin of water
Food dye
Waterproof tape such as Duck Tape
Sharp scissors (ADULT SUPERVISION REQUIRED)
2 bowls of water
A stand, stack of books, or a low table

Constructing the Archimedes Screw

How the Archimedes Screw works (Creative Commons

)

1. Take your tubing and, using waterproof tape, secure it to one end of the PVC pipe,
making sure that about 1.25cm / ½" hangs over the end.
2. Wrap the flexible tubing around the pipe, leaving about 2½cm / 1" between intervals,
until you reach the end of the PVC pipe.
3. At the end, leave 1cm / ¾" hanging over the end of the PVC pipe, cutting off the excess
with the scissors
4. Secure the flexible tubing with waterproof tape

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 5. Place one bowl on the floor and fill it with water mixed with a few drops of food coloring
6. Place the other bowl on the stand or table
7. Insert the end of the screw into the lower bowl, moving the entire apparatus, if
necessary, to ensure that the water will fall into the upper bowl
8. Turn the screw so that the flexible tubing can scoop up liquid. As you keep turning the
screw, water will spurt into the upper bowl

Of course, this is a simple device, and you can fit handles or use a large auger drill bit in a
tight fitting cylindrical sheath. This is only the start, and you can experiment with larger
diameter tubes or look at the mathematics underpinning the device.

Science Buddies

The legacy of the Archimedes Screw lives on and many engineers are starting to explore the
possibility of using a reversed screw to generate hydroelectricity, in a wonderful twist on an
old design.

Emily’s Homemade Archimedes screw

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NsAd7SlCpZ0&hl=en_US&fs=1

Homemade Archimedes Screw

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AnA78IsBzBU

How an Archimedes Screw Works

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlRQbpcmKg4

Archimedes Screw at Work in Kinderdijk

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xi70Yldiqto

Generating Electricity with a Reversed Archimedes Screw

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1Q1-iAExPo

How to cite this article: 

89
Martyn Shuttleworth (Mar 9, 2011). How to Make an Archimedes Screw. Retrieved from
Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/archimedes-screw

90
 5.3 Build an Astrolabe
Science Fair Project

The astrolabe is an ancient device, long used to measure latitude and act as an aid to
navigation. Historians believe that the first astrolabes were devised by the Ancient
Greeks, with astronomers such as Apollonius (c. 262 BCE – c. 190 BCE) and
Hipparchus (190 BCE – c. 120 BCE) developing the theory behind the device.

Chaucer's Astrolabe, Viewminder

Using an Astrolabe (Public Domain)

Although there is a lot of debate about who built the first astrolabe, the consensus is that
Hipparchus has that honor, using it as a much more accurate way of measuring latitude than

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a gnomon.

The astrolabe is an instrument that allows observers to measure the position of celestial
bodies relative to the horizon, which allows accurate star mapping. The utility of the
instrument does not end there, because it can be used to measure latitude, give the local time
and estimate the height of objects; astrolabes were used by surveyors for measuring distance
through triangulation. The standard astrolabe consists of a disc with a rotating arm complete
with sights, but quadrants, sextants and inclinometers all use the same principle.

Build a Clinometer – a Simple Astrolabe

A clinometer based upon

same principles as the
protractor device (Public
Domain)

With a few simple items, you can build your own simple astrolabe and start to chart the motion
of the stars. This particular version is usually referred to as a clinometer or inclinometer, and
can also be used to measure height using trigonometry. Foresters often use clinometers to
measure the height of trees and this device can measure latitude from the star Polaris,
although navigators and astronomers use much more complex instruments.

You will need:

A protractor: Try to find one that has a small hole halfway along the straight edge
A plastic drinking straw
Strong sticky tape
String or fishing twine
A fishing weight

To build the protractor:

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Simple Clinometer (Public Domain)

1. Using sticky tape, carefully attach the drinking straw along the straight edge of the
protractor. This will act as a sighting guide for looking at stars and planets.
2. Tie the fishing weight to one end of the string
3. Feed the other end of the string through the hole in the protractor and use a knot or
small piece of sticky tape to hold it in place
4. Hold the protractor, curved side down, and look at the intended star through the straw
5. Press the string tightly against the side of the protractor and carefully lower it, noting
which degree mark the string passes through. Alternatively, you can ask a friend or
classmate to read the angle
6. Take measurements of several stars every half-an hour
7. This will allow you to guess at how the stars rotate around the sky
8. You can also use your inclinometer to guess the height of trees and structures, using
triangulation. The Ocean Service provides a great version of this use of an astrolabe.

Of course, this is a very simple astrolabe, and ancient astronomers and mariners used much
more elaborate devices, usually disc or wheel shaped, and often engraved with the positions
of the stars. Even in the modern world, aircraft use inclinometers to measure banking angle,
showing that the knowledge of the ancients still touches modern life in many ways.

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jun 8, 2011). Build an Astrolabe. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/build-an-astrolabe

93
 5.4 Archimedes Displacement Experiment
Science Fair Demonstration

The Ancient Greek mathematician, Archimedes, is most famous for running naked
down the street shouting 'Eureka! Eureka!' (I have it! I have it!), after finding out the
solution to a tricky problem.

While he contributed much more to science than this, including building the foundations of the
study of hydrostatics (how fluids behave), and writing volumes of work on the properties of
solids, his famous experiment is perfect for a science fair demonstration.

Why Did Archimedes Shout Eureka

Submerged and Displacing Cylinders (Public Domain)

King Hieron II of Syracuse had commissioned a goldsmith to create him a crown from a lump
of gold, but suspected that the smith had stolen some of the gold, replacing it with cheaper
silver. Unable to prove his suspicions, he summoned Archimedes and asked him to devise a
way of finding out if this was true.

Archimedes grappled with this problem but was unable to find a solution to this tricky
dilemma, however hard he tried. As legend relates, the solution came to him as he bathed; as
he sat in the bath, he noticed how the water level rose and this suddenly inspired him. The

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rest is history, as the ancient scientist ran down the street uttering his famous cry.

What is the Science Behind Archimedes Principle?

Archimedes Water
Balance (Creative
Commons)

He realized that an object immersed in water always displaced a volume of water equal to its
own volume. This formed the basis of his experiment because he understood that, if he
divided the weight of an object by the volume of water displaced, he would know its density.

For his experiment, he weighed the crown, a block of gold, and a block of silver. He then
immersed each in water, carefully measuring how much water was displaced. By entering the
figures into the equation, he calculated that the crown was less dense than the gold but
denser than the silver, indicating that it was a mixture of the metals and that King Hieron's
suspicions were correct.

Recreate Archimedes' Water Displacement Experiments

You Need:

A graduated measuring jug or cylinder

Water
Three similar sized objects, such as three pebbles (limestone, granite and brick), three
metal objects (iron, lead and aluminum are good choices) or three beads (wood, glass
and metal). Whatever you use, try to find a measuring cylinder or jug that is large
enough to fit the objects without allowing the water to spill over the edge, yet small
enough to allow accurate measurement.
A calculator

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How to Perform the Experiment:

A Human floating in the

Dead Sea, due to the high
density of the water here (
Creative Commons)

1. Pour some water into the jug, making sure that there is enough to cover the object
completely.
2. Note the volume
3. Immerse one of the objects in the water - note that, if the object floats, you will have to
gently push it under with your finger
4. Measure the new volume
5. Repeat the process with the other two objects
6. For each object, you can now calculate the density - Density = Mass/VolumeFor
example: If a block of wood weighs 6 grams and displaces 8 milliliters of water6 g /8 ml
= 0.75 g/ml

Under normal circumstances, water has a density of 1g/ml, so any object with a density of
less than this will float; any object with a density of more than this will sink.

You can take this experiment further an experiment with other liquids, such as saltwater, corn
syrup, or vegetable oil. This will make things a little more complicated but will also give you
many things to talk about in your science fair demonstration.

Archimedes Principle Experiment

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHCMSqhnMPU

Buoyancy and Density

96
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VDSYXmvjg6M

Archimedes Horse Experiment

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQsmq3Hu9HA

Bibliography
Paipetis, S.A. & Ceccarelli, M. (2010). The Genius of Archimedes: 23 Centuries of Influence
on Mathematics, Science and Engineering. Proceedings of an International Conference held
at Syracuse, Italy, June 8-10, 2010. Dordrecht, Germany: Springer

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jun 5, 2011). Archimedes Displacement Experiment. Retrieved from

Explorable.com:  https://explorable.com/displacement-experiment

97
 5.5 Make Heron’s Fountain
Science Fair Project

Heron's fountain is a great project for a science fair, as it is simple to make and
displays many of the basic principles of physics. This project shows how potential
energy can provide power, using water and gravity, and air and compression. These
are fundamental aspects of pneumatics and hydraulics and Heron's fountain also lets
you have a bit of fun during the process.

The History of Heron's Fountain

Heron's Fountain (Creative Commons)

The great Greek inventor, Heron of Alexandria (sometimes called Hero) created this device as
one of his wonderful ways of showing students how the underlying physical and mathematical
principles worked. Historians are almost certain that Heron (c. 10 CE - c. 70 CE) taught at the
great university of Alexandria, Egypt, and used many of his inventions as teaching aids.

You now have the chance to follow his example, by using this apparatus to show your
classmates physics in action.

Building Heron's Fountain

Heron's fountain was probably cast from bronze, at great expense, but we are going to make

98
one from much simpler materials, easily found around the home or in a local hardware store.

What You Need:

A plastic basin

Two plastic soda bottles

Flexible plastic tubing, often used for aquariums

Two plastic jars with plastic lids

A stand for the basin

Silicone or some other waterproof sealant

How to Make Heron's Fountain

A good explanation of how the Heron’s Fountain works. If you feel adventurous, you
could try something like this for your science fair project!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z5LpJAR3cM0&hl=en_US&fs=1

The Pakistan Science Club shows how to make a Heron fountain. You can do this, too!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhruAsBOUGs&hl=en_US&fs=1

If you can get hold of glass flasks and rubber tubing, this is a great version of Heron’s
fountain.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0bIHiVQBmg&hl=en_US&fs=1

99
Procedure
The water in the basin contains gravitational potential energy and, as it falls downwards, it
uses the pneumatic pressure of the air in the air supply container to push the water in the
upper, fountain supply container. Once the water drops below the level of the outlet tube in
the fountain supply, the Heron fountain will stop.

This experiment has lots of variations and many different ways of building depending upon
time and resources. If you make one, why not film it and upload it to YouTube - you never
know; we might just decide to feature it here!

1. Your basin will need to be raised, as it must be higher than the two bottles. You may
have something that you can modify, or you can make one from Meccano as shown in
the video.
2. Make a hole in the bottom of the basin, just big enough for the tubing to fit through.
3. Push a 24" - 36" length of tubing through and seal with the silicone.
4. Make two holes in the lid of one of the plastic containers. This will become the air supply
container and must be the lowest part of the apparatus.

Heron's Fountain (Creative Commons)

5. Push the tubing through one of these - it must reach almost to the bottom.
6. Insert another piece of tubing through the other hole - you only need to push about an
inch of tubing through the hole.
7. Make sure that the seal around the tube is airtight, using the silicone sealant.
8. Take your second container and make two holes through the lid of this one. This will
become the fountain supply container and must be filled with water
9. Take the plastic tubing coming from the first container and push it through one of the
holes. This only needs to be pushed in about an inch.
10. Cut a final length of tubing and insert this into the second hole, pushing it in almost to
the bottom of the container
11. Use the silicone to fill the gaps around the tubing.

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 12. The fountain supply container must be higher than the air supply container
13. This third length of tubing needs to run back to the fountain, as in the video - you can try
to build a waterwheel, if you want!
14. Slowly fill the basin with water and watch as water flows from the basin into the air
supply container, through gravity. This will displace the water in the second container
and cause it to shoot out of the tubing back into the fountain, higher than the original
basin.
15. If you want, you can insert the tubing running from the fountain supply container back
into the basin through a second hole, making sure that it protrudes above the water
level, to create a proper fountain.

How does it Work

At first glance, this appears to be a perpetual motion device; a machine that can keep running
forever. However, this is not the case and, as the air supply flask fills with water, the jet of
water from the nozzle will decrease in power and stop altogether. To restart the machine, you
will need to empty this container and refill the fountain supply container with water.

The water in the basin contains gravitational potential energy and, as it falls downwards, it
uses the pneumatic pressure of the air in the air supply container to push the water in the
upper, fountain supply container. Once the water drops below the level of the outlet tube in
the fountain supply, the Heron fountain will stop.

This experiment has lots of variations and many different ways of building depending upon
time and resources. If you make one, why not film it and upload it to YouTube - you never
know; we might just decide to feature it here!

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Jan 15, 2011). Make Heron’s Fountain. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  
https://explorable.com/herons-fountain

101
 5.6 Create a Sundial
Science Fair Project

Since time immemorial, sundials have been used to give an indication of time, allowing
people to function to a timetable. The ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks and
Mayans were just some of the great civilizations who understood that the position of
the sun in the sky, and the shadows it casts, could be used to make an estimate of the
time of day.

Create a Sundial, Peter Whelerton

102
Ancient sundial from
Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria. (Creative
Commons)

Of course, many of these, such as the Greeks and the Romans, believed that the earth was
fixed in the center of the heavens and the sun orbited around it, making it move across the
sky. We now know that the movement of the sun across the sky is caused by the rotation of
the earth, although this makes little significant difference when it comes to sundials.

How Do Sundials Work?

In the morning, a shadow points to the west as the sun rises in the east, gradually getting
shorter and moving towards the north. After noon, the shadow points eastwards, steadily
lengthening as the sun moves towards sunset in the west. A sundial takes advantage of this
by using a device called a gnomon to cast a shadow, with a dial and markings allowing you to
gauge the time.

A sundial also depends upon your position on the earth and it can only be used at a certain
longitude and latitude. You cannot move away from your latitude and, although you can move
along it, you will need to add or subtract four minutes for each degree moved, depending
upon the direction.

Making a Simple Sundial

This is the most basic sundial, and depends upon the ancient principle of placing a stick in the
ground and using the shadow to tell the time.

103
Sundial in thyme garden at
Minnesota Landscape
Arboretum. (Creative
Commons)

You'll need:

A flat wooden board or stout cardboard: Ideally, the surface should be painted white; if it
isn’t, you can always stick a sheet of paper to it.
A long nail
A hammer
A pencil
A sunny day

To Make Your Sundial

1. First thing in the morning, place the board on a flat surface in a spot that receives sun all
day long.
2. Make sure that the board cannot move by placing a couple of rocks to weigh it down if
the weather is windy.
3. Hammer the nail as close to the center of the board as you can. It doesn’t need to go too
far in; just enough to make sure that it is sturdy.
4. Where the shadow of the nail head falls on the surface, make a mark. Ideally, you want
to do this at the beginning of the hour: Six o’clock, seven o’clock and so on.
5. Every half hour or every hour, repeat the process and carry on until sundown.
6. Without moving the board, draw a line with the ruler connecting the marks to the nail at
the center.
7. You can now tell the time at your longitude and latitude.

Problems When You Make a Sundial

If you monitor your sundial over the course of the year, you will notice that it does not exactly
match the time. Why?

Many parts of the world use daylight saving time during the summer, so you will have to
recalibrate your sundial twice per year.

104
For every degree you live away from your local meridian, the time will vary. For every degree
east, add four minutes; for every degree west, subtract four minutes. A degree in latitude is
about 69 miles or 100 kilometers, which will help you to take this variance into account.

For example, Penzance is approximately 5.5 degrees west of Greenwich. If it is noon at

Greenwich, what time is it in Penzance?

To work this out:

5.5 x 4 = 22 minutes
Penzance is west, meaning that noon arrives later.
12:00 – 22 minutes = 11:38am

If it is 6pm in Los Angeles (118.25 Degrees west), what time is it in New York (74 Degrees
west).

74-118.25 = 44.25.
Multiply this by 4 and you get 177 minutes.
6pm + 177 minutes = 8:57pm
According to timezones, NY is classed as 3 hours ahead of LA, so this is a good
approximation.

Make a Sundial and Direction

Moot Hall Sundial (Public Domain)

If you want to move your sundial, you have to be extremely careful when repositioning and
ensure that it points north (or south in the southern hemisphere). You cannot use a compass

105
because this points to the magnetic pole, which is in a very different location from true north.

One way is to use the star Polaris to set your sundial at night, which will ensure that it is
accurate during the day. Alternatively, buy a map with true north gridlines, allowing you to use
landmarks to position your sundial.

Some people may want to make a sundial with a circular dial, where the markers showing the
shadows fall are all of the same length. This is very easy but requires a little planning,
because you have to set the gnomon at an angle. For this, you could make a sturdy triangle
from a drinking straw or use wood – there are many ways to achieve this goal.

Using a map or online resource, check the latitude of your location

Using a protractor, set your gnomon to exactly the same angle from the horizontal and
point it towards the celestial pole
This will allow you to create a circular dial for your sundial in the same way as for the
standard sundial

Hopefully, this has helped you to build your own sundial, or at least given you a few ideas
about using the sun to tell the time. There is, of course, much more to learn, such as the
Equation of Time and, because these devices have been around for thousands of years, there
is a huge array of types. Some of the links below will help you to explore further:

Sundials at Wikipedia

Sundials

NASA

How to cite this article: 

Martyn Shuttleworth (Nov 2, 2011). Create a Sundial. Retrieved from Explorable.com:  

https://explorable.com/sundials

Thanks for reading!

Explorable.com Team

Explorable.com - Copyright © 2008-2015 All Rights Reserved.

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