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C++

C++ (/ˌsiːˌplʌsˈplʌs/) is a general-purpose programming

language created by Bjarne Stroustrup as an extension of the C C++
programming language, or "C with Classes". The language has
expanded significantly over time, and modern C++ now has
object-oriented, generic, and functional features in addition to
facilities for low-level memory manipulation. It is almost always
implemented as a compiled language, and many vendors provide
C++ compilers, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM,
Microsoft, Intel, Oracle, and IBM, so it is available on many
platforms.[9]

C++ was designed with a bias toward system programming and The C++ logo endorsed by Standard
embedded, resource-constrained software and large systems, C++
with performance, efficiency, and flexibility of use as its design
Paradigms Multi-paradigm:
highlights.[10] C++ has also been found useful in many other
procedural,
contexts, with key strengths being software infrastructure and
functional, object-
resource-constrained applications,[10] including desktop
applications, video games, servers (e.g. e-commerce, Web search, oriented, generic
or SQL servers), and performance-critical applications (e.g. Family C
telephone switches or space probes).[11] Designed by Bjarne Stroustrup
C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Developer ISO/IEC JTC1
Standardization (ISO), with the latest standard version ratified (Joint Technical
and published by ISO in December 2017 as ISO/IEC 14882:2017 Committee 1) /
(informally known as C++17).[12] The C++ programming SC22
language was initially standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC (Subcommittee
14882:1998, which was then amended by the C++03, C++11 and 22) / WG21
C++14 standards. The current C++17 standard supersedes these
(Working Group
with new features and an enlarged standard library. Before the
21)
initial standardization in 1998, C++ was developed by Danish
computer scientist Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs since 1979 as First appeared 1985
an extension of the C language; he wanted an efficient and
Stable release C++17 (ISO/IEC
flexible language similar to C that also provided high-level
14882:2017) /
features for program organization.[13] C++20 is the next planned
standard, keeping with the current trend of a new version every 1 December 2017
three years.[14] Preview release C++20
Typing Static,
discipline nominative,
Contents partially inferred

History OS Most major

Etymology Filename .C, .cc, .cpp, .cxx,
Philosophy extensions .c++, .h, .hh,
Standardization .hpp, .hxx, .h++

Language Website isocpp.org (http

Object storage s://isocpp.org/)

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Static storage duration objects Major implementations

Thread storage duration objects GCC, LLVM Clang,
Automatic storage duration objects Microsoft Visual C++,
Dynamic storage duration objects Embarcadero C++Builder,
Templates Intel C++ Compiler, IBM XL C++,
Objects EDG
Encapsulation Influenced by
Inheritance Ada,[1] ALGOL 68, C, CLU,[1] ML,
Operators and operator overloading Mesa,[1] Modula-2,[1] Simula,
Polymorphism Smalltalk[1]
Static polymorphism
Influenced
Dynamic polymorphism
Inheritance Ada 95, C#,[2] C99, Chapel,[3]
Clojure,[4] D, Java,[5] JS++,[6] Lua,
Virtual member functions
Nim,[7] Perl, PHP, Python,[8] Rust,
Lambda expressions Seed7
Exception handling
C++ Programming at Wikibooks
Standard library
C++ Core Guidelines
Compatibility
With C
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began
work on "C with Classes", the predecessor to C++.[15] The
motivation for creating a new language originated from
Stroustrup's experience in programming for his PhD thesis.
Stroustrup found that Simula had features that were very helpful
for large software development, but the language was too slow for
practical use, while BCPL was fast but too low-level to be suitable
for large software development. When Stroustrup started
working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the
UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing. Bjarne Stroustrup, the creator of
Remembering his Ph.D. experience, Stroustrup set out to C++, in his AT&T New Jersey office
enhance the C language with Simula-like features. [16] C was c. 2000
chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable and widely
used. As well as C and Simula's influences, other languages also
influenced this new language, including ALGOL 68, Ada, CLU and ML.

Initially, Stroustrup's "C with Classes" added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes,
derived classes, strong typing, inlining and default arguments.[17]

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In 1982, Stroustrup started to develop a successor to C with Classes, which he named "C++" (++ being
the increment operator in C) after going through several other names. New features were added,
including virtual functions, function name and operator overloading, references, constants, type-safe
free-store memory allocation (new/delete), improved type checking, and BCPL style single-line
comments with two forward slashes (//). Furthermore, Stroustrup developed a new, standalone
compiler for C++, Cfront.

In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, which became the
definitive reference for the language, as there was not yet an official standard.[18] The first
commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year.[15]

In 1989, C++ 2.0 was released, followed by the updated second edition of The C++ Programming
Language in 1991.[19] New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static
member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In 1990, The Annotated C++
Reference Manual was published. This work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature
additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, and a Boolean type.

In 1998, C++98 was released, standardizing the language, and a

minor update (C++03) was released in 2003.

After C++98, C++ evolved relatively slowly until, in 2011, the

C++11 standard was released, adding numerous new features,
enlarging the standard library further, and providing more
facilities to C++ programmers. After a minor C++14 update
released in December 2014, various new additions were
introduced in C++17, and further changes planned for 2020.[20]

A quiz on C++11 features being As of 2019, C++ is now the fourth most popular programming
given in Paris in 2015 language, behind Java, C, and Python.[21][22]

On January 3, 2018, Stroustrup was announced as the 2018

winner of the Charles Stark Draper Prize for Engineering, "for conceptualizing and developing the
C++ programming language".[23]

Etymology

According to Stroustrup, "the name signifies the evolutionary nature of the changes from C".[24] This
name is credited to Rick Mascitti (mid-1983)[17] and was first used in December 1983. When Mascitti
was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-
cheek spirit. The name comes from C's ++ operator (which increments the value of a variable) and a
common naming convention of using "+" to indicate an enhanced computer program.

During C++'s development period, the language had been referred to as "new C" and "C with
Classes"[17][25] before acquiring its final name.

Philosophy

Throughout C++'s life, its development and evolution has been guided by a set of principles:[16]

It must be driven by actual problems and its features should be immediately useful in real world
programs.
Every feature should be implementable (with a reasonably obvious way to do so).

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Programmers should be free to pick their own programming style, and that style should be fully
supported by C++.
Allowing a useful feature is more important than preventing every possible misuse of C++.
It should provide facilities for organising programs into separate, well-defined parts, and provide
facilities for combining separately developed parts.
No implicit violations of the type system (but allow explicit violations; that is, those explicitly
requested by the programmer).
User-created types need to have the same support and performance as built-in types.
Unused features should not negatively impact created executables (e.g. in lower performance).
There should be no language beneath C++ (except assembly language).
C++ should work alongside other existing programming languages, rather than fostering its own
separate and incompatible programming environment.
If the programmer's intent is unknown, allow the programmer to specify it by providing manual
control.

Standardization
Year C++ Standard Informal name

1998 ISO/IEC 14882:1998[26] C++98

2003 ISO/IEC 14882:2003[27] C++03

2011 ISO/IEC 14882:2011[28] C++11, C++0x

2014 ISO/IEC 14882:2014[29] C++14, C++1y

2017 ISO/IEC 14882:2017[12] C++17, C++1z

Scene during the C++ Standards
Committee meeting in Stockholm in 2020 to be determined C++20,[20] C++2a
1996
C++ is standardized by an ISO working group known as
JTC1/SC22/WG21. So far, it has published five revisions of the
C++ standard and is currently working on the next revision, C++20.

In 1998, the ISO working group standardized C++ for the first time as ISO/IEC 14882:1998, which is
informally known as C++98. In 2003, it published a new version of the C++ standard called ISO/IEC
14882:2003, which fixed problems identified in C++98.

The next major revision of the standard was informally referred to as "C++0x", but it was not
released until 2011.[30] C++11 (14882:2011) included many additions to both the core language and
the standard library.[28]

In 2014, C++14 (also known as C++1y) was released as a small extension to C++11, featuring mainly
bug fixes and small improvements.[31] The Draft International Standard ballot procedures completed
in mid-August 2014.[32]

After C++14, a major revision C++17, informally known as C++1z, was completed by the ISO C++
Committee in mid July 2017 and was approved and published in December 2017.[33]

As part of the standardization process, ISO also publishes technical reports and specifications:

ISO/IEC TR 18015:2006[34] on the use of C++ in embedded systems and on performance

implications of C++ language and library features,
ISO/IEC TR 19768:2007[35] (also known as the C++ Technical Report 1) on library extensions
mostly integrated into C++11,
ISO/IEC TR 29124:2010[36] on special mathematical functions,
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ISO/IEC TR 24733:2011[37] on decimal floating point arithmetic,

ISO/IEC TS 18822:2015[38] on the standard filesystem library,
ISO/IEC TS 19570:2015[39] on parallel versions of the standard library algorithms,
ISO/IEC TS 19841:2015[40] on software transactional memory,
ISO/IEC TS 19568:2015[41] on a new set of library extensions, some of which are already
integrated into C++17,
ISO/IEC TS 19217:2015[42] on the C++ concepts, integrated into C++20
ISO/IEC TS 19571:2016[43] on the library extensions for concurrency
ISO/IEC TS 19568:2017[44] on a new set of general-purpose library extensions
ISO/IEC TS 21425:2017[45] on the library extensions for ranges, integrated into C++20
ISO/IEC TS 22277:2017[46] on coroutines
ISO/IEC TS 19216:2018[47] on the networking library
ISO/IEC TS 21544:2018[48] on modules
ISO/IEC TS 19570:2018[49] on a new set of library extensions for parallelism

More technical specifications are in development and pending approval, including static
reflection.[50]

Language
The C++ language has two main components: a direct mapping of hardware features provided
primarily by the C subset, and zero-overhead abstractions based on those mappings. Stroustrup
describes C++ as "a light-weight abstraction programming language [designed] for building and
using efficient and elegant abstractions";[10] and "offering both hardware access and abstraction is
the basis of C++. Doing it efficiently is what distinguishes it from other languages."[51]

C++ inherits most of C's syntax. The following is Bjarne Stroustrup's version of the Hello world
program that uses the C++ Standard Library stream facility to write a message to standard
output:[52][53]

1 #include <iostream>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 std::cout << "Hello, world!\n";
6 }

Object storage

As in C, C++ supports four types of memory management: static storage duration objects, thread
storage duration objects, automatic storage duration objects, and dynamic storage duration
objects.[54]

Static storage duration objects

Static storage duration objects are created before main() is entered (see exceptions below) and
destroyed in reverse order of creation after main() exits. The exact order of creation is not specified
by the standard (though there are some rules defined below) to allow implementations some freedom
in how to organize their implementation. More formally, objects of this type have a lifespan that
"shall last for the duration of the program".[55]
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Static storage duration objects are initialized in two phases. First, "static initialization" is performed,
and only after all static initialization is performed, "dynamic initialization" is performed. In static
initialization, all objects are first initialized with zeros; after that, all objects that have a constant
initialization phase are initialized with the constant expression (i.e. variables initialized with a literal
or constexpr). Though it is not specified in the standard, the static initialization phase can be
completed at compile time and saved in the data partition of the executable. Dynamic initialization
involves all object initialization done via a constructor or function call (unless the function is marked
with constexpr, in C++11). The dynamic initialization order is defined as the order of declaration
within the compilation unit (i.e. the same file). No guarantees are provided about the order of
initialization between compilation units.

Thread storage duration objects

Variables of this type are very similar to static storage duration objects. The main difference is the
creation time is just prior to thread creation and destruction is done after the thread has been
joined.[56]

Automatic storage duration objects

The most common variable types in C++ are local variables inside a function or block, and temporary
variables.[57] The common feature about automatic variables is that they have a lifetime that is
limited to the scope of the variable. They are created and potentially initialized at the point of
declaration (see below for details) and destroyed in the reverse order of creation when the scope is
left. This is implemented by allocation on the stack.

Local variables are created as the point of execution passes the declaration point. If the variable has a
constructor or initializer this is used to define the initial state of the object. Local variables are
destroyed when the local block or function that they are declared in is closed. C++ destructors for
local variables are called at the end of the object lifetime, allowing a discipline for automatic resource
management termed RAII, which is widely used in C++.

Member variables are created when the parent object is created. Array members are initialized from 0
to the last member of the array in order. Member variables are destroyed when the parent object is
destroyed in the reverse order of creation. i.e. If the parent is an "automatic object" then it will be
destroyed when it goes out of scope which triggers the destruction of all its members.

Temporary variables are created as the result of expression evaluation and are destroyed when the
statement containing the expression has been fully evaluated (usually at the ; at the end of a
statement).

Dynamic storage duration objects

These objects have a dynamic lifespan and can be created directly with a call to new and destroyed
explicitly with a call to delete.[58] C++ also supports malloc and free, from C, but these are not
compatible with new and delete. Use of new returns an address to the allocated memory. The C++
Core Guidelines advise against using new directly for creating dynamic objects in favor of smart
pointers through make_unique<T> for single ownership and make_shared<T> for reference-counted
multiple ownership,[59] which were introduced in C++11.

Templates

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C++ templates enable generic programming. C++ supports function, class, alias, and variable
templates. Templates may be parameterized by types, compile-time constants, and other templates.
Templates are implemented by instantiation at compile-time. To instantiate a template, compilers
substitute specific arguments for a template's parameters to generate a concrete function or class
instance. Some substitutions are not possible; these are eliminated by an overload resolution policy
described by the phrase "Substitution failure is not an error" (SFINAE). Templates are a powerful
tool that can be used for generic programming, template metaprogramming, and code optimization,
but this power implies a cost. Template use may increase code size, because each template
instantiation produces a copy of the template code: one for each set of template arguments, however,
this is the same or smaller amount of code that would be generated if the code was written by
hand.[60] This is in contrast to run-time generics seen in other languages (e.g., Java) where at
compile-time the type is erased and a single template body is preserved.

Templates are different from macros: while both of these compile-time language features enable
conditional compilation, templates are not restricted to lexical substitution. Templates are aware of
the semantics and type system of their companion language, as well as all compile-time type
definitions, and can perform high-level operations including programmatic flow control based on
evaluation of strictly type-checked parameters. Macros are capable of conditional control over
compilation based on predetermined criteria, but cannot instantiate new types, recurse, or perform
type evaluation and in effect are limited to pre-compilation text-substitution and text-
inclusion/exclusion. In other words, macros can control compilation flow based on pre-defined
symbols but cannot, unlike templates, independently instantiate new symbols. Templates are a tool
for static polymorphism (see below) and generic programming.

In addition, templates are a compile time mechanism in C++ that is Turing-complete, meaning that
any computation expressible by a computer program can be computed, in some form, by a template
metaprogram prior to runtime.

In summary, a template is a compile-time parameterized function or class written without knowledge

of the specific arguments used to instantiate it. After instantiation, the resulting code is equivalent to
code written specifically for the passed arguments. In this manner, templates provide a way to
decouple generic, broadly applicable aspects of functions and classes (encoded in templates) from
specific aspects (encoded in template parameters) without sacrificing performance due to
abstraction.

Objects

C++ introduces object-oriented programming (OOP) features to C. It offers classes, which provide the
four features commonly present in OOP (and some non-OOP) languages: abstraction, encapsulation,
inheritance, and polymorphism. One distinguishing feature of C++ classes compared to classes in
other programming languages is support for deterministic destructors, which in turn provide support
for the Resource Acquisition is Initialization (RAII) concept.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the hiding of information to ensure that data structures and operators are used as
intended and to make the usage model more obvious to the developer. C++ provides the ability to
define classes and functions as its primary encapsulation mechanisms. Within a class, members can
be declared as either public, protected, or private to explicitly enforce encapsulation. A public
member of the class is accessible to any function. A private member is accessible only to functions
that are members of that class and to functions and classes explicitly granted access permission by
the class ("friends"). A protected member is accessible to members of classes that inherit from the
class in addition to the class itself and any friends.

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The object-oriented principle ensures the encapsulation of all and only the functions that access the
internal representation of a type. C++ supports this principle via member functions and friend
functions, but it does not enforce it. Programmers can declare parts or all of the representation of a
type to be public, and they are allowed to make public entities not part of the representation of a type.
Therefore, C++ supports not just object-oriented programming, but other decomposition paradigms
such as modular programming.

It is generally considered good practice to make all data private or protected, and to make public only
those functions that are part of a minimal interface for users of the class. This can hide the details of
data implementation, allowing the designer to later fundamentally change the implementation
without changing the interface in any way.[61][62]

Inheritance

Inheritance allows one data type to acquire properties of other data types. Inheritance from a base
class may be declared as public, protected, or private. This access specifier determines whether
unrelated and derived classes can access the inherited public and protected members of the base
class. Only public inheritance corresponds to what is usually meant by "inheritance". The other two
forms are much less frequently used. If the access specifier is omitted, a "class" inherits privately,
while a "struct" inherits publicly. Base classes may be declared as virtual; this is called virtual
inheritance. Virtual inheritance ensures that only one instance of a base class exists in the inheritance
graph, avoiding some of the ambiguity problems of multiple inheritance.

Multiple inheritance is a C++ feature not found in most other languages, allowing a class to be
derived from more than one base class; this allows for more elaborate inheritance relationships. For
example, a "Flying Cat" class can inherit from both "Cat" and "Flying Mammal". Some other
languages, such as C# or Java, accomplish something similar (although more limited) by allowing
inheritance of multiple interfaces while restricting the number of base classes to one (interfaces,
unlike classes, provide only declarations of member functions, no implementation or member data).
An interface as in C# and Java can be defined in C++ as a class containing only pure virtual functions,
often known as an abstract base class or "ABC". The member functions of such an abstract base class
are normally explicitly defined in the derived class, not inherited implicitly. C++ virtual inheritance
exhibits an ambiguity resolution feature called dominance.

Operators and operator overloading

Operators that cannot be overloaded
C++ provides more than 35 operators, covering
basic arithmetic, bit manipulation, indirection, Operator Symbol
comparisons, logical operations and others. Almost Scope resolution operator ::
all operators can be overloaded for user-defined
types, with a few notable exceptions such as Conditional operator ?:
member access (. and .*) as well as the dot operator .
conditional operator. The rich set of overloadable
Member selection operator .*
operators is central to making user-defined types in
C++ seem like built-in types. "sizeof" operator sizeof
"typeid" operator typeid
Overloadable operators are also an essential part of
many advanced C++ programming techniques,
such as smart pointers. Overloading an operator does not change the precedence of calculations
involving the operator, nor does it change the number of operands that the operator uses (any
operand may however be ignored by the operator, though it will be evaluated prior to execution).
Overloaded "&&" and "||" operators lose their short-circuit evaluation property.

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Polymorphism

Polymorphism enables one common interface for many implementations, and for objects to act
differently under different circumstances.

C++ supports several kinds of static (resolved at compile-time) and dynamic (resolved at run-time)
polymorphisms, supported by the language features described above. Compile-time polymorphism
does not allow for certain run-time decisions, while runtime polymorphism typically incurs a
performance penalty.

Static polymorphism

Function overloading allows programs to declare multiple functions having the same name but with
different arguments (i.e. ad hoc polymorphism). The functions are distinguished by the number or
types of their formal parameters. Thus, the same function name can refer to different functions
depending on the context in which it is used. The type returned by the function is not used to
distinguish overloaded functions and would result in a compile-time error message.

When declaring a function, a programmer can specify for one or more parameters a default value.
Doing so allows the parameters with defaults to optionally be omitted when the function is called, in
which case the default arguments will be used. When a function is called with fewer arguments than
there are declared parameters, explicit arguments are matched to parameters in left-to-right order,
with any unmatched parameters at the end of the parameter list being assigned their default
arguments. In many cases, specifying default arguments in a single function declaration is preferable
to providing overloaded function definitions with different numbers of parameters.

Templates in C++ provide a sophisticated mechanism for writing generic, polymorphic code (i.e.
parametric polymorphism). In particular, through the curiously recurring template pattern, it's
possible to implement a form of static polymorphism that closely mimics the syntax for overriding
virtual functions. Because C++ templates are type-aware and Turing-complete, they can also be used
to let the compiler resolve recursive conditionals and generate substantial programs through
template metaprogramming. Contrary to some opinion, template code will not generate a bulk code
after compilation with the proper compiler settings.[60]

Dynamic polymorphism

Inheritance

Variable pointers and references to a base class type in C++ can also refer to objects of any derived
classes of that type. This allows arrays and other kinds of containers to hold pointers to objects of
differing types (references cannot be directly held in containers). This enables dynamic (run-time)
polymorphism, where the referred objects can behave differently, depending on their (actual,
derived) types.

C++ also provides the dynamic_cast operator, which allows code to safely attempt conversion of an
object, via a base reference/pointer, to a more derived type: downcasting. The attempt is necessary
as often one does not know which derived type is referenced. (Upcasting, conversion to a more
general type, can always be checked/performed at compile-time via static_cast, as ancestral
classes are specified in the derived class's interface, visible to all callers.) dynamic_cast relies on
run-time type information (RTTI), metadata in the program that enables differentiating types and
their relationships. If a dynamic_cast to a pointer fails, the result is the nullptr constant, whereas if
the destination is a reference (which cannot be null), the cast throws an exception. Objects known to

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be of a certain derived type can be cast to that with static_cast, bypassing RTTI and the safe
runtime type-checking of dynamic_cast, so this should be used only if the programmer is very
confident the cast is, and will always be, valid.

Virtual member functions

Ordinarily, when a function in a derived class overrides a function in a base class, the function to call
is determined by the type of the object. A given function is overridden when there exists no difference
in the number or type of parameters between two or more definitions of that function. Hence, at
compile time, it may not be possible to determine the type of the object and therefore the correct
function to call, given only a base class pointer; the decision is therefore put off until runtime. This is
called dynamic dispatch. Virtual member functions or methods[63] allow the most specific
implementation of the function to be called, according to the actual run-time type of the object. In
C++ implementations, this is commonly done using virtual function tables. If the object type is
known, this may be bypassed by prepending a fully qualified class name before the function call, but
in general calls to virtual functions are resolved at run time.

In addition to standard member functions, operator overloads and destructors can be virtual. As a
rule of thumb, if any function in the class is virtual, the destructor should be as well. As the type of an
object at its creation is known at compile time, constructors, and by extension copy constructors,
cannot be virtual. Nonetheless a situation may arise where a copy of an object needs to be created
when a pointer to a derived object is passed as a pointer to a base object. In such a case, a common
solution is to create a clone() (or similar) virtual function that creates and returns a copy of the
derived class when called.

A member function can also be made "pure virtual" by appending it with = 0 after the closing
parenthesis and before the semicolon. A class containing a pure virtual function is called an abstract
class. Objects cannot be created from an abstract class; they can only be derived from. Any derived
class inherits the virtual function as pure and must provide a non-pure definition of it (and all other
pure virtual functions) before objects of the derived class can be created. A program that attempts to
create an object of a class with a pure virtual member function or inherited pure virtual member
function is ill-formed.

Lambda expressions

C++ provides support for anonymous functions, also known as lambda expressions, with the
following form:

[capture](parameters) -> return_type { function_body }

The return type of a lambda expression can also be automatically inferred, if possible, e.g.:

[](int x, int y) { return x + y; } // inferred

[](int x, int y) -> int { return x + y; } // explicit

The [capture] list supports the definition of closures. Such lambda expressions are defined in the
standard as syntactic sugar for an unnamed function object.

Exception handling

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Exception handling is used to communicate the existence of a runtime problem or error from where it
was detected to where the issue can be handled.[64] It permits this to be done in a uniform manner
and separately from the main code, while detecting all errors.[65] Should an error occur, an exception
is thrown (raised), which is then caught by the nearest suitable exception handler. The exception
causes the current scope to be exited, and also each outer scope (propagation) until a suitable handler
is found, calling in turn the destructors of any objects in these exited scopes.[66] At the same time, an
exception is presented as an object carrying the data about the detected problem.[67]

Some C++ style guides, such as Google's,[68] LLVM's,[69] and Qt's[70] forbid the usage of exceptions.

The exception-causing code is placed inside a try block. The exceptions are handled in separate
catch blocks (the handlers); each try block can have multiple exception handlers, as it is visible in
the example below.[71]

1 #include <iostream>
2 #include <vector>
3 #include <stdexcept>
4
5 int main() {
6 try {
7 std::vector<int> vec{3, 4, 3, 1};
8 int i{vec.at(4)}; // Throws an exception, std::out_of_range (indexing for vec is from 0-3 not 1-4)
9 }
10 // An exception handler, catches std::out_of_range, which is thrown by vec.at(4)
11 catch (std::out_of_range &e) {
12 std::cerr << "Accessing a non-existent element: " << e.what() << '\n';
13 }
14 // To catch any other standard library exceptions (they derive from std::exception)
15 catch (std::exception &e) {
16 std::cerr << "Exception thrown: " << e.what() << '\n';
17 }
18 // Catch any unrecognised exceptions (i.e. those which don't derive from std::exception)
19 catch (...) {
20 std::cerr << "Some fatal error\n";
21 }
22 }

It is also possible to raise exceptions purposefully, using the throw keyword; these exceptions are
handled in the usual way. In some cases, exceptions cannot be used due to technical reasons. One
such example is a critical component of an embedded system, where every operation must be
guaranteed to complete within a specified amount of time. This cannot be determined with
exceptions as no tools exist to determine the maximum time required for an exception to be
handled.[72]

Unlike signal handling, in which the handling function is called from the point of failure, exception
handling exits the current scope before the catch block is entered, which may be located in the
current function or any of the previous function calls currently on the stack.

Standard library
The C++ standard consists of two parts: the core language and the standard library. C++
programmers expect the latter on every major implementation of C++; it includes aggregate types
(vectors, lists, maps, sets, queues, stacks, arrays, tuples), algorithms (find, for_each, binary_search,
random_shuffle, etc.), input/output facilities (iostream, for reading from and writing to the console
and files), filesystem library, localisation support, smart pointers for automatic memory
management, regular expression support, multi-threading library, atomics support (allowing a
variable to be read or written to by at most one thread at a time without any external
synchronisation), time utilities (measurement, getting current time, etc.), a system for converting

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error reporting that doesn't use C++ exceptions into C++

exceptions, a random number generator and a slightly modified
version of the C standard library (to make it comply with the C++
type system).

A large part of the C++ library is based on the Standard Template

Library (STL). Useful tools provided by the STL include
containers as the collections of objects (such as vectors and lists),
iterators that provide array-like access to containers, and
algorithms that perform operations such as searching and
The draft "Working Paper" standard
sorting.
that became approved as C++98;
half of its size was devoted to the
Furthermore, (multi)maps (associative arrays) and (multi)sets
C++ Standard Library
are provided, all of which export compatible interfaces.
Therefore, using templates it is possible to write generic
algorithms that work with any container or on any sequence
defined by iterators. As in C, the features of the library are accessed by using the #include directive
to include a standard header. The C++ Standard Library provides 105 standard headers, of which 27
are deprecated.

The standard incorporates the STL that was originally designed by Alexander Stepanov, who
experimented with generic algorithms and containers for many years. When he started with C++, he
finally found a language where it was possible to create generic algorithms (e.g., STL sort) that
perform even better than, for example, the C standard library qsort, thanks to C++ features like using
inlining and compile-time binding instead of function pointers. The standard does not refer to it as
"STL", as it is merely a part of the standard library, but the term is still widely used to distinguish it
from the rest of the standard library (input/output streams, internationalization, diagnostics, the C
library subset, etc.).[73]

Most C++ compilers, and all major ones, provide a standards-conforming implementation of the C++
standard library.

C++ Core Guidelines

The C++ Core Guidelines[74] are an initiative led by Bjarne Stroustrup, the inventor of C++, and Herb
Sutter, the convener and chair of the C++ ISO Working Group, to help programmers write 'Modern
C++' by using best practices for the language standards C++14 and newer, and to help developers of
compilers and static checking tools to create rules for catching bad programming practices.

The main aim is to efficiently and consistently write type and resource safe C++.

The Core Guidelines were announced[75] in the opening keynote at CPPCon 2015.

The Guidelines are accompanied by the Guideline Support Library (GSL),[76] a header only library of
types and functions to implement the Core Guidelines and static checker tools for enforcing Guideline
rules.[77]

Compatibility
To give compiler vendors greater freedom, the C++ standards committee decided not to dictate the
implementation of name mangling, exception handling, and other implementation-specific features.
The downside of this decision is that object code produced by different compilers is expected to be
incompatible. There were, however, attempts to standardize compilers for particular machines or
operating systems (for example C++ ABI),[78] though they seem to be largely abandoned now.
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With C

C++ is often considered to be a superset of C but this is not strictly true.[79]

Most C code can easily be made to compile correctly in C++ but there are a
few differences that cause some valid C code to be invalid or behave
differently in C++. For example, C allows implicit conversion from void* to
other pointer types but C++ does not (for type safety reasons). Also, C++
defines many new keywords, such as new and class, which may be used as
identifiers (for example, variable names) in a C program.
The relationship of
Some incompatibilities have been removed by the 1999 revision of the C C++ to C has always
standard (C99), which now supports C++ features such as line comments (//) been a bit
and declarations mixed with code. On the other hand, C99 introduced a problematic
number of new features that C++ did not support that were incompatible or
redundant in C++, such as variable-length arrays, native complex-number
types (however, the std::complex class in the C++ standard library provides similar functionality,
although not code-compatible), designated initializers, compound literals, and the restrict
keyword.[80] Some of the C99-introduced features were included in the subsequent version of the
C++ standard, C++11 (out of those which were not redundant).[81][82][83] However, the C++11
standard introduces new incompatibilities, such as disallowing assignment of a string literal to a
character pointer, which remains valid C.

To intermix C and C++ code, any function declaration or definition that is to be called from/used
both in C and C++ must be declared with C linkage by placing it within an extern "C" {/*...*/}
block. Such a function may not rely on features depending on name mangling (i.e., function
overloading).

Criticism
Despite its widespread adoption, some notable programmers have criticized the C++ language,
including Linus Torvalds,[84] Richard Stallman,[85] Joshua Bloch, Ken Thompson,[86][87][88] and
Donald Knuth.[89][90]

One of the most often criticised points of C++ is its perceived complexity as a language, with the
criticism that a large number of non-orthogonal features in practice necessitates restricting code to
subset of C++, thus eschewing the readability benefits of common style and idioms. As expressed by
Joshua Bloch:

I think C++ was pushed well beyond its complexity threshold, and yet there are a lot of
people programming it. But what you do is you force people to subset it. So almost every
shop that I know of that uses C++ says, “Yes, we’re using C++ but we’re not doing
multiple-implementation inheritance and we’re not using operator overloading.” There
are just a bunch of features that you’re not going to use because the complexity of the
resulting code is too high. And I don’t think it’s good when you have to start doing that.
You lose this programmer portability where everyone can read everyone else’s code,
which I think is such a good thing.

Donald Knuth (1993, commenting on pre-standardized C++), who said of Edsger Dijkstra that "to
think of programming in C++" "would make him physically ill":[89][90]

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The problem that I have with them today is that... C++ is too complicated. At the moment,
it's impossible for me to write portable code that I believe would work on lots of different
systems, unless I avoid all exotic features. Whenever the C++ language designers had two
competing ideas as to how they should solve some problem, they said "OK, we'll do them
both". So the language is too baroque for my taste.

Ken Thompson, who was a colleague of Stroustrup at Bell Labs, gives his assessment:[87][88]

It certainly has its good points. But by and large I think it’s a bad language. It does a lot of
things half well and it’s just a garbage heap of ideas that are mutually exclusive.
Everybody I know, whether it’s personal or corporate, selects a subset and these subsets
are different. So it’s not a good language to transport an algorithm—to say, “I wrote it;
here, take it.” It’s way too big, way too complex. And it’s obviously built by a committee.
Stroustrup campaigned for years and years and years, way beyond any sort of technical
contributions he made to the language, to get it adopted and used. And he sort of ran all
the standards committees with a whip and a chair. And he said “no” to no one. He put
every feature in that language that ever existed. It wasn’t cleanly designed—it was just the
union of everything that came along. And I think it suffered drastically from that.

However Brian Kernighan, also a colleague at Bell Labs, disputes this assessment:[91]

C++ has been enormously influential. ... Lots of people say C++ is too big and too
complicated etc. etc. but in fact it is a very powerful language and pretty much everything
that is in there is there for a really sound reason: it is not somebody doing random
invention, it is actually people trying to solve real world problems. Now a lot of the
programs that we take for granted today, that we just use, are C++ programs.

Stroustrup himself comments that C++ semantics are much cleaner than its syntax: "within C++,
there is a much smaller and cleaner language struggling to get out".[92]

Other complaints may include a lack of reflection or garbage collection, long compilation times,
perceived feature creep,[93] and verbose error messages, particularly from template
metaprogramming.[94]

See also
Comparison of programming languages
List of C++ compilers
Outline of C++
C++ Libraries (category)

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Further reading
Abrahams, David; Gurtovoy, Aleksey. C++ Template Metaprogramming: Concepts, Tools, and
Techniques from Boost and Beyond. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-22725-5.
Alexandrescu, Andrei (2001). Modern C++ Design: Generic Programming and Design Patterns
Applied. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-70431-5.

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6/22/2020 C++ - Wikipedia

Alexandrescu, Andrei; Sutter, Herb (2004). C++ Design and Coding Standards: Rules and
Guidelines for Writing Programs. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-11358-6.
Becker, Pete (2006). The C++ Standard Library Extensions : A Tutorial and Reference. Addison-
Wesley. ISBN 0-321-41299-0.
Brokken, Frank (2010). C++ Annotations (http://www.icce.rug.nl/documents/cplusplus/). University
of Groningen. ISBN 90-367-0470-7.
Coplien, James O. (1994) [reprinted with corrections, original year of publication 1992]. Advanced
C++: Programming Styles and Idioms (https://archive.org/details/advancedcbsprogr00copl).
ISBN 0-201-54855-0.
Dewhurst, Stephen C. (2005). C++ Common Knowledge: Essential Intermediate Programming.
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-32192-8.
Information Technology Industry Council (15 October 2003). Programming languages – C++
(Second ed.). Geneva: ISO/IEC. 14882:2003(E).
Josuttis, Nicolai M. (2012). The C++ Standard Library, A Tutorial and Reference (Second ed.).
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-62321-5.
Koenig, Andrew; Moo, Barbara E. (2000). Accelerated C++ – Practical Programming by Example
(https://archive.org/details/acceleratedcprac2000koen). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-70353-X.
Lippman, Stanley B.; Lajoie, Josée; Moo, Barbara E. (2011). C++ Primer (https://archive.org/detai
ls/cprimer0000lipp_5thed) (Fifth ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-71411-3.
Lippman, Stanley B. (1996). Inside the C++ Object Model. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-83454-5.
Meyers, Scott (2005). Effective C++ (https://archive.org/details/effectivec55spec00meye) (Third
ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-33487-6.
Stroustrup, Bjarne (2013). The C++ Programming Language (Fourth ed.). Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 978-0-321-56384-2.
Stroustrup, Bjarne (1994). The Design and Evolution of C++. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-
54330-3.
Stroustrup, Bjarne (2014). Programming: Principles and Practice Using C++ (Second ed.).
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-99278-9.
Sutter, Herb (2001). More Exceptional C++: 40 New Engineering Puzzles, Programming
Problems, and Solutions. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-70434-X.
Sutter, Herb (2004). Exceptional C++ Style. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-76042-8.
Vandevoorde, David; Josuttis, Nicolai M. (2003). C++ Templates: The complete Guide. Addison-
Wesley. ISBN 0-201-73484-2.

External links
JTC1/SC22/WG21 (http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/) – the ISO/IEC C++ Standard
Working Group
Standard C++ Foundation (https://isocpp.org/) – a non-profit organization that promotes the use
and understanding of standard C++. Bjarne Stroustrup is a director of the organization.

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