PRESTRESSED SEGMENTAL CONCRETE BRIDGE

CHAPTER:1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Construction of segmental bridge started in Europe in 1950. The first attempt of
cast-in-place segmental concrete bridge was conducted across the Lahn River in
Balduinstein, Germany, in 1950. however, the primary precast segmental concrete bridge
was constructed in 1962, across the River Seine in France. Later, this construction method
gained worldwide recognition. Bridge construction time, facilitating construction, and
minimizing the traffic disruption are the main advantages of precast construction in
contrast to cast in-situ construction. Precast segmental concrete bridges are normally
constructed in low seismic areas. Numerous precast segmental concrete columns and pier
constructions have been carried out in the US in low seismic regions such as the states of
Texas and California in the United States.
Construction of longer span bridges is increasing in the United States to satisfy
requirements of function, economics, safety, and aesthetics. The long span potential of
prestressed concrete cannot be fully developed in pretensioned I-girder and composite
slab systems. These systems have practical limits in the 120 feet span range. However,
substantially longer span prestressed concrete bridges have been built by utilizing precast
and cast-in-place box girder bridges erected using various techniques.
In precast segmental bridge construction, the structure is constructed by post-
tensioning together precast segments which are usually manufactured as short
longitudinal sections of the box girder cross section. Balanced cantilever erection was the
early predominant method of constructing segmental bridges. In a number of recent
applications, the span-by-span method with segments assembled on a falsework truss has
seen wide use. The popularity of precast concrete segmental bridge construction has
grown worldwide in the last few decades. A broader understanding of these structures and
basic outline of the processes for construction of prestressed concrete bridges are detailed
in the report.

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1.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Fig 1.2 Percentage of bridges built annually with three major construction
materials

Segmental construction may be defined as a method of construction in which the primary

load-carrying members are composed of individual precast or cast-in-place segments
post-tensioned longitudinally and/or transversely together to form simple or continuous-
span bridges. Superstructures of segmental construction are generally of single or
multiple box sections or a combination thereof, but precast beam-type sections may also
be used. In recent years, precast beam sections are joined by splicing (post-tensioning) to
expand their range of applicability.
Segmental concrete bridge construction has become a very important method in spanning
deep valleys, wide water crossings, and across highways and existing facilities without
the use of costly and often environmentally sensitive false work. Every segmental bridge
construction project has its own challenges in type and size selection, in design,
fabrication, erection and construction.
Many advances made in materials are impacting segmental construction and its costs.

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1. Reinforcement:
Using welded wire reinforcement (WWR) would speed rebar cage production rates and
lower labor cost. Shop drawings would detail custom fabricated rebar mats that would be
shipped straight for cost purposes and bent on-site. The potential drawback is that it could
compromise durability.
2. Concrete:
The admixture industry has introduced self-compacting concrete (SCC) with the
development of modified polycarboxylates. SCC is extremely cohesive and flowable
without the use of vibration; thereby eliminating internal vibrator marks on vertical
concrete surfaces normally associated with congested reinforcement. Using SCC will
speed the casting process and enhance the aesthetic appearance. In addition, these
admixtures will greatly reduce concrete repairs by reducing voids and entrapped air. This
refinement will also lower casting costs by reducing crew size and equipment needs.
Designing the segments with a higher compressive strength concrete would reduce the
concrete cross-sectional area and thereby provide weight savings. The use of lightweight
concrete could further decrease the overall span weight, reducing post-tensioning
requirements. These modifications provide cost savings in segment delivery and erection.
The next plateau of development will be dramatic gain in early concrete mix design
strength leading toward utilizing the casting form twice a day. Achieving high early
strength concrete is not difficult, but maintaining a low heat of hydration will avoid a
differential thermal gradient causing structural cracks and warping. Achieving this goal
would effectively reduce the project casting time by 50 percent

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1.3 Classification of segmental bridges

Segmental bridges are classified under the following categories: -

1) Balanced Cantilever Bridges.

2) Progressive Placement Bridge.
3) Span-by-Span Construction Bridge.
4) Incrementally Launched Bridges.

1) Balanced Cantilever Bridge: -

 Balanced cantilever bridge is a bridge which is constructed by the method of
erecting the segments from both sides of the pier table in a scales-like fashion.
 This is also known under the name free cantilever construction.
 Balanced cantilevering can be carried out with cast-in-place or precast
segments.

Fig.1.3.1 Balanced cantilever bridge construction.

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2) Progressive Placement Bridge: -

 The progressive placement bridge is a type of a bridge which is constructed by
the method of erecting the segments from only one side of the pier.
 Both cast-in-place and precast segmental construction can be used.

Fig.1.3.2 Progressive Placement Bridge construction.

3) Span-by-Span Construction Bridge: -
 The Span-by-span construction bridge is a type of a bridge which is constructed
by the method of assembling all segments for a span in a set, which is “then
aligned, jointed, and longitudinally post-tensioned together to make a complete
span.”.
 Span-by-span construction bridge is typically limited to bridges that consist of box
girders with constant depth.

Fig 1.3.3 Span-by-Span Bridge construction.

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4) Incrementally Launched Bridge: -

 Incrementally launched bridge is a type of a bridge which is constructed by
casting a continuous chain of segments at one particular location on site and
then pushing the growing superstructure out over site to be bridged.
 Incrementally launching can be carried out with only precast segments.

Fig 1.3.4 Incrementally launched bridge.

1.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES.

The following steps are used for the construction of Segmental bridges: -

1.4.1 Casting of Segments

a. Cast-in-Situ Method
This method prefers for short bridges. Time consuming is large in cast-in-situ
construction as it involves following steps: -
 Erection on ground supported staging.
 Casting of concrete.
 Dismantling of staging.

They are built on-site using formwork supported by temporary falsework or form
travelers. Numerous projects have been constructed in this manner.

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Cast-in-place construction proves to be very advantageous when large, very heavy

segments are encountered. In-stead of handling the segments, only materials have to be
transported thus influencing the type and size of required equipment.

Fig 1.4 Form travelers used for casting in Cast in-situ method.

The commonly used method for casting segments in place is with the use of form
travelers. Form travelers are moveable forms supported by steel cantilever trusses
attached to previously completed segments. After finishing all work on a segment, the
form traveler is detached from the previous position and moved forwards on rails that are
mounted on the bridge superstructure.
Formwork creates the shape of the concrete section and any internal voids or
diaphragms. Reinforcement and posttensioning ducts are installed in the forms and then
the concrete is placed, consolidated and cured. When the concrete attains sufficient
strength, post-tensioning strands are installed and stressed to predetermined forces.
Longitudinal post-tensioning is typically comprised of multi-strand tendons draped along
the length of the girder to a designed profile. post-tensioning anchors are arranged
vertically so that the resultant of the tendon anchor force passes close to the centroid of
the section.

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b. Precast Segmental Method

This method is used for the long bridges. It is economical when there is large
number of spans. This method involves the following steps: -
 Casting of Precast segments in casting yard.
 Transporting the precast segments at the site.
 Erection of the precast segment using launcher or crane.
 External Prestressing Grouting.

Precast construction means that bridge members or segments are prefabricated at a

location different that the site, transported to the site, and installed there. Mathivat (1983)
gives the maximum economical span of bridges built in precast segment as about 150 m,
since cost for the placement equipment increase considerably the longer the spans are.
Construction with precast segments has several advantages in comparison with cast-in-
place segmental bridges. Casting of the segments can be performed under controlled,
plant-like conditions at the pre-casting yard.
This industrialized process allows easy quality control of segments prior to
placement in the superstructure and saves money through reuse of the pre-casting
formwork. Surface finishing works, such as texturing, sandblasting, painting, and coating
can be performed on the ground level without scaffolding when the segments are still
accessible from all sides prior to installation in the superstructure.
Another major advantage is assembly of the bridge superstructure takes much less
time than cast-in-place construction, as precast segments do not need to cure on site
before being prestressed together. Through the early casting of segments material
properties are also influenced positively. As segments are usually stored at the pre-casting
yard or on site for a while the concrete will have gained more strength until installation
than cast-in-place elements have when being loaded. The time-dependent effects of
concrete shrinkage and creep will occur with reduced extent because of the increase age
of the concrete segments (Mathivat 1983) and will cause smaller deflections of the
superstructure than with cast-in-place construction.

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Fig1..4 Match casting in Pre-casting segmental method.

However, cost for the pre-casting yard, storage, transportation, and installation of
precast segments needs to be evaluated in comparison with cost for the form travelers for
cast-in-place construction to achieve an economical solution. The pre-casting yard
requires investment in equipment. Adjustable formwork to form the bridge geometry and
alignment needs to be installed. Lifting equipment is also required to put the segments
into the storage area and later load them on truck to be hauled to the construction site.
It is common practice to use the match-cast method to achieve high accuracy in
segment prefabrication. Match-casting means that the segments are cast in the formwork
between a “bulkhead at one end and a previously cast segment at the other” (Levintov
1995, p46). Segment joint faces need to be clean of any dirt for match-casting.

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1.4.1 Pre-casting Techniques

There are two techniques in pre-casting segmental method, they are: -

a. Short Line system.
b. Long Line system.

a. Short Line system: -

 In this rate of segment production is slow. Three or four segments cast at a time.

Fig 1.4.1 Schematic representation of short line match casting system. The usual rate
of production is four segments per week per set of forms.

 All the casting methods to be discussed utilize the concept of match casting. The
basic premise of match casting is to cast the segments so their relative erected
position is identical to their relative casting position. This requires a perfect fit
between the ends of the segments and is accomplished by casting each segment
directly against the face of the preceding one using a debonder to prevent bonding
of the concrete. The segments are then erected in the same sequence they were
cast. The most common method for match casting segments is called the "short
line" method.

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 The length of the side forms is equal to the length of the segment being cast plus
1 or 2 in. (25 or 51mm) to seal around the match cast joint. The side forms have
the capability of being folded back away from the segment to permit removal of
the segment. This is done either with screw jacks or hydraulic rams.
 For the sake of explaining the casting procedure, assume today is Wednesday. The
older segment was cast on Monday and is now cured and ready for the storage
yard. The old segment was cast yesterday or Tuesday and was match cast against
Monday's segment. Today a new segment will be cast against Tuesday's segment.

Fig 1.4.1 Short line segment casting yard.

b. Long Line system: -

 In this rate of segment production is fast. Segments equal to one span cast at a
time.
 this is an alternative to the previously discussed short line system is the long line
system. The system is similar except that a continuous soffit the length of a
cantilever is built.
 All the segments are cast in their correct relative position with the side forms
moving down the line as each segment is cast.
 In this rate of segment production is fast. Segments equal to one span cast at a
time.

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 this is an alternative to the previously discussed short line system is the long line
system. The system is similar except that a continuous soffit the length of a
cantilever is built.
 All the segments are cast in their correct relative position with the side forms
moving down the line as each segment is cast.
 Geometry control is established by adjusting the side forms and soffit. Variable
depth structures may be cast by varying the elevation of the soffit, curves are cast
by curving the soffit.
 When considering a long line system several things must be taken into account.
 First of all, substantial space is required. The minimum length of soffit
required is generally a little more than one-half the longest span of the
structure.

Fig 1.4.1 Schematic representation of long line casting system. Side forms move along
a permanent soffit to cast individual segments.

 The foundation must be strong and relatively settlement free because the
segment weight to be supported can be 5 tons per lineal foot or more.
 Any curing and handling equipment must be mobile since the side forms
travel along the soffit.
 The contractor must set up a monitoring system and adjust the soffits
periodically to correct for any settlement.

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 After casting the segments are stored at staking yard and curing of segments
will be done.

Fig 1.4.1 Long line system casting yard.

1.5 Prestressing
 Prestressing is used for giving the final strength to bridge.
 Application of prestressed concrete for bridge construction was developed by
French engineer Eugène Freyssinet.
 The basic principle of prestressing is to induce an initial compressive force in the
concrete that will balance tensile stresses that occur in the member under service
conditions before any tensile stresses occur in the concrete and cause cracking.
 two methods of inducing these stresses in the structure:
• By imposed forces from reinforcing steel that is prestressed to a certain degree.
• By imposed “artificial displacements of the supports”, e.g. bearings.
 The second method according to is much less used because of high losses of the
prestressing force due to concrete creep and shrinkage.
 Prestressing tendons that are used for the first method consist of high-strength
steel and are fabricated as wires, strands, or bars.
 For a continuous beam on several supports, most tension will occur in the lower
fibers of the cross-section around midspan and in the upper fibers above
intermediate supports.
 It is therefore most useful to place tendons in the locations where tensile stresses
will occur in the structure under service. This thought naturally leads to the idea of

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implementing longitudinal tendons in the beam that are not simply straight but
follow a curve from the top above supports to the bottom at midspan and back to
the next support.
 Prestressing basically can be carried out as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning
referring to the time when the prestressing force is imposed with respect to
casting.

1.5 .1 Pre-tension method

 In pre-tensioning the tendons are anchored to concrete (e.g. a stiff frame
around the casting bed and are prestressed before the concrete is placed).
 When the concrete has gained sufficient strength, the tendons are relieved
from their anchorages and stress the concrete through bond between steel and
concrete.
 Hence the method is especially feasible for pre-casting concrete.

1.5.2 Post-tension method

 Post-tensioning denotes the method of stressing the tendons only after the
concrete has reached a specified strength.
 Two different ways of construction exist for post-tensioning.
 The prestressing tendons located inside the concrete is called internal
post-tensioning.
 The prestressing tendons located outside the concrete is called external
post-tensioning.
 In Internal post-tensioning, to allow for the necessary movement of the
tendons inside the concrete they are installed in tendon ducts that are made
from steel or polyethylene. The ducts need to be fixed to the normal
reinforcement to prevent misalignment during casting.
 After post-tensioning the ducts are filled with cement grout under pressure for
and protection against corrosion of the tendons. Grouting the ducts will
introduce bond between the steel and the surrounding grout.

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Fig.5.2 Post-tensioned bulb-T girder fabrication and installation.

 External post-tensioning has the advantage of easy accessibility for inspection,

maintenance works and replacement.
 Nevertheless, problems with corrosion protection are the reason for use of
interior post-tensioning in most projects.
 Post-tensioned tendons need special anchorages that are cast into the concrete
structure.
 Anchorages have the shape of cones that are sitting on the end of the duct for
better accessibility to single tendon strands with the prestressing jack.
Anchorages are mostly surrounded by spiral reinforcement, which serves to
distribute the compressive stresses into the concrete member.

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1.5.2.1 Post-Tensioning Components

The most commonly used types of post-tensioning components used in bridge

construction:

1. Anchorages

a) Basic Bearing Plate Systems: -

A basic bearing plate is a flat plate bearing directly against concrete. This includes
square, rectangular, or round plates, sheared or torch cut from readily available steel
plate. Basic bearing plates are used in conjunction with galvanized sheet metal or plastic
trumpets to transition from the strand spacing in the wedge plate to the duct.

Plate1.5.2 Basic bearing plate anchorage system

b) Special Bearing Plate Systems: -

A special bearing plate or anchorage device is any anchorage hardware that
transfers tendon force into the concrete but does not meet normal analytical design
requirements for basic bearing plates. Covered by this definition are devices having single
or multiple plane bearing surfaces, and devices combining bearing and wedge plate in
once piece. These anchorages typically require increased confinement reinforcement and
should be accepted on the basis of physical tests.

fig shows a cut-away view of a multi-plane anchorage system. These systems are
commonly confined with spiral reinforcement around the anchor.

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fig shows the components of the anchorage system for a four-strand tendon in flat
duct, commonly used in slabs.

Fig1.5.2 Multi-plane anchorage system and confinement reinforcement.

Fig 1.5.2 Anchorage system for flat duct tendon (Courtesy of DSI).

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c) Post-Tensioning Bar Anchor Systems: -

Anchorage systems for post-tensioning bars are comprised of bearing plates and
anchor nuts similar to the components shown in fig.

Fig.1.5.2 Post-tensioning bar anchorage system.

2. Ducts
a) Corrugated Steel: -
Corrugated ducts and connectors should be fabricated from galvanized sheet steel
that meets the requirements of ASTM A653, with coating designation G90 (PTI/ASBI
M50.3-12, 2012). The ducts are spirally wound to the necessary diameter from strip steel
with a minimum wall thickness of 0.45mm (26-gauge) for ducts less than 66mm (2-5/8
in) diameter or 0.6mm (24-gauge) for ducts of greater diameter. These ducts are
manufactured with welded or interlocking seams with sufficient rigidity to maintain the
correct profile between supports during concrete placement (Plate.3.13). Ducts should
also be able to flex without crimping or flattening. Joints between sections of duct and
between ducts and anchor components should be made with positive, metallic
connections that provide a smooth interior alignment with no lips or abrupt angle
changes.

Fig1.5.2 Corrugated metal duct.

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b) Smooth, Rigid, Steel Pipe: -

Rigid steel ducts are typically used in those portions of external tendons
deviating though segmental bridge pier segment diaphragms or deviators. In these areas
of curved tendon alignments, the steel pipe should be pre-fabricated to the required
radius. Smooth steel pipes should conform to ASTM A53/A53M “Standard Specification
for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc Coated, Welded and Seamless,” Grade B
Schedule 40.

c) Corrugated Plastic: -
Corrugated plastic ducts, as shown in Plate.3.14, are also used for tendons
internal to the concrete. These ducts should be seamless and fabricated from polyethylene
or polypropylene (ASTM F405 and D4101) meeting the requirements of Section 4.3.5.2
of “Guide Specification for Grouted Post-Tensioning” (PTI/ASBI M50.3-12, 2012).

Fig1.5.2 Corrugated plastic duct.

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d) Permanent Grout Caps: -

Permanent grout caps similar to those shown in Plate.3.15 are provided to protect
the tendons at the anchorages. Permanent grout caps are made of a non-corrosive material
such as fiber reinforced plastic, stainless steel, or galvanized ferrous metal with a
minimum thickness of zinc of 120 μm. To ensure an enduring, maintenance-free, life of
75 years fiber reinforced plastic caps should contain an anti-oxidant additive with an
environmental stress cracking endurance of 192 hours per ASTM D1693; stainless steel
caps should meet the requirements of ASTM A240 Type 316.

Fig1.5.2 Permanent plastic grout caps.

e) Prestressing Strand: -
The strand used in post-tensioned bridge systems must meet the requirements of
ASTM A416,“Standard Specification for Steel Strand Uncoated Seven-Wire for
Prestressed Concrete,” and consist of wires having a centre wire enclosed tightly by six
helically placed outer wires with uniform pitch of not less than 12 and not more than 16
times the nominal diameter of the strand. Unless otherwise noted on the contract
documents uncoated Grade 270, low–relation, 7-wire strand (Plate.3.16) should be used
(PTI/ASBIM50.3-12, 2012).

Fig1.5.2 Wire Prestressing Strand

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f) Post-Tensioning Bars: -
Bars used in post-tensioned tendons shall conform to ASTM A722, “Standard
Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete.” Bars have
a minimum ultimate tensile strength of 150,000 psi (1035 MPa). Unless otherwise noted
in the contract documents, Grade 150, uncoated, high strength, thread bar shall be used
(PTI/ASBI M50.3-12, 2012).

Fig1.5.2 Post-Tensioning Bar.

1.6 Lifting and Storage of segments

After a day’s production, the previous day’s match cast segment is ready to be
finished and set for storage. Depending on the design, some segments can be lifted and
placed in storage prior to any post tensioning. This will be a factor of safety gained during
the initial cure of the segment and the dimensional properties of the bridge. An organized
storage plan must be formulated early in the casting process. Not only should the location
of each segment be established in an orderly manner for storage, but also for documenting
the various stages of completion and acceptance, as well as, availability to deliver the
segments to the bridge site when needed. Time and efficiency losses caused by searching
for segments will add up quickly especially if multiple movements are needed for access.

Plate1.6 Lifting and storage of segments.

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1.7 Transfer the segment to erection site

Depending on the location of the storage area to the bridge erection site, the
method of transportation will differ. whether is by trucks (on and of road). Rail or barge
several factors apply to all: hauling restriction-time and weight, permits environmental
and noise ordinances, and distance, the most direct routes might not be the most cost
effective are available. A necessary decision will also include whether to purchase, rent,
or subcontract the loading and transporting. The lifting and handling of this large of
professionally experienced subcontractors are advised. The segments must be transported
to the bridge for erection in the same relation as they were cast.

Fig1.7 Pre-cast concrete segment loaded on 96-wheel trailer for transport to site.

1.8 Erection of segments

 Erection techniques
The precast segments are erected on the sites by following erection techniques: -
a. Balanced Cantilever erection.
b. Progressive Placement erection.
c. Span by Span erection.
d. Incremental Launching erection.

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a. .Balanced Cantilever erection: -

 Balanced cantilever erection, as shown in plate.3.20, is quickly becoming the

"classic" technique when considering segmental construction.
 The general concept is to attach the segments in an alternate manner at opposite
ends of cantilevers supported by piers.
 As the segments are attached the moment to be carried at the pier increases. The
compressive stresses in the bottom of the concrete section at the pier build up
similar to the moment variation. However, the theoretical tensile stresses
occurring at the top of the same section are offset by the post-tensioning forces
applied at a rate similar to the moment increase.
 It is important to remember that the top of the concrete section is essentially
operating at capacity during the entire erection sequence. Therefore, the
construction loads must not increase significantly over what has been assumed in
the design.
 As segments are attached to the cantilever ends one at a time, an overturning
moment is created and must be resisted. This moment may be resisted by post
tensioning the pier segment down to the pier stem, providing temporary supports
on either side of the pier or stabilizing the cantilevers with the erection equipment.
 The final choice belongs to the contractor but the designer must assume and detail
a method for a stress evaluation and parameters for the con-tractor.
 Crane erection will probably be more common and also a launching gantry
placing segments for balanced cantilever erection.

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Fig1.8 Stages of erecting segments in balanced cantilever erection technique.

b. Progressive Placement erection: -

 The progressive placement method, in comparison with the balanced cantilevering
method, is a one-directional process.
 The equipment required is a crane capable of lifting a segment delivered along the
previously completed portion of the bridge and swinging around and lowering the
segment to be attached to the end of the cantilever.
 As the cantilever extends in one direction, the capacity of the section located at
the pier is soon exceeded. Therefore, a temporary support must be provided to
prevent overstress.

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 Hydraulic jacks can be attached to the stays to control the stay stresses and
orientation of the cantilever.
 An alternate and may be simpler method is to provide jacks beneath the legs of the
vertical steel tower. Thus, the stress in the stays can be varied by raising or
lowering the steel tower.
 The primary advantage here is having only two jacks to control the operation.
 Progressive placement has advantage of good access to the placement location is
given on the already completed part of the bridge superstructure.
 Some disadvantages of the progressive placement method need to be dealt with
during design and construction.
 As construction only progresses at the tip of one cantilever, progress is
slower than in balanced cantilevering.
 Progressive placement resembles incremental launching in that the
superstructure undergoes stresses very different from the permanent
service conditions, including even stress reversals.

Fig1.8 Progressive placement erection technique.

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c. Span by Span erection: -

 Span by span erection may be the most economical technique for erecting
segmental bridges in the medium span range [less than250 ft (76 m)].
 This method utilizes an assembly truss spanning between permanent piers to
support precast segments prior to installation and stressing of post-tensioning
tendons. Segments are placed on the assembly truss by crane in approximately
their final position. After all segments comprising a span are assembled, the
post-tensioning tendons are installed and stressed.

Span by span techniques allow additional modifications to the components of the

structure.

 Primarily, the post-tensioning tendons may all be continuous for the total span
length and may be located in a draped manner providing most efficient use of
post-tensioning forces.
 Also, only one operation of installing and stressing tendons is required per span.
 The span by span erection technique allowed two other modifications of
normal segmental construction procedures.
 The Long Key Bridge is the first precast segmental bridge to be
constructed with dry joints. Normal practice is to seal the joints with
epoxy. However, dry joints are not recommended for bridges which
may be subject to freeze-thaw conditions and deicing chemicals.
 Also, the post-tensioning tendons are located in the void of the box
girder as opposed to locating the tendons in the concrete walls of the
sections. The tendons are protected with plastic conduits and grout.
This tendon location simplifies the casting of the segments and
eliminates any problems of tendon alignment at the segment joints.

Fig1.8 Span by span erection technique.

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d. Incremental Launching erection: -

 The incremental launching technique, as opposed to other methods presented in

this chapter, consists of casting a continuous chain of segments at one particular
location on site and then pushing the growing superstructure out over site to be
bridged.
 A casting bed with adjustable formwork for the superstructure segments is set up.
This casting bed can also be enclosed in a heated tent so that controlled casting
and curing conditions are achieved.
 Two different techniques for launching the bridge superstructure from the casting
bed exist.
 Hydraulic jacks can pull the superstructure with steel rods, as it was done
for the Rio Caroní Bridge (Podolny and Muller 1982).
 The second, more common method is to employ a pair of hydraulic
jacks acting vertically and horizontally. Continuous repetition of lifting
the superstructure off the abutment and then pushing it forward as far as
the jack allows will achieve the launching in incremental steps.
 Podolny and Muller (1982) caution to design the jack capacity for more than the
usual friction coefficient of 2 % because of imperfections that can occur during
construction.
 In front of the cantilevering superstructure a lightweight steel launching nose is
attached with tendons that reaches the next support before the bridge
superstructure itself arrives.
 Mostly the launching nose has a length of about 60 % of the bridge spans
(Podolny and Muller 1982).

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Fig1.8 incremental launching erection technique.

 Its purpose is to keep the bending moments in the superstructure smaller.

 Another way of reducing the bending moments is to implement temporary towers
between the bridge piers.
 These towers need to be able to take the horizontal forces that arise from
launching.
 On top of all supports, including abutments, piers, and temporary towers
temporary sliding bearings are installed during construction that will later be
replaced with the permanent ones.
 Stainless steel plates are installed on the bearings. While the superstructure is
advanced, Neoprene pads coated with Teflon and reinforced with steel plates are
inserted between concrete and steel to reduce friction (Liebenberg 1992). Very
low friction coefficients of 2% or less can be achieved with this method.
 Bridges that are erected with the incremental launching method should have a
constant cross-section, especially in depth, and have a straight superstructure.
 It is possible to accommodate small variations in alignment and horizontal and
vertical curvatures provided that they have a constant radius.

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1.9 DAMAGE CONDITION OF BRIDGES

This section provides a brief overview of damage found in post-tensioned bridges

related to post-tensioning corrosion: -
a. Corrosion Along the Length of Internal Tendons
Salt laden water that permeates into sound concrete over time can eventually
reach tendons embedded in concrete elements. The damage shown in plate.4.1 is an
extreme case where a box girder bridge’s drainage system leaked into the core of the
box over the course of 25 years. Both the surrounding duct and enclosed strands were
highly corroded.

Fig1.9 Box girder damage due to improper drainage.

b. Cantilever Tendon Corrosion through Segment Joints

Some precast segmental bridges have reported water leaking through the
epoxied joints (Plate.4.2) and efflorescence coming from the top slab continuity
tendons. These bridges were of a vintage where plastic duct and duct couplers were
not used. As a result, there is concern that the leaking joints could lead to corrosion in
the internal cantilever tendons. As a result of corrosion in the tendons may lead to the
destruction of the bridge segments there by it leads to the collapse of bridge.

Fig1.9 Epoxy joint leaking in early precast segmental bridges

with internal tendons.

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c. External Tendon Failure by Corrosion at the Anchorages

Examination of the removed tendon indicated a void in the grout and heavy
pitting of the prestressing strands inside the anchor head (Plate.4.3). Initially, the
corrosion was attributed to excessive bleed water at grout/void interface. Further
investigation indicated that cyclical recharge of the void in the anchor head by water
contaminated by wind-born ocean salt spray was a primary cause of tendon corrosion.
The contaminated water leaked through the expansion joints and ran down the inside
faces of the segment diaphragms onto the anchorages.

Fig1.9 Corrosion of strands just behind the wedge plate.

d. External Tendon Corrosion along the Free Length of Tendon

A few tendons in early span-by-span post-tensioned bridges have experienced
corrosion along the free length of the tendons, between the diaphragms and deviators
(Plate.4.4). This type of damage was attributed to a breach in the surrounding
polyethylene duct, allowing access of moisture and development of isolated corrosion.

Fig1.9 External tendon corrosion along the free length of the tendon

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1.10
Cases of Post-Tensioned Tendon Corrosion
Table 4.1 presents a number of post-tensioned bridges that experienced tendon
corrosion throughout their service life. Included in the table is the bridge name, bridge
type, location of the bridge and observed damage to the tendons. The degree of
damage observed varied included significant tendon corrosion, complete failure of
tendons, and in some extreme cases complete collapse of the bridge.
In these cases, there are several causes of post-tensioning corrosion like voids and
moisture between strands and between wires, water bleeding from grout, grout
segregation, water penetration from anchorage pocket, water penetration due to
floods, chloride contaminated grout, soft grout, high corrosive ion concentration and
dissimilar grouts in the same tendon. Corrosion incidents were usually found to be
associated with poor details and execution generally in the presence of aggressive
environment. In cases where the tendons did not reach the point of failure the tendon
corrosion observed was significant enough to cause bridge closures and/or require
repairs to the system.

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Observed
Bridge Name Bridge Type Location Year Causes of Corrosion
Damage

Mortar joints allowed

Bickton
Precast Bridge moisture, chlorides
Meadows UK 1967
Segmental Collapse and oxygen transport
Footbridge
at joints.

Transverse joints
between segments
Segmental Bridge
Ynys-Y-Gwas Whales 1985 filled with dry mortar
PT Collapse
caulking allowing
water infiltration.

Voids in duct and

Precast Bridge
Malle Bridge Belgium 1992 ingress of water and
Segmental Collapse
chloride.

Precast
Water infiltration into
Niles Channel Segmental Tendon
Florida 1999 tendon anchorage with
Bridge PT Box Failure
voids.
Girder

Poor grout
Precast quality/practices, voids
Segmental near anchorage,
Sunshine Tendon
PT Box Florida 2000 cracked HDPE ducts,
Skyway Failure
Girder / water infiltration
Cable Stay through segmental
joints.

Precast
Cracked PT ducts and
Mid Bay Segmental Tendon
Florida 2000 exposed strand along
Bridge PT Box Failure
water bleed trails.
Girder

Cable Stay
Varina-Enon Tendon Voids in tendons and
with PT Box Virginia 2001
Bridge Failure absence of grout.
Girder

Table 1 Cases of Post-Tensioned Tendon corrosion.

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1.11 Protective measures

 Grouting provides the main line of defense against corrosion.
 Filling the ducts with proper cement grout.
 Corrosion-resistant duct material.
 Ducts designed to exclude contaminants.
 Location, detailing and protection of anchorages.
 Re-grouting.

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1.12 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SEGMENTAL

BRIDGES
Advantages:
 Very economical for long spans.
 Prefabricated segments provide more quality control.
 The structure can be fully loaded immediately after being prestressed.
 The pre-stressed cables can be inspected and replaced at all times.
 Reduces intermediate piers and thus obstruction to flow and avoid system of
erection of staging from river bed level.
 Low weight due to thin bridge sections.
 Industrialization of the construction process.
 Innovations in construction equipment.
 Low maintenance costs.
 Speed of construction, time taken less.

Disadvantages:
 Need high safety precautions during construction.
 Extra cost due to more prestressing.

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CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
(Podolny 1982; Baur 1977). the “modern” approach to launching concrete bridges was
developed. The first concrete bridge constructed by launching was built over the River
Caroni in Venezuela and was completed in 1963 The bridge was a post-tensioned
concrete box girder bridge with a main span of 315 ft. The construction of this bridge was
considered so successful that the launching method was utilized to construct a nearly
identical bridge a few years later.
The first steel bridge to be launched in the United States is believed to be a Kansas City
Southern Railroad box girder bridge near Redland, OK in 1970 (Durkee 1972). The nine-
span continuous bridge is 2,110 ft. long with a main span of 330 ft. This bridge was
launched in two trains, one from each side of the river. Closure of the bridge was
accomplished at mid-span of the main span.
During the launching operation, the bridge superstructure is supported by a series of
rollers or sliding bearings. These rollers are removed following the launching and the
bridge is lowered to rest on permanent bearings identical to those used for a
conventionally constructed bridge. The thrust required to launch the bridge forward can
be provided by a variety of jacking systems, including hydraulic pistons or hollow-core
strand jacks more commonly used for posttensioning.

Sauvageot G (2000) every aspect of segmental concrete bridges. Detailed discussions on

types of segmental construction namely balanced cantilever method , span by span
method, progressive placing and incremental launching, their construction sequence,
method of erection advantages and disadvantages has been done. Explanation about types
of segmental bridges and post tensioning methods of bridges.

IRC 18-2002 it provide information about stages of prestressing and grouting operations
and storage and handling of prestressing material.

IRC SP 65-2005 provides guidelines for design and construction of segmental bridge in
India. It deals with various construction of precast segmental bridge. It gives insights in
to the various construction requirement ,detailing of prestressing, various design aspect.

Turmo J et al. (2005) inspected the joints between segments in many precast
concrete.Bridges constructed by balanced cantilever method during construction and in
service. Site investigations of 5 major bridges during construction and in service over the
past 15 years showed that the joints between segments perform adequately if proper
construction procedures are followed.

Kavin kumar et al. (2008) gives an insight into the automated geometry control of
segmental bridges. The short line method of pre casting concrete segments has proved to
be most versatile and reliable way to building pre-cast segmental bridges. Advantages and
disadvantages of segmental bridges, transportation of segments to construction site,
erection techniques.

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(Gohler 2013), It is estimated that over 1,000 bridges worldwide have been constructed
by the incremental launching method the vast majority of which have been post-tensioned
concrete box girder bridges. Their main application has been in Europe, but the method
has now spread around the world and the technology has been applied to steel I-girder.
It includes prefabricated segments, transportation and set into place with an appropriate
lifting device and a launching gauntry.

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CHAPTER 3
3.1 A CASE STUDY OF SUTONG BRIDGE CHINA

fig.8.1 sutong bridge china.

Sutong Bridge china:

Sutong Bridge is the first precast segmental bridge built using short-line
match-casting method in China. It was constructed using balanced cantilever method.
Prestressed concrete continuous single-cell box girder structure was constructed precast
segmental method. The construction of the precast segmental approach structures
commenced in April 2004 and completed in early 2007. It consists of 30m, 50m or 75m
long span. The total length of the box girder measured along its centreline was
approximate 3.7km. The reinforced concrete columns with 4.5m x 6.5m rectangular
hollow section were adopted for the maximum height of 60m and supported on pile caps
with bored pile foundation.
 Segment Casting:
Segment were casted in casting yard the casting yard was about 40,000m2
and equipped with 2 numbers of 160-ton gantry cranes for segment handling and 2
numbers of 16-ton gantry cranes for light duty tasks, such as, manipulating the
reinforcement cage. The casting yard had a storage capacity of 354 segments based on
two-layer stacking.
 Segment Erection:
The total erection period was about 15 months. Two overhead launching girders
were used. Each girder had two winches with lifting capacities of 180 ton and 150 ton
respectively. The lifting height of the winches was allowed for 70m.

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4. CONCLUSION

 This method is ideal for bridge construction bridge give Aesthetical view or good
quality.
 Longer span bridge now possible.
 Longer bridge over water now possible.
 Construction of long bridges now easy.
 Construction time is less.
 Environment friendly construction.
 Construction line is highly mechanized by this method.

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REFERENCES

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Prestressed Concrete I-Beams for Shelby Creek Bridge. PCI Journal, Vol. 37, No. 5,
pp. 22–33.
2. Muller, Jean, "Ten Years of Experience in Precast Segmental Construction," PCI
JOURNAL, V. 20, No. 1, January-February 1995, pp. 28-61.
3. Mattock, A.H. and P.H. Kaar (1996). “Precast-prestressed Concrete Bridges III:
Further Tests of Continuous Girders.” Journal of PCA Research and Development
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4. Daly, A.F. and W. Witarnawan (1997). Strengthening of Bridges Using External Post-
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5. CEB/FIP Recommendations for the Design and Construction of Concrete Structures,
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Prestressed Concrete Girders. Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative
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9. (2007) "Construction of the Precast Segmental Approach - Structures for Sutong
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10. M. K. Hurd, “Formwork for Concrete”, ACI, seventh edition.
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Across Vasai Creek on NH-8”, Indian Roads Congress, Jan-March’15.

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