“TEXTILE INDUSTRY”

The textile dyeing industry consumes large quantities of water and produces large volumes of
wastewater from different steps in the dyeing and finishing processes. Wastewater from
printing and dyeing units is often rich in colour, containing residues of reactive dyes and
chemicals, and requires proper treatment before being released into the environment. The toxic
effects of dyestuffs and other organic compounds, as well as acidic and alkaline contaminants,
from industrial establishments on the general public are widely accepted. Increasing public
concern about environmental issues has led to closure of several small-scale industries.

Interest in ecologically friendly, wet-processing textile techniques has increased in recent

years because of increased awareness of environmental issues throughout the world.
Consumers in developed countries are demanding biodegradable and ecologically friendly
textiles (Chavan, 2001). Cotton provides an ecologically friendly textile, but more than 50%
of its production volume is dyed with reactive dyes. Unfortunately, dyes are unfavorable from
an ecological point of view, because the effluents generated are heavily colored, contain high
concentrations of salts, and exhibit high biological oxygen demand/chemical oxygen demand
(BOD/COD) values. In dyeing textiles, ecological standards are strictly applied throughout
processing from raw material selection to the final product. This has become more critical
since the German environmental standards regarding dye effluents became effective
(Robinson et al., 1997). The main challenge for the textile industry today is to modify
production methods, so they are more ecologically friendly at a competitive price, by using
safer dyes and chemicals and by reducing cost of effluent treatment/disposal. Recycling has
become a necessary element, not because of the shortage of any item, but because of the need
to control pollution. There are three ways to reduce pollution:

(1) Use of new, less polluting technologies;

(2) Effective treatment of effluent so that it conforms to specified discharge requirements; and

(3) Recycling waste several times over before discharge, which is considered the most
practical solution.

The objective of this review is to discuss the various processing stages in the textile industry
and the methodologies adopted for treating textile wastewater. A variety of water treatment
techniques (Table 1) are discussed from an environmental point of view. Conventional and
novel techniques discussed include electro-oxidation, biological treatment, photochemical
processing, ion-exchange, and a variety of membrane techniques.

TEXTILE OPERATIONS

The textile industry comprises a diverse and fragmented group of establishments that produce
and/or process textile-related products (fiber, yarn, and fabric) for further processing into
apparel, home furnishings, and industrial goods. Textile establishments receive and prepare
fibers; transform fibres into yarn, thread, or webbing; convert the yarn into fabric or related
products; and dye and finish these materials at various stages of production (Ghosh and
Gangopadhyay, 2000). The process of converting raw fibers into finished apparel and non-
apparel textile products is complex, so most textile mills specialize. There is little difference
between knitting and weaving in the production of man-made cotton and wool fabrics (Hashem
et al., 2005). Textiles generally go through three or four stages of production that may include
yarn formation, fabric formation, wet processing, and textile fabrication.

Desizing.

The presence of sizing ingredients in the fabric hinders processes, such as dyeing, printing,
and finishing. For example, the presence of starch can hinder the penetration of the dye into
the fiber, which necessitates removal of starch prior to dyeing or printing. Starch is removed
or converted into simple water-soluble products either by hydrolysis (by enzymatic
preparations or dilute mineral acids) or by oxidation (by sodium bromide, sodium chlorite,
etc.) (Batra, 1985). In general, about 50% of the water pollution is due to waste water from
desizing, which has a high BOD that renders it unusable. The problem can be mitigated by
using enzymes that degrade starch into ethanol rather to anhydroglucose. The ethanol can be
recovered by distillation for use as a solvent or fuel, thereby reducing the BOD load.
Alternatively, an oxidative system like H2O2 can be used to fully degrade starch to CO2 and
H2O.

Electro-oxidation on RuO2/Ti or PbO2/Ti electrodes is an effective method for the treatment

of starch effluent. An anaerobic plate-column reactor capable of retaining high concentrations
of biomass was studied using a synthetic wastewater that contained starch. The total organic
carbon (TOC)-loading rate, hydraulic retention time (HRT), and temperature were kept
constant. The initial conditions were a biomass concentration of approximately 0.5 mg/ml N
(5 mg/ml volatile suspended solids), 20 °C, an HRT of 30 h, and a TOC-loading rate of 0.8
g/l/day. A removal efficiency of dissolved organic carbon exceeding 90% was realized. At the
end of the treatment, the removal efficiency reached a steady-state value of 98%, at which the
biomass concentration in the reactor was 2.3 mg/ml N.

Cornstarch waste is easily degraded by treatment in a mixed activated sludge system. The bio-
kinetic coefficients were calculated from the two-level activated sludge operational processes
using influent COD concentrations and four values of solid retention time. The results indicate
that the effluent COD is related to the influent COD concentration. It is also proportional to
the product of the influent COD and the specific growth rate. A multiple-substrate model was
developed to predict the effluent COD under variable influent COD concentrations (Bortone
et al., 1995). There was no sludge-bulking problem apparently because of high dissolved
oxygen (DO) concentrations, a buffered system, and a balanced C:N:P ratio; however, the
critical DO concentration at which the sludge volume index began to rise increased as the food
for microorganism (F/m) ratio increased. A cost analysis was provided for a hypothetical
wastewater plant with a flow rate of 300m3/ day (Vanndevivera and Bianchi, 1998). Synthetic
sizing formulations based on polyvinyl acrylic (PVA) and acrylic resins, instead of starch, are
expensive. Considering the cost of effluent treatment, the cost of synthetic sizing formulations
is negligible. Today, advances in nano-filtration and ultra-filtration techniques allow recovery
and reuse of PVA (meier et al., 2002; Yu et al., 2001). Compared with reverse osmosis,
nanofiltration is less energy intensive and can be used for the treatment of various industrial
effluents (Meier et al., 2002). moreover, a higher retention of dyes and other low molecular
weight organic compounds (MW: 200–1000) is achievable by nanofiltration. The saltrich
permeate can be reused in the preparation of dye baths, which minimizes the amount of
wastewater that needs to be processed. The basic problems involved in any membrane-based
process are a drop in flux and membrane fouling. To overcome this problem and to achieve a
high quality separation, combinations of various separation methods have been adopted in
recent years (Pigmon et al., 2003; Abdessemed and Nezzal, 2002; Dhale et al., 2000; xu et al.,
1999).
Mercerization.

In order to impart luster, increase strength, and improve dye uptake, cotton fiber and fabric are
mercerized in the gray state after bleaching. Essentially, mercerization is carried out by treating
cotton material with a strong solution of sodium hydroxide (about 18–24%) and washing-off
the caustic after 1 to 3 min, while holding the material under tension. Cotton is known to
undergo a longitudinal shrinkage upon impregnation with this solution. This can be prevented
by stretching it or holding it under tension. The material acquires the desired properties of
luster, increased strength, dye uptake, and increased absorbency. The large concentrations of
NaOH in the wash water can be recovered by membrane techniques. Use of ZnCl2 as an
alternative method leads to an increase in the weight of fabric and in dye uptake, and allows
easy recovery of NaOH. moreover, the process is ecologically friendly and does not require
neutralization by acetic or formic acid (Karim et al., 2006).

Bleaching.

Natural color matter in the yarn imparts a creamy appearance to the fabric. In order to obtain
white yarn that facilitates producing pale and bright shades, it is necessary to decolorize the
yarn by bleaching. Hypochlorite is one of the oldest industrial bleaching agents. The formation
of highly toxic chlorinated organic by-products during the bleaching process is reduced by
adsorbable organically bound halogen (AOx). Over the last few years, hypochlorite is being
replaced by other bleaching agents (Rott and minke, 1999). An environmentally safe
alternative to hypochlorite is peracetic acid. It decomposes to oxygen and acetic acid, which
is completely biodegradable. One of the advantages of peracetic acid is higher brightness
values with less fiber damage (Rott and Minke, 1999). Recently, a one-step preparatory
process for desizing, scouring, and bleaching has helped to reduce the volume of water. The
feasibility of a one-step process for desizing, scouring, bleaching, and mercerizing of cotton
fabric followed by dyeing with direct dyes has been discussed by Slokar and majcen (1997).
Cooper (1989) suggested an economical and pollution-free process for electrochemical
mercerization (scouring) and bleaching of textiles. The process does not require conventional
caustic soda, acids, and bleaching agents. The treatment is carried out in a low-voltage
electrochemical cell. The base required for mercerization (scouring) is produced in the cathode
chamber, while an equivalent amount of acid is produced in the anode chamber, which is used
for neutralizing the fabric. Gas diffusion electrodes simultaneously generate hydrogen
peroxide for bleaching. With a bipolar stack of electrodes, diffusion electrodes can be used as
anode or cathode or both. The process does not produce hydrogen bubbles at the cathode,
thereby avoiding hazards involving the gas (lin and Peng, 1994). An electrochemical treatment
was developed for the treatment of cotton in aqueous solution containing sodium sulphate. In
this technique, the current density was controlled between two electrodes. At the cathode,
water is reduced to hydrogen and base, while at the anode it is oxidized to oxygen and acid.
Favorable results on mercerization (scouring) and electrochemical sanitation of unmercerized
(grey) cotton have been reported (Naumczyk et al., 1996).

Neutralization.

According to Bradbury et al. (2000), replacement of acetic acid by formic acid for
neutralization of fabric after scouring, mercerizing, bleaching, and reduction processes is
effective, economical, and environment-friendly. The procedure also allows a sufficient level
of neutralization in a short period of time, needs low volumes of water, and results in low
levels of BOD.

Dyeing.

Treatment of fiber or fabric with chemical pigments to impart color is called dyeing. The color
arises from chromophore and auxochrome groups in the dyes, which also cause pollution
(Azymezyk et al., 2007). In the dyeing process, water is used to transfer dyes and in the form
of steam to heat the treatment baths. Cotton, which is the world’s most widely used fiber, is a
substrate that requires a large amount of water for processing. For example, to dye 1 kg of
cotton with reactive dyes, 0.6–0.8 kg of NaCl, 30–60 g of dyestuff, and 70–150 l of water are
required (Chakraborty et al., 2005). more than 80,000 tonnes of reactive dyes are produced
and consumed each year. Once the dyeing operation is over, the various treatment baths are
drained, including the highly colored dye bath, which has high concentrations of salt and
organic substances. The wastewater must be treated before reuse. Coagulation and membrane
processes (nanofiltration or reverse osmosis) are among processes suggested for treatment of
this water; however, these treatments are effective only with very dilute dye baths. Dye baths
are generally heavily polluted. For example, wastewater produced by reactive dyeing contains
hydrolyzed reactive dyes not fixed on the substrate (representing 20 to 30% of the reactive
dyes applied on an average of 2 g/l). This residual amount is responsible for the coloration of
the effluents, and cannot be recycled. Dyeing auxiliaries or organic substances are non-
recyclable and contribute to the high BOD/COD of the effluents. membrane technologies are
increasingly being used in the treatment of textile wastewater for the recovery of valuable
components from the waste stream, as well as for reusing the aqueous stream. A number of
studies deal with application of various pressure-driven membrane filtration processes in the
treatment wastewater from the dyeing and finishing process (Chen et al., 2005). measures
adopted for the abatement of pollution by different dyes are 1) use of low material-to-liquor
ratios, 2) use of trisodiumcitrate (Fiebig et al., 1992), 3) replacement of reducing agent (sodium
hydrosulphite) with a reducing sugar or electrochemical reduction (maier et al., 2004), and 4)
use of suitable dye-fixing agents to reduce water pollution loads. Padma et al. (2006) first
reported the concept of totally ecologically friendly mordents or natural mordents during
dyeing with natural dyes. Deo and Desai (1999) were the first to point out that natural dye
shades could be built-up by a multiple dip method that renders natural dyeing more
economical. Dyeing of natural and synthetic fibers with natural dyes has been the subject of
several studies. Development of ecologically friendly non-formaldehyde dye fixative agents
for reactive dyes was recently reported (Bechtold et al., 2005; Sekar, 1995).

Printing.

Printing is a branch of dyeing. It is generally defined as ‘localized dyeing,’ i.e. dyeing that is
confirmed to a certain portion of the fabric that constitutes the design. It is really a form of
dyeing in which the essential reactions involved are the same as those in dyeing. In dyeing,
color is applied in the form of a solution, whereas in printing color is applied in the form of a
thick paste of the dye. Table 3 shows the pollution loads for a printing and finishing operation
(50 polyester/50 cotton). The fixation of the color in printing is brought about by a suitable
after-treatment of the printed material (El-molla and Schneider, 2006).

“TYPES OF WASTE AND THEIR CHARACTERIZATION”

Waste is an unavoidable by-product of most human activity. Economic development and

rising living standards in the Asian and Pacific Region have led to increases in the quantity
and complexity of generated waste, whilst industrial diversification and the provision of
expanded health-care facilities have added substantial quantities of industrial hazardous waste
and biomedical waste into the waste stream with potentially severe environmental and human
health consequences.

Generation and Characteristics

A clear appreciation of the quantities and characteristics of the waste being generated is a key
component in the development of robust and cost-effective solid waste management strategies.
Although amongst some of the more developed countries within the region the quantification
and characterization of waste forms the basis for management and intervention, elsewhere
little priority is given to the systematic surveying of waste arisings and the quantities,
characteristics, seasonal variations and future trends of waste generation are poorly
understood. Although there is a lack of comprehensive or consistent information, at the
country level, some broad trends and common elements are discernible.

1. Municipal Solid Waste

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated from households, offices, hotels, shops, schools
and other institutions. The major components are food waste, paper, plastic, rags, metal and
glass, although demolition and construction debris is often included in collected waste, as are
small quantities of hazardous waste, such as electric light bulbs, batteries, automotive parts
and discarded medicines and chemicals.

2. Industrial Solid Waste

Industrial solid waste in the Asian and Pacific Region, as elsewhere, encompasses a wide
range of materials of varying environmental toxicity. Typically this range would include
paper, packaging materials, waste from food processing, oils, solvents, resins, paints and
sludges, glass, ceramics, stones, metals, plastics, rubber, leather, wood, cloth, straw, abrasives,
etc. As with municipal solid waste, the absence of a regularly up-dated and systematic
database on industrial solid waste ensures that the exact rates of generation are largely
unknown.

Industrial solid waste generation varies, not only between countries at different stages of
development but also between developing countries (see Figure 8.4). In People’s Republic of
China, for example, the generation ratio of municipal to industrial solid waste is one to three.
In Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Pakistan, however, this ratio is much less. In high-income,
developed countries, such as Australia and Japan, the ratio is one to eight. However, based on
an average ratio for the region, the industrial solid waste generation in the region is equivalent
to 1 900 million tonnes per annum. This amount is expected to increase substantially and at
the current growth rates, it is estimated that it will double in less than 20 years. As the existing
industrial solid waste collection, processing and disposal systems of many countries are
grossly inadequate, such incremental growth will pose very serious challenges.

3. Agricultural Waste and Residues

Expanding agricultural production has naturally resulted in increased quantities of livestock

waste, agricultural crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. Table 8.3 provides an
estimate of annual production of agricultural waste and residues in some selected countries in
the region (ESCAP 1997); the implications of liquid and slurry waste for receiving inland and
coastal waters is examined in Chapter 4. Among the countries in the Asian and Pacific Region,
People’s Republic of China produces the largest quantities of agriculture waste and crop
residues followed by India. In People’s Republic of China, some 587 million tonnes of
residues are generated annually from the production of rice, corn and wheat alone (see Figure
8.5). Figure 8.6 illustrates the proportions of waste that Malaysia generates from the
production of rice, palm oil, rubber, coconut and forest products (ESCAP 1997). In Myanmar,
crop waste and residues amount to some 4 million tonnes per year (of which more than half
constitutes rice husk), whilst annual animal waste production is about 28 million tonnes with
more than 80 per cent of this coming from cattle husbandry.

4. Hazardous Waste

With rapid development in agriculture, industry, commerce, hospital and health-care facilities,
the Asian and Pacific Region is consuming significant quantities of toxic chemicals and
producing a large amount of hazardous waste. Currently, there are about 110 000 types of
toxic chemicals commercially available. Each year, another 1 000 new chemicals are added
to the market for industrial and other uses. The availability of robust data on the generation of
hazardous waste for the Asian and Pacific Region is limited by the reliability of information
on the quantities and types of hazardous waste produced at the country level. This is due to a
variety of reasons, including the lack of qualified personnel to undertake the necessary
assessment, the reluctance of industries to provide process information (including waste
arising data) and a poor appreciation of the extent to which generated waste is hazardous.
Where data is available, significant difficulties are encountered in seeking to draw
international comparisons due to differences in classification and definition of hazardous
waste from country to country within in the region. Most hazardous waste is the by-product of
a broad spectrum of industrial, agricultural and manufacturing processes, nuclear
establishments, hospitals and health-care facilities. Primarily, high-volume generators of
industrial hazardous waste are the chemical, petrochemical, petroleum, metals, wood
treatment, pulp and paper, leather, textiles and energy production plants (coal-fired and nuclear
power plants and petroleum production plants). Small- and medium-sized industries that
generate hazardous waste include auto and equipment repair shops, electroplating and metal
finishing shops, textile factories, hospital and health-care centres, dry cleaners and pesticide
users. The principal types of hazardous waste generated in the Asian and Pacific Region,
include waste solvents, chlorine bearing waste and pesticide organophosphate-herbicide-urea-
fungicide bearing waste. In particular, solvents are extensively used in the region and, as a
consequence, large quantities of waste solvents are produced. The types, quantities and sources
of hazardous waste vary significantly from country to country and are influenced by the extent
and diversity of industrial activity. Table 8.4 provides a conservative estimate of the past,
current and future hazardous waste generation trends in a number of selected countries
(Hernandez 1993, UNEP 1994, United Nations 1995, Nelson 1997). However, it must be
stressed that such estimations are founded on data that may be considered incomplete and
unverified. In the absence of reliable regional data, a study by the World Bank (WRI 1995)
estimated the hazardous waste toxic releases in the Asian and Pacific region and predicted
significant increases in hazardous waste production each year in People’s Republic of China,
India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand. An even more significant conclusion of the
study was that the intensity of hazardous waste generation per unit of output is also set to
increase (WRI 1995).

“WASTE MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT”

Dyes in wastewater can be eliminated by various methods. The wastewater from the dye house
is generally multi-colored. The dye effluent disposed into the land and river water reduces the
depth of penetration of sunlight into the water environment, which in turn decreases
photosynthetic activity and dissolved oxygen (DO).The adverse effects can spell disaster for
aquatic life and the soil. Figure 2 shows a flow diagram for treatment of cotton textiles, and
the water and COD balance. Many dyes contain organic compounds with functional groups,
such as carboxylic (–COOH), amine (–NH2), and azo (–N=N–) groups, so treatment methods
must be tailored to the chemistry of the dyes. Wastewaters resulting from dyeing cotton with
reactive dyes are highly polluted and have high BOD/COD, coloration, and salt load. For
example, this ratio for Drimaren HF (a cellulosic product from Clarian Chemicals, India) is
constant and around 0.35 for each dyeing step (bleaching step BOD: 1850 mg/l; bleaching step
COD: 5700 mg/l; neutralization step BOD: 290 mg/l; neutralization COD: 830 mg/l; dyeing
step BOD: 500 mg/l; dyeing step COD: 1440 mg/l; soaping step BOD: 310 mg/l; soaping step
COD: 960 mg/l). Because aquatic organisms need light in order to develop, any deficit in the
light reaching the aquatic life due to water coloration results in an imbalance in the ecosystem.
Moreover, river water meant for human consumption that is coloured will increase treatment
costs. Obviously, when legal limits are specified (although not in all countries), they are
justified.