The Educational Ethics of

Isfahan! and Ghazzali

By:

Yasien Mohamed

Abstrak

Tulisan ini membincangkan persoalan etika pendidikan

iaitu "adab" belajar dan mengajar. la mengetengahkan
pandangan dua orang tokoh besar pendidikan Islam iaitu
Isfahan! dan al-Ghazzalt pandangan kedua-dua tokoh
ini tentang peranan guru dan murid dipaparkan untuk
melihat sejauhmana mereka sependapat dalam hal ini
serta pengaruhnya ke atas Ibn 'Aqnin dan Ibn Jama'ah.

1. Knowledge and Education in Adab

Before dealing with Isfahani and Ghazzali's educational ethics, we

shall devote this section to a brief outline of the literary contribu
tions to adab as an educational concept, which creates the back
ground for Isfahani's pedagogical ideas.

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As a concept, adab means an ethical 'high quality of soul,

good upbringing, urbanity and courtesy'.1 The ingredients of adab
are 'moral and social upbringing, intellectual education, entertain
ment'2 The key theme in the adab literature between the 9th and
11th century is the importance of 'Urn (knowledge) and its relation
to action.3 Mawardi (450/1058), who wrote the Kitdb Addb al-
Dunyd wa al-Din,4 integrated the literary and ethical dimensions of
dddb. The opening chapter, which deals with the importance of
educational and ethical activity,5 suggests we are dealing with
moral didactic literature. In the same spirit, Isfahani wrote his
Muhddardt al-udabd',6 an addb anthology that also identifies
knowledge with dddb and the intellect. Stupidity is also connected
to desire; intelligence to prudence, energy, cleverness, self-reliance
and consultation; knowledge to intelligence, nobility (hasab) and
action. An educated person should know hadith, Arabic grammar,
speculative theology, jurisprudence and, lastly, counting, riddles
and genealogy.7

The Muhddardt contains chapters on memory, forgetfulness,

literature, qualities of scholars and the 'tribulations they have to
endure at the hands of ignorant persons, who are by nature hostile
to the learned.'8 The section on learning and teaching deals with

1 Hilpatrick, 'Adab' in Encyclopedia ofArabic literature, ed. J.S. Scott and

P. Starkey, 2 vols (London: 1998), p. 56.

2 Ibid., p. 56.
3 Franz Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, (Leiden: 1970), pp. 254-268.
4 The scribe, Muhammad ibn Sadaqah, completed this work in 534/1140.
5 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, pp. 269-270.
6 Al-Raghib al-Isfahani, Muhadarat al-Udaba' (Beirut: 1961). In the first
chapter, which deals with theme of the intellect, is a section on studying and
teaching, pp. 45-58.

7 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, p. 270.

8 Ibid, pp. 270-271; cf. Muhadarat, Vol. I, p. 44; cf. Isfahani, al-Dhari'ah
ild Makarim al-Shariah, ed. A.Y. 'Ajami (Cairo: 1987), pp. 251,177.

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counsels for educators, which includes judiciousness in choosing

promising pupils,9 consideration of the maturity of the students, the
merits of memorized knowledge, the benefits of questions and ad
mitting one's ignorance and the difficulty of gaming knowledge
due to its great diversity. Furthermore, excellent methods of teach
ing are discussed, as well as the progress of clever and dull pupils,
and bad teachers and teaching. Advice to teachers includes not
transmitting knowledge to those not ready for it and the prohibition
of excessive knowledge, which could hamper understanding.10 Fi
nally, Isfahani turns his attention to eloquence, recepliveness to the
preacher and other matters.11 This text was an important source for
al-Dhari 'ah. The following three quotations from the Muhddarat
are also found in al-Dhari'ah.

i. The Necessity of Revering The Teacher

Alexander was told: 'You revere your teacher more than your fa
ther'. He replied, 'Because my father is the cause of my temporary
existence, and my teacher is the cause of my permanent exist
ence'.32

ii. Prohibiting Knowledge to One Not Suitable For It

Jesus, the son of Maryam said: 'Do not pass on wisdom to those
not able to assimilate it - this itself is contrary to wisdom; neither
deprive the deserving of wisdom - this is unfair to them. Dispense
medicine like a sharp physician who knows when it is beneficial.'13

iii. Prohibiting the Deep Penetration of Various Disciplines of

Knowledge

It is said: the excessive flow of knowledge through the ear is mis

leading to (he understanding.14
9 See section 3.
10 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, p. 271.
11 See al-Dhari'ah, p. 245.
12 Muhadarat, p. 45. See section 3 for the changes in al-Dhari 'ah.
13 Muhadarat, p. 46; cf. Dhan'ah, pp. 247-248 for the identical citation.
14 Ibid., p. 52f. The context of the citation is the advice of 'Utbah ibn Abu
Sufyan to his son's tutor. Isfahani included it in al-Dhari'ah, p. 237, with a

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Both Mawardi and Isfahani include numerous citations from

religious sources, the sayings of sages and anecdotes. Mawardi's
style, however, is interrupted by many quotations; his work lacks
philosophical depth and topics are treated superficially and
unsystematically.

Classical educational literature dealt with the acquisition of

knowledge, the moral dimension of education and the philosophi
cal aspects of the educational ideal. The latter aspect was a direct
result of the impact of Graeco-Arabic translation activity during the
9th century AD. Later Muslim writers gave the educational ideal
an Islamic orientation.

Key educational terms are adab and ta'dib corresponding with

the Greek paideia. Monographs on philosophical education have
not been preserved, but Plato's 'Exhortation on the Education of
the Young Men' had been embodied by Miskawayh's Jawadhin
Khiradh. Furthermore, the excerpts attributed to Plato are pre
served in 'Amiri's Kitab al-Sa'adah. Likewise, the section on
children's education by the Neo-Pythagorean Bryson was available
in the 10th century in anonymous Arabic translation. These texts
have had a profound philosophical influence on Muslim educa
tional monographs.15

The Neopythogorean influence is evident in Bryson's 'Eco

nomies', which concerns the home, family and the education of

preceding statement wayajib 'ala yakhudal-insan ft al-fann ._... This is taken

from the subtitle in the Muhadaraf. al-Nahi 'an al-Khawdfi Funun min al-
'Ilm. It gives some indication of the sequence of these texts. ThsMuhadarat
preceded al-Dhari'ah as the words are similar in both texts.

15 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, pp. 284-285. These Arabic texts were

used by Miskawayh and Ghazzali. This is shown by Plessner (see Martin
Plessner: Der Oikonomikos des Neuphythagoreers 'Bryson' und sein EinfluB
auf die Islamische Wissenchaft (Heidelberg: 1928). (Orient und Antike, v. 5),
pp. 49ff and 13ff). An Italian translation based on the Arabic is published by
M. Zonta in: Aristotele, L'ammiiustrazione della casa, a curi di C. Natali,
Roma-Bari 1995, pp. 140-171.

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OF ISFAHANI AND GHAZZAU

small children. Bryson recommends the inculcation of proper table

manners, moral sexual behaviour and respect for elders.16
Miskawayh states that 'Exhortation on the education of the Young'
(Adab al-Sibydn) was translated by Ishaq ibn Hunayn; however,
Rosenthal is of the opinion that the form has changed, but not the
content.17 This treatise deals with the ethical behavior of teachers
and general precepts for students. Education should cultivate char
acter and the pursuance of virtue. Accordingly, students are re
quired to be morally unblemished, intellectually honest, sincere,
humble and modest in their behavior. The primary focus is on
moral education.18

In the sphere of religious education, Muhammad Ibn Sahnun

(202-256/817-871), a Malikite, produced perhaps the earliest
monograph on the elementary teaching of the Qur'an, Adab al-
mu'allimin 'The Behaviour of the Teachers'. The teacher is ex
horted to treat the young equally and use corporal punishment
sparingly.19 This was followed by a similar, but longer, treatise by
another Malikite, 'Ali ibn Muhammad al-Qabisi (324-403/936-
1012).20

2. Isfahani's Educational Ethics

This section will expound on the educational ethics of Isfahani as

stated in al-Dhari'ah with special reference to adult education. The
treatment here of 'Isfahani's educational ethics' is divided into the
following sub-sections: first, the mastery of knowledge; secondly,
the duties of the student; thirdly, the duties of the teacher; and
fourthly, the rulers of education.

16 Ibid., pp. 288-289; Ansari, The Ethical Philosophy of Miskawayh,

(Aligharh: 1964), pp. 122-125. Miskawayh has similar views, which also ap
ply to adults, except that one should be less strict with them. (See section 4,
below).

17 Ibid., p. 285f.
18 Ibid, pp. 285-286.
19 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, p. 290f.
20 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, p. 291.

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2.1. The Gradual Mastery of Knowledge

As the pursuit of a discipline requires a lifetime, the student should

concentrate on basic knowledge required for each stage of his life.
He should be like a traveller who takes sufficient provisions for
each stage of his journey; not like one who consumes all his food
in the early stages of his journey and finds that there is nothing left
at the end of it. Similarly, if the student absorbs more knowledge
than he needs, he cannot reflect upon it nor digest it properly, and
he will not realize his aims. A little knowledge is not a dangerous
thing if one masters it and uses it to benefit others, for, "The tree is
not discreditable by bearing few fruit, if they are of benefit to
people.21 Isfahani compares a little knowledge that benefits people
with a tree that bears little fruit:

A person's duty is to take [from] the various sciences suffi

cient provision prepared for the different stages of travel. He
expends enough provisions on each stage according to his
need. He does not also deflect from reflecting completely
upon knowledge [and presuming that he had perfected it],
rather, he applies himself [fully] to its pursuit. Furthermore,
he does not exceed the minimum requirement for each stage,
and he exhausts whatever it contains. [To be sure] man's pur
suit of one kind of knowledge till he is totally satisfied with
[its mastery], may require a lifetime of effort; yet, he might
not realize its full value, or reach its full depth and potential.22
The pursuit of each science should ultimately lead to the
knowledge of God,23 but people cannot achieve this if they do not

21 Al-Dharl'ah, pp. 236-237.

22 Al-Dhari'ah, pp. 236-237; cf. Ghazzali's sixth duty in: al-Gbazzali,Mizan
al-'Amal, ed. Sulayman Dunya, (Cairo: 1964), p. 348; cf. Ghazzali,Ihya'
'Ulum al-Din, 4 vols, Beirut, n. d., (corrected by A. A.I. al-Sirwani); cf.
Ghazzali, Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din, Kitab al-'ilm, vol. 1, p. 76f. English Transla
tion by Nabib Amin Fans, Al-Ghazali, Book of Knowledge, (Lahore: 1962),
pp. 134-136. Ghazzali does not mention Isfahani's analogy of a traveller with
provisions.

23 Mkan,p. 351.

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follow the basics first. They should first master what is of primary
importance before proceeding to the advanced stages.24 Isfahani
does not specify what the basics are, but when he places worship
in the category of compulsory duties (fard'id), men we know that
he is referring to a knowledge of these things.25 One needs to pur
sue knowledge in stages, and the highest level, according to
Isfahani, is the knowledge of God:

A person should not go deeply into a subject [an art] until he

has dealt wim a field of study adequately according to proce
dures, which precedes it. He should extract the particular
knowledge whatever he requires of it, for the overflow of
knowledge through hearing will mislead the understanding.
To this effect, God, Most High said: 'Those to whom we have
given the book and they read it with due sincerity and com
mitment1. That is, they do not draw away from a field of
study until they have perfected it in knowledge and action. A
person has to proceed from the important without any distur
bance to the order because many people have lost their desti
nation because they have left their basic principles. His duty is
to go beyond each science until he reaches the end, and the
end of the theoretical sciences is the knowledge of God, ac
cording to the true reality, and all sciences are in the service
of it, and it is by itself [absolutely] free. It is related that a
portrait of two ancient philosophers was seen shining in one
of their mosques. In the hand of one of the philosophers was a
scroll on which is written: 'If you have done everything well,
do not think you have fulfilled anything until you come to
know God, Most High, that He is the Cause of all causes, and
He is the Creator of all things.' The second sage also holds a
portrait on which is written: 'Before I had known God, I was
wont to drink and thirst again: but when I had known Him my
thirst was quenched without any drinking.'26

24 Al-DharVah, p. 237; p. 94.

25 Al'DharVah, p. 94.
26 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 237, 1-13; cf. Mizan, 348f; cf. Ghazzall, lhya\ vol. 1, p.
1W Trans, Fans, Book of Knowledge, pp. 134-135.

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Both philosophers have inscribed on the scroll the importance

of the knowledge of God, which is superior to all knowledge. The
second philosopher seems to emphasise a direct knowledge, which
is different from a rational knowledge of God.

Isfahan! compares the acquisition of knowledge with material

things, and then identifies four states of knowledge; first, the seek
ing of knowledge; secondly, the possession of it; thirdly, the attain
ment of spiritual insight and enjoyment of it; and fourthly, the im
parting of it to others. The last stage, which is the most commend
able, is compared to a 'a sun that shines on others and is still radi
ant; or like musk that gives fragrance to others and is still fragrant'
The lowest, least commendable stage is when someone 'teaches
someone else what he knows, without taking advantage of his
knowledge.' Isfahani gives the example of someone who is like a
notebook with the intention of instructing others with wisdom, al
though it does not contain it itself; or a whetstone that sharpens the
razor but is itself blunt; or a needle to sew clothes for others to
wear, but is naked himself; or a wick that gives light to others but
burns itself out. So one who gains knowledge but does not benefit
himself or others is like a palm tree with prickles on its leaves that
is defenceless when its fruit is snatched.27

2.2. Isfahani's Ethics of Learning

In this section we will be dealing with the duties of the student.

2.2.1. Three Main Duties

Isfahani identifies three main duties of the student.28

1. The student should clean his soul of vices as the soil is

27 Al-DharVah, p. 239; Ghazzali,//iya', vol. 1, p. 74/ Trans. Fans, Book of

Knowledge, p. 144.

28 These correspond with the first three duties enumerated and elaborated
upon by Ghazzali. Other duties are implicit in other sections. For example,
Isfahani deals with the "mastery of knowledge', but Ghazzali considers this to
be one of the duties.

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cleansed of weeds.29 Just as prayer without a clean body is

incomplete, so worship without a clean soul is incom
plete.30
2. The student should reduce his worldly activities to have
more time for the study of the true sciences. Total devo
tion (to all things) is no guarantee that he will realize his
goal. A mind's attention that is dispersed in different di
rections is like a stream of water that flows in different
directions, and as a result, it is absorbed by both earth and
the air, nothing remaining for the irrigation of planted
lands.31
3. The student should not elevate himself above that of the
teacher,32 but should trust his teacher to conduct his af
fairs and take his advice as a patient would of a clever
physician. Furthermore, the student should only ask ques
tions mat relate to his discipline.33

Clearly, an ethical kind of education is suggested in the

above-mentioned duties. The pupil is perceived as a tabula rasa,
who is receptive to impressions. He should purify his soul of lower
desires and worldliness, and always do good as a basis for his hap
piness in this world and the next. Thus, the father should teach his
child to be righteous, frugal and respectful to his teachers.34

29 Al-Dhari'ah, pp. 240-241; Ghazzali, Mya1, vol. l,p. 76/ Trans. Book of
Knowledge, p. 126.

30 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 96; Mizan, p. 341f; Ghazzali, Ihya', vol. 1, p. 76/ trans.

Faris, Book of Knowledge, p. 126; cf. Ibn Jama'ah, Tadhkirat al-Sami', pp.
67-68. The author states that one should purify one's heart and intention to
attain nearness to God.

31 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 240Mizan, p. 343f; Ghazzali, Ihya', vol. 1, p. 67f. /Trans.

Faris, Book of Knowledge, p. 129.
32 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 240; Mizan, p. 344f; Ghazzali,Ihya', vol. 1, p. 6SU Trans.
Faris, Book of Knowledge, pp. 129-132.
33 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 242; cf. A.S. Tritton, Materials on Muslim Education in
the Middle Ages, (London: 1957), p. 21, on the pupil's respect for his teachers
and parents.

34 Tritton, Muslim Education, pp. 19-21.

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2.2.2 Another Duty (Avoiding Controversy)

The student who is weaker than his teacher requires continuous

guidance and protection, as he could easily be led astray by bad
company. (This is another duty, although Isfahani does not men
tion this in his three main duties of the student.) The teacher
should therefore ensure that the student does not indulge in futile
controversies. Isfahani is suggesting that the teacher is superior and
could protect weak students from futile controversies with non-
Muslims. Thus, Isfahani states: 'The student compared with his
teacher is like poor soil that receives heavy ram without benefiting
from it. He should then be amenable to listen and gain knowledge
from the learned scholar.'35 The teacher's superiority is supported
by the hadith: 'The higher hand is better than the lower hand.' A
weak student could have his faith shaken by controversies, which
could lead him to apostasy. He should therefore avoid the intimate
company of non-believers. For God states, 'O believers, do not
take as close friends other than your own people, they will spare
no effort to corrupt you' (Q. 3:118); and, 'Do not follow the fan
cies of a people who went astray in the past and led others astray
and strayed from the right path' (Q. 55:77).36
Thus, Isfahani states that God forbids the masses from being
hi the company of innovators. They are like vulnerable sheep in
the company of wolves. Some sages even suggest that the reason
why pork is forbidden to Muslims is to prevent believing Arabs
from being in the company of sceptical Jews and Christians. Ordi
nary Muslims should therefore not socialise with them, especially
those who are weak of faith,37 but the sage can do so in order to
understand their doubts and to challenge then- arguments, and to
more effectively defend the faith physically and verbally.38

35 Al-Dhar?ah, p. 240.
36 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 241f.
37 See below for comparison with Ghazzali.
38 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 242; cf.Mizan, p. 346.

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2.3. The Ethical Duties of the Teacher

There are four duties of the teacher. The first duty is to be sympa
thetic to children and treat them as his own.39 When Alexander the
Great was asked: 'Is your teacher more honoured to you than your
father?', he replied, 'My teacher, because he is the cause of my
eternal life, but my parents are [only] the cause of my transient
life.'40 What is meant here is the knowledge that leads to endless
bliss in the Hereafter.41 As children of one father should love one
another and co-operate in achieving a common goal, students of
one teacher should love and cherish one another. For Isfahani,
therefore, the brotherhood of virtue is above the brotherhood of
birth.42 Ghazzali discusses the same idea using similar words.43

ibn Jama'ah, Tadhkirat al-Sami' wa al-MutakallimfiAdab al-'Alim wa al-

Muta'allim, (Hyderabad): 1353 AH), pp. 49-50. See translation by Noor
Muhammad Ghifari, The Memoir of the Listener and the Speaker in the
Training of Teacher and Student, Islamic Research Institute Press, Islamabad.

40 This citation is adapted slightly from the Muhadarat, vol. 1, p. 45. In the
response, Isfahani mentions the teacher first (before the father) and refers to
him a.smu'allimi instead of mu'addib'i in the original. This means that
Isfahani does not always quote literally from the Muhadarat. See Tritton,
Muslim Education, pp. 27, 48, who cites the same statement from Ibn al-
Jawzi's Muntazam, 5, ii, 89.

41 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 244; cf. Ghazzali, Ihya', vol. 1 p. 56, 16-17/ Trans. Fans,
Book of Knowledge, p. 145. Ghazzali clarifies that the teacher is concerned
with either the sciences of the Hereafter or of this world. His goal in the pur
suit of these sciences should be bliss in the Hereafter, not success in this
world.

42 Cf . Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, p. 333, for the idea that scholars

and students should remain together as a family to promote knowledge.
43 Ghazzali, Ihya\_ vol. 1. p. 56£Trans. Faris, Book ofKnowledge, p. 145.
However, Ghazzali adds his definition of the teacher as being one who is
concerned with either with 'the sciences of the Hereafter or the sciences of
the world, whose goal, in all his work, is [bliss in] the Hereafter and not suc
cess in this world.'

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The second duty of the teacher is to dissuade the student from

evil ways by suggestion (and with sympathy) rather than openly,44
for the following reasons. First, suggestion or allusion is more ef
fective than the direct statement, for the noble soul or discerning
mind is able to extract the meaning of the allusion by itself.45 Sec
ondly, unlike open dissuasion, allusion does not offend the learner
by violating his dignity or modesty. Thirdly, the direct (or open)
approach has only one dimension or way of expressing itself, but
allusion allows for various means of getting the point across. Its
flexibility makes it more effective in hinting to a person about cer
tain matters which might otherwise lead to embarrassment if a
blunt or direct method had to be used. Fourthly, the approach of
allusion can employ different idioms to say something appropriate
to the occasion. Thus, to forbid something openly and bluntly
makes thing alluring, as the Prophet said: 'If the people were pro
hibited from making porridge from the camel's dung, they would
have done it, stating, "We would not have been forbidden to do it
if there had been some good in it.'" Isfahani further illustrates the
wisdom of this method by citing the case of Adam and Eve, who
consumed the forbidden fruit.

The third duty of the teacher is to follow the example of the

Prophet by not expecting remuneration or material reward for im
parting knowledge. The teacher's service should be free for the
glory of God, and to come close to Him. Isfahani states:
The teacher should know that whoever sells knowledge for
worldly gain, has gone against God's wisdom because He has
ordained that wealth be used for food and clothes that serve
the body; but the body serves the soul, and the soul serves
knowledge. Knowledge is therefore the overall master that is

44 al-Dhar'i'ah, p. 245; cf. Ghazzali,/ftya\ vol. 1. p. 57f7 Trans. Fails, Book

of Knowledge, p. 149. Ghazzali cites it as the fourth duty, but Isfahani de
fends in detail the notion that diplomatic speech is better than blunt speech.
45 Cf. Ihy'a', vol. 1. p. 56£Trans. Faris, Book of Knowledge,?. 149. Ghazzali
continues with the statement, saying, 'And the pleasure of grasping their
meaning results in a greater desire on the part of man for learning in order to
show that such things are not beyond the capacity of his intellect.'

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served and does not serve anything; but wealth serves and is
the master of none. So whoever uses knowledge as a means to
material gain has reduced that which is to be served, to serve,
when in reality it is the master and not the servant.46

The fourth duty of the teacher/sage is to protect the ignorant

student from pursuing the inner realities of knowledge and to teach
him only what he can grasp, otherwise he would end up confused
and averse to his subject.47 The Prophet said: 'Speak to the people
according to what knowledge they bear, and refrain from [talking
about] that which they have no knowledge, or is it that you would
have God and His Prophet to be belied?' The Prophet also said:
'Whenever somebody talks to people about what they do not com
prehend, it will cause them to go away'. Jesus, the son of Maryam,
said: 'Do not dispense wisdom to those who cannot assimilate it,
for it would be a violation of wisdom, but impart it to those who
do understand, otherwise you will be unjust towards them. Be as
an intelligent physician who dispenses medicine knowing it will be
beneficial.'48 Thus, the teacher who sees the student is receptive

Al-Dhari'ah, p. 246. After this, Isfahani proceeds to a new section in

which he refers to the duty of the sages (hukama'). This corresponds to the
second duty of the teacher in Ghazzafi. Cf. Ghazzafi,//rya\ vol. 1. p. 56, 27ft7
Trans. Fans, Book of Knowledge, p. 146f. The author, emphasises in more
elaborate detail the idea that teaching should be to please God rather than
human authorities such as kings and sultans. Wealth should be one's servant
not one's master. Fa inna al-mala wa mafi dunya khadimu al-badani wa al-
badanu murakkabu al-nafsi wa mutituha wa al-makhditmu huwa at- 'ilmu idh
bi-hi sharafu al-nafsi. (Wealth and what is in this world are servants of the
body, and the body is the vehicle of the soul, which, in turn, is in the service
of knowledge with which the soul is honoured) GhazzaiL/Zrya', vol. 1, p. 56,
30-31/ Trans. Fans, Book of Knowledge, p. 146f. See Tritton, Muslim Educa
tion, p. 9f, on non-payment for the teaching of Qur'an and other branches of
knowledge. He cites the example of an extreme case: a teacher fell into a well
and would not allow the pupil to pull him as this might be considered pay
ment.

47 Cf. Muhadardt, pp. 52-53.

48 Al-Dhari'ah, pp. 247-248; cf. Muhadar'at, p. 46.

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should impart knowledge according to his capacity.49

The layman should be bound by the law, not depart from it as
doubts and suspicions enter his soul.50 But a restless soul that seeks
knowledge of reality should be encouraged to specialise in certain
areas of knowledge.51 Moreover, the student who pursues an in-
depth knowledge in a specialised area of study should try to excel
in order to rise above the level of the general public to the level of
the intellectual elite. Isfahani states:

If a person from the preceding nations comes forward to the

educated to specialise in philosophy and true knowledge to
progress from the level of the masses to the level of the elite,
he must be tested first. If he does not have the temperament
for such studies, or is ill-prepared for it, he should be discour
aged and prevented from pursuing such knowledge. If he is
found to be good, and ready for learning, then he must enter
the House of Wisdom on condition that he remains bound to
it. He is then forbidden to leave until he has acquired all the
knowledge required of him or unless death comes to him.52
In sum, the teacher should not over-saturate the novice student
with knowledge, but should let him first master the basics, other
wise the advanced knowledge will confuse him. In priniciple, one
has to 'begin at the beginning and ... not confuse the mind with
too many new ideas all at once.'53 As mentioned, Ghazzali shares

49 Ibid., p. 249; cf. Muhadarat, p. 46. Compare with Ghazzali below.

50 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, 306-308. According to Rosenthal,
Isfahani placed value in doubt to obtain certainty, but he was also conscious
of the sectarianism and the disunity it can bring to the Muslim community.
Thus, he did not recommend it for uneducated people, but for the eager and
mature students who could advance to higher levels.

51 Al-Dhari'ah, pp. 249-250; cf. Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, pp. 306-

308, for a discussion of doubt. Isfahani's valued doubt only if it helped to
gain certainty; but the novice student was to refrain from knowledge that
leads to doubt and confusion. Compare with Ghazzali below.

52 Ibid., p. 250.
53 Tritton, Muslim Education, p. 7.

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OF ISFAHAN! AND GHAZZAU

the same idea with similar wordings and analogies. Earlier Islamic
scholars might have shared some of these ideas on the duties of the
student, but it is Isfahani who has given it a unique formulation,
which made an impression on Ghazzali.

2.4. Rulers as Educators of Society

Isfahani distinguishes between different forms of leadership or rul

ing. They all have the responsibility to prohibit evil and encourage
good at different levels. Isfahani was probably inspired by Farabi's
political philosophy, who in turn was inspired by the Ikhwan al-
Safa?' According to the latter, people are divided into three groups,
the elite (khawdss)?, the masses ('awdmm) the middle class
(mutawassitun). The last group is able to interpret the Qur'an in
the literal and allegorical sense.54 Isfahani also divided people into
three groups, and the middle class (mutawassit) are those who
combine both the affairs of this world and the Hereafter. Accord
ing to him, the sages and Prophets belong to this group.55 Corre
sponding to the different levels of society, are different kinds of
leaders who attend to the internal and external needs of the society.
The idea of a philosopher-ruler, who is inspired by God, and
guides them to perfect moral behaviour, has already been ex
pressed in al-Farabi. In a perfect state, religion is the cornerstone of
politics, and the individual co-operates with fellow citizens, to ob
tain ultimate happiness.55 Isfahani identifies four levels of ruling in
society; the Prophets, the sages, the governors, and the preachers.
The governors, for example, who rule over the extrinsic dimen
sions of society, play a significant role in the education of the so
ciety, albeit at the external level. The four rulers are: first, the
Prophets' rule over the elite and the masses, on the extrinsic and
intrinsic level; secondly, the governors' rule over the extrinsic, but
not intrinsic beliefs of the elite and masses; thirdly, the sages' rule

Hans Daiber, 'Political Philosophy', History of Islamic Philosophy, Ed.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (London & New York- 1996) 2
841-885, p. 850.

55 Al-DharVah, p. 402.
56 Daiber, 'Political Philosophy', p. 849.

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 AFKAR - BIL 3/2002 [113-142]

over the internal condition of the elite; and fourthly, the preachers'
rule over the internal beliefs of the masses.57
These four levels of rule cover education at all levels of soci
ety and the individual, both at the extrinsic and intrinsic, and for
mal and informal levels. Education occurs in the school, the
madrasah, college, mosque and civic organisation. Preachers are
concerned with the rule over the internal beliefs of the masses and
operate from the mosques. We distinguish them from the sages
below.

Leaders should respect the expertise and jurisdiction of each

other to avoid an unhealthy rivalry for power and claims to have
knowledge in areas that they are not qualified in, otherwise envy,
vice, disunity and violence will prevail.

The mediocre scholars seek to belittle great scholars with de

ceptive innovations to deceive the general public. They also tend to
exploit the true scholars for their own ends of achieving power and
status. They pretend to be scholarly to usurp the positions of the
truly learned. Moreover, to achieve their diabolical objectives, they
shamelessly brand the learned scholars as unbelievers. This is how
they influence misguided people.58 True scholars, according to
Isfahani are like shepherds: they surrender to those with more in
telligence and more virtues. They do not oppose the learned, but
surrender to them out of necessity, since they are more virtuous
and intelligent. He who denies the superiority of the learned and
virtuous one is morally defiled. Such a person seeks the position of
worldy leadership and makes his intellect a servant of his desire.59
2.5. The Preacher as Educator of the Public

Unlike the teacher whose domain of transmitting knowledge is the

school, college or mosque, the preacher operates in the mosque and
other public institutions. The teacher has a small number of stu-

57 Al-DharVah, pp. 251, 4-6; 386, 13-17; Miz^n, p. 328f.

58 Ibid., p. 251.
59 Ibid., p. 177.

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OF ISFAHAN! AND GHAZZAU

dents whom he is in regular contact with, and yet he is still ex

pected to set a moral example.

Tritton states that the teacher of classical Islamic education

'must act according to his teaching, for his aim is the perfecting of
character. As life is too short to learn everything, men must be
content with a general knowledge of ancillary subjects and concen
trate on the important.'60 This principle of educational ethics in
Isfahani also applies to the preacher.

The sage's rule is not like that of the preacher. The general
public cannot appreciate the sage, for 'never will the eyes of bats
see the sun.' However, the preacher could learn from the sage, and
through him he could benefit the public. The preacher, who is in
touch with the public, could act as an intermediary between the
sage and the people. His role is akin to the minister who acts as an
intermediary between the king and the people.61

The sound preacher should be a moral example.62 He should

be guided himself before he guides others. He should see truth
himself before he can make others see it. He may be compared to
the sun which supplies the moon with light rays, yet it contains it
self more than what it gives away; the fire which causes iron to
melt, yet it itself has a greater glow than the iron. His actions cor
respond with his speech. He is the antithesis of the following per
son that God describes: '[You will find] among the people a per
son whose discourse about life in this world displeases you, and
who calls Allah to vouch for what is in his heart, although he is
your worst enemy. And when he departs, he roams the land sow
ing corruption therein and destroying crops and livestock; but Al
lah does not like corruption' (Q. 2:204-205).63 The following say
ing by 'Ali aptly describes such a person: 'I become extremely an
noyed by the doings of two kinds of people: The uneducated per-

60 Tritton, Muslim Education, p. 49.

61 Al-Dharl'ah, p. 252.
62 Muhddardt, pp. 52, 53.
63 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 254.

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 AFKAR-BE,3/2002 [113-142]

son who assumes the position of the pious; and the learned man
who is corrupt. The ignorant person deceives people with his
seemingly pious attitude, and the learned one drives them away
with his corruption.'64

A preacher who does not practice what he preaches does not

benefit the public who tend to be impressed by the outward actions
that they notice with their physical senses (basar). They cannot
appreciate his inner knowledge which requires intuitive insight
(basirah), which they lack. Thus, it is imperative that the preacher
reveals his actions more than his knowledge, which can only be
perceived by the few with intuitive insight. The preacher's relation
to the audience is equivalent to the doctor's relation to the patient.
When the doctor tells people to avoid poisonous food, but eats it
himself, his behaviour would appear preposterous. The same ap
plies to the preacher who does not practice what he preaches.65
Isfahani cites more analogies to compare the preacher with that
which is preached:

It is also said that the preacher compared to the preached can

be compared with the printer and the printed. Likewise, it is
not possible to imprint into clay that which is not sketched in
the engraver; similarly, it is impossible for the soul of the
preached to obtain virtue when it is absent in (he soul of the
preacher. Thus, if the preacher's speech is devoid of action,
the preached will only learn from his speech but not his ac
tion. Also, the relationship of the preached and the preacher is
like the relation between the shadow and the possessor of the
shadow. As it is impossible for someone who has a shadow to
bend while the shadow is still straight, so also is it impossible
for the preacher to be crooked while the preached remains on
the straight path. Also, everything which has a special nature
will cause others to follow it with or without their will, like
water which transforms elements into its own nature all ac
cording to the special elements to be transformed into the na-

64 Ibid., p. 254.
65 Ibid, p. 254.

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OFI§FAHAM AND GHAZZALI

ture of water; likewise fire, earth and air. Thus, the preacher,
if he is misguided, others will follow his misguidance, and the
responsibility will be attributed to him.66

3. The Reception of Isfahan!'s Educational Ethics in Ghazzali

We have discussed above Isfahani's educational ethics with refer

ence to the three duties of the student and the three duties of the
teacher. We have extrapolated more educational duties from other
parts of al-Dhari'ah, including sections dealing wilh the duties of
the sage and preacher. We noted that for Isfahani education is
broad, it includes the Prophets, the governors, the sages and the
preachers. Ghazzali extracted the educational principles from
Isfahani; he expanded on them, and systematized the whole discus
sion of educational ethics. Hence, we find the ten duties of the stu
dent and eight duties of the teacher in the Mizdn and the Ihya'.
Ghazzali not only restructured the whole discourse on educational
duties, but also elaborated on them in detail in the Mizdn and the
Ihya'. The content and style in these two works are essentially the
same, but the Ihya' is more detailed. Whereas Isfahani made a
clear distinction between the sage, the teacher and the preacher,
Ghazzali placed them all under the category of 'the duties of the
teacher guide' (Wazd'ifal-murshid al-mu 'allim). It is interesting to
note that Ghazzali uses the Sufi term murshid.61

We will now turn to a comparison of specific passages from

al-Dhari'ah, Mizdn and the Ihya.' Pertaining to the first duty of the
student

66 Ibid., p. 255.
67 In the Mizan, p. 362, 7, Ghazzali also uses the term in Wazd'if al-Mu'allim
al-Murshid. Note the slight change here. See also M.A. Abdullah, The Idea
of Universality of Ethical Norms in Ghazali and Kant, (Ankara: 1992), p. 96.
The author is of the opinion that Ghazzali uses the termMurshid as it sug
gests that the student should follow the guidance of his spiritual guide rather
than depend on his reason.

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 DHARVAH MIZAN IHYA' (AL-GHAZZALI)
(ISFAHANI) (AL-GHAZZALI)

To purify his soul of To purify his soul of The first duty (of the student)
vices (an yutahhiru moral vices. (Taqdimu is to purify his soul of his
nafsahu min radi' l- taharatil-nafsi 'an-radhi impure traits (Taqdimu taha-
akhlaqf* as the l-akhldq).™ As it is not rati nafsi 'an radhd' il al-
earth is purified of correct to pray except akhlaq)7 2 and blameworthy
bad plants and it was with the purification of characteristics because know
mentioned that the the limbs and knowledge ledge is the worship of the
pure only live in a is the worship of the heart as well as prayer of his
pure house and that soul, and in the language inmost self and the submis
the angels do not en of the Law it is the wor sion of his inward being be
ter a houses where ship of the heart; so it is fore God. Just as prayer,
there is a dog.69 not correct except with which is the duty of the
the purification of the physical senses, is not ful
heart from moral dirt and filled unless the physical
blameworthy characteris body has been purified from
tics. 71 excrements and impurities, so
is the worship of the inward
being as well as the reforma
tion of the heart they are not
fulfilled through knowledge
unless they (first) be cleansed
from impurities and unclean-
liness.73

Isfahani and Ghazzali share two main points from this duty:
First, the teacher should teach what is essential for the reform of
the soul and the nurturing of character; and second, the teacher
should himself set the moral example. The Ihyd' is more detailed
in its exposition. The analogy of bad plants and the mention of
angels are absent in Ghazzali's passages. Isfahani's reference to
angels entering a house with a dog is based on a hadith. The dog is

68 Al-DharJ'ah, p. 240, 3.
69 Ibid., p. 240,1-5.
70 M'izan. p. 341,18
71 Ibid., p. 341, 17-19; 342, 1-2.
72 Ihya\ I, p. 50, 9.
73 Ibid., I, p. 50, 9-12; cf. trans. Faris,flooifc of Knowledge, p. 126

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OF ISFAHAN! AND GHAZZALI

a metaphor for moral vices. As angels do not enter the house that
contains a dog, God's light does not enter a morally dirty heart.
Thus, piety can only dwell in a clean heart Ghazzali does not use
the metaphor of the dog in this specific passage, but compares the
clean body for the worship of the limbs with a clean soul for the
worship of the heart.74 Seven lines below, Ghazzali cites the actual
hadith? concerning the dog in the house. The above table provides
samples of the kinds of style that are reflected in all three works.

One can see this when one examines the way he deals with
the first duty of the student. Ghazzali explains in detail the mean
ing of the prophetic Tradition. For him, the heart represents the
house of angels; the dog represents vices such as anger and lust.
Angels do not enter a house crowded by dogs. God sends knowl
edge to the human heart through angels. Just as angels will not
come to a dirty house, they will not come to a dirty heart.

Ghazzali warns that one should not understand the Tradition

literally, nor interpret it only esoterically (as the Batinites have
done). The use of metaphors in the Tradition conveys a suggestion
(al-i'tibdr) which is more subtle, balanced and effective in ap
proach. It causes one to reflect on the affairs of odiers first, and
then by analogy to oneself.75 This kind of detailed explanation is
typical of Ghazzali in the Ihya', but not in the Mizan and al-
Dhari 'ah. Isfahani also discusses this aspect of subtle communica
tion, but more with reference to correcting a student (See below).

We quoted a long passage from Isfahani above regarding the

gradual mastery of knowledge and the knowledge of God. Knowl
edge should start with the basics, which include \hefard 'ayn
knowledge.76 The same idea is contained in the Mizan as the sixth
duty of the student. Ghazzali makes the point that the student

74 A corresponding idea appears in another passage of al-Dhari'ah (p. 96)

and in another context: la yuslihu li-khilafati llahi ta'allah ... ilia man kana
tahira al-nafs. (only someone with a pure soul is suited for the vicegerency of
God).

Ihya', I., p. 60; trans. Faris, The Book of Knowledge, p. 127

76 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 237; p. 94.

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 AFKAR -BE. 3/2002 [113-142]

should not study all things at the same time, but should start with
what is most important, as life is too short to perfect all things. So
he should not delve deeply into a branch of knowledge unless he
has mastered what has come before and perfected it in knowledge
and action.77

Regarding style, Ghazzali quotes the same Qur'anic verse as

Isfahani and his style is similar to the first part of Isfahani's pas
sage. One sentence (in italics) is almost identical, and they both
cite the same statement by 'AH.78 Ghazzali's reference to the
knowledge of God and Isfahani's anecdote about the two ancient
philosophers appear in the Mizdn as the seventh duty and the Ihya'
as the sixth duty of the student.79 Thus, Ghazzali restructures
Isfahani's ideas and rearranges the quotations to suit his own pur
pose.

Both Ghazzali and Isfahani (see above) consider knowledge

of God to be the highest knowledge. To Ghazzali, in the Mizan
knowledge of God is the cause of salvation and happiness. Faith
Oman) is not mere verbal utterance of the shahddah (confession of
faith), but is rooted in one's heart. It is not based on blind imitation
or dialectical argumentation. In the Ihya' Ghazzali develops a Sufi
orientation to the knowledge of God. He states: 'The goal of action
(mu 'amalah) is unveiling (mukashafah), and the goal of unveiling
is the knowledge of God. ...It is the fruit of a light cast into the
heart of a servant who has purified it with the struggle of his inner
self against vices.1 Mukashafah is a well-known Sufi concept, and
Ghazzali states that he is referring to a conviction here which is
exemplified by the Prophets and the saints.80

On avoiding controversy, Ghazzali shares with Isfahani, the

concern about the negative impact of theological disputes on the

77 Mizan, p. 348.
78 Ihya', I., p. 53.
79
Mizan, pp. 349-51; Ihya', I, p. 53.
On _ _

Ihya', p. 57f; cLMul

cf. Muhadarat, p. 53, on perfecting one stage of learning
before pursuing another.

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OF ISFAHANI AND GHAZZAU

Muslim masses. He also discourages weak Muslims from indulg

ing in dialectics, which could lead to apostasy. Ghazzali advocates
avoidance of people who indulge in dialectics, especially heretics
and unbelievers. The sage (hakim whose faith is strong, could how
ever engage in theological debates. Ghazzali uses the term aqwiyd'
instead of hakim, and explains this point in more detail. He says
that whereas the sage can mix with non-believers, weak Muslims
cannot do so because of their vulnerability. There is wisdom in
God's prohibition of pork, for it creates a social barrier between
Muslims and non-Muslims. Thus, both Isfahani and Ghazzali share
this idea, but the former supports his argument by citing religious
sources. Concerning jihad, Isfahani speaks of it in the context of
the sage's struggle against the enemy. He makes a distinction be
tween the struggle of the hand and the tongue. The latter kind of
struggle is that of the philosopher sage.81 Ghazzali places the idea
of struggle within a Sufi context. He cites Sufi sayings, and distin
guishes between the outer struggle (zahir) through worship and the
inner struggle (batin) through the presence of the heart. The latter,
the Sufi struggle of the heart, is more advanced. The strong ones
(aqwiya') pursue such a struggle. Isfahani avoids an overt associa
tion with the Sufis, and Ghazzali avoids an overt association with
the philosophers.

The 'second duty' of the teacher is to prevent the student

from incorrect ways by means of suggestion and gentle persuasion,
not frankly and bluntly. Ghazzali incorporated this idea in the Ihyd'
(as a fourth duty of the teacher) with a brief explanation. Isfahani's
explanation is more elaborate. He identifies five reasons for prefer
ring diplomatic over blunt speech. His predilection for subtle com
munication is because he is an adib; hence he uses the literary de
vices of descriptive comparison (tamthil) and the simile (tashbih)
for didactic purposes. He believes these are effective ways of per
suasive.82

81 M~iz5n, p. 346.
82 Tritton cites a statement by Isfahani: 'A man of letters is apt to see meta
phors everywhere', in Muslim Education, p. 74.

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 AFKAR-BE,3/2002 [113-142]

As noted above there is another implicit duty of the teacher/

sage (not mentioned in Isfahani's three duties), which is that the
amateur student should not be saturated with knowledge beyond
his understanding, but the promising student should pursue ad
vanced studies. Isfahani does not specify subjects of knowledge.
Ghazzali deals with this point in his 'fourth duty of the teacher',
but specifies the subjects. Compare the following passages:

ISFAHANI GHAZZALI

Knowledge is a property by which one If the teacher notices that the

can reach the everlasting life. Likewise is student is seeking knowledge
wealth, a property by which one can only for the sake of worldly
reach sustenance in the worldly life. advantages, he should examine
Whoever exposes a person who is not what science the student is pur
competent to deeper knowledge, should suing. If he sees that these sci
be punished. Conversely, whoever de ences are disputation in juris
prives someone who is worthy of it, prudence, argument in theol
should likewise be brought to task. God ogy, and handing down contro
therefore says: It is such that God took a versial opinions and legal
convenant from the People of the Book diputes, (the teacher) should
in order that they clarify it to mankind dissuade him from them be
and not to conceal that by which they cause they do not belong either
may benefit. (Q. 3: 187).83 to the sciences of the Hereaf
God also says: Those who conceal of the ter, or to purposeful sciences
book that which God has revealed, and not (directly) in the services of
they appropriate but a small gain, will God, but useful to it. These in
have no share of the Religion in the clude the sciences of interpre
Hereafter. (Q. 2: 174). tation and tradition, also the
Competent learned men should therefore disciplines of the ancients that
first scrutinize him. If it is that he natu pertain to the Hereafter, quali
rally accepts the knowledge and that he ties of the soul, and the reform
is stable, and has a keen understanding of the soul.85
and perception, a realistic imagination
and intuition, he should be given the
apportunity to study, and he must be as
sisted in the path that has been created
for him. On the other hand, if he has an
evil nature or lacking in understanding,

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OF ISFAHAN! AND GHAZZALI

he should be strongly prevented from

being preoccupied with (a field of study)
he is unable to comprehend. Otherwise
two evils will result from (pursuing a
study he is not apt for): (1) He will not
be able to benefit the worshippers and
the country, (2) He will be so preoccu
pies with doubt (as a result of his study)
that it will be furtile for him.84

These two passages reveal that Isfahani and Ghazzali caution

the teachers against saturating the students with too much knowl
edge, and not considering the student's limitations. Isfahani does
not mention which knowledge he is referring to, but Ghazzali dis
tinguishes between knowledge that is useless and that which is
useful. The latter kind includes ethics, the reform of the soul and
knowledge directed at the service of God.
Implicit in Isfahani's passage is the recognition of a hierarchy
of knowledge. Some sciences are more important than others.
Isfahani censures those hi authority, from governors to sages, who
encourage students to study branches of knowledge they are ill
equipped for, and discourage students from studying subjects they
are equipped for. Ghazzali accepts this principle of gradation and
advises educators to act responsibly in accordance with it.

While Ghazzali adopts some principles of educational ethics

from Isfahani his exposition of them is more systematic. As men
tioned, Isfahani distinguishes between different types of rulers: the
Prophet, the governor, the sage, and the preacher. They cater for
various needs, and contribute to society's moral education of the
society. Like Isfahani, Ghazzali distinguishes between the rule of

83 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 249, 6-13; cf. Muhadarat, p. 46 for a similar idea in the

context of Plato's response to his pupils' question.

84 Al-Dhari'ah, p. 249,17, p. 250,1-10; cf. Knowledge Triumphant, pp. 306-

308, for a discussion of doubt. Isfahani's value of doubt was only aimed at
gaining certainty; but the novice student was to refrain from levels of knowl
edge that would lead to doubt and confusion.

85 Ghazzali, Ihya &, I. p. 57/ Trans. Paris, Book of Knowledge, pp. 147-148.
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 AFKAR-BIL3/2002 [113-142]

the sage and the rule of the preacher, but links his discussion in the
Mizdn with education and politics, and not under the topic of edu
cational ethics. This is why the duty of the preacher is not dis
cussed separately by Ghazzali, but comes under the duties of the
teacher. The preacher and teacher, for Isfahani, are not only rulers,
but also educators. The preacher manages the internal beliefs of the
masses. In Isfahani, therefore, but not in Ghazzali, there is a con
sistent relation, between different rulers and different educators.

4. Ghazzali's Impact

We noted above that Ghazzali appropriated Isfahani's ideas and

developed a more systematic structure and coherent discussion on
the etiquette of teachers and students in the Ihya' and Mizdn.
Ghazzali's educational ideas influenced the Spanish Moroccan
Jewish author Joseph ibn Judah ibn 'Aqnin (624/1226), who was
a disciple of Maimonides. Halkin states that 'in view of his Jewish-
Arabic background and milieu it can be taken for granted that his
source or sources were Arabic, notwithstanding the fact that most
of the sayings are attributed to Greek and Latin sayings.'86 Ibn
'Aqnin's ethical work, Tibb al-Nufus ('Spiritual Medicine'), is dif
ferent from previous Arabic works because of its greater system
atic treatment. Rosenthal states:

His treatment is distinguished by a more systematic method, a

greater stress on essentials, and a more comprehensive view
of education as a unified process from the most elementary to
the highest stages. In a way, he succinctly combines the best
practical thought of the religious-traditionalist and the philo-

86 A.S. Halkin, "Classical and Arabic Material in ibn 'Aknin's 'Hygiene of

the Soul", Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, (New
York, 1944), 14:27-167, p. 29. The editor only extracted the aphorisms from
the complete work, entitled Maqalahfi Tibb al-Nufus al-'Aimah wa Mu 'alajat
al-Qulub al-Salimah. (Treatise on the Hygiene of Sick Souls and the Care of
Sound Hearts). It is in this complete work where the author devotes a section
to educational ethics in a long chapter on education. For an edition and trans
lation of this chapter, see M. Gudemann, Das Jiidische Unterrichtswesen der
Spanisch-Arabischen Periode, text, 1-57, trans. 43-138 (Vienna: 1873, reprint
Amsterdam:1968).

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 THE EDUCATIONAL ETHICS OF ISFAHAN AND GHAZZALI

sophical literature on education. In this respect, he may have

been inspired by ideas current in the climate of Western Is
lam.87

According to Rosenthal, Ibn 'Aqnin's prime model was

Ghazzali's Ihya'. We will compare below the duties of the teacher
and student as set out by Ibn 'Aqnin and Ghazzali, and conclude
that there is a close resemblance, which confirms Rosenthal's
premise that Ibn 'Aqnin imitated Ghazzali.

In brief, the seven duties of the teacher according to Ibn

'Aqnin are: firstly, mastery of the subject; secondly, action in ac
cord with knowledge; thirdly, no remuneration for teaching;
fourthly, treating students as if they were his children; fifthly, a
conviction in the excellence of knowledge and inculcating this con
viction in students; sixthly, guiding students to happiness and kind
ness, and being patient with them; and seventhly, a graded curricu
lum tailored to the mental capacity and stage of each student

The nine duties of the student are first, purity of character;

secondly, asking critical questions but acknowledging the greater
experience of the teacher; thirdly, unconcern with financial and
family matters; fourthly, mastery of the principles of a given disci
pline and then only of its details in order to face doubts, even if at
the beginning it is better to shy away from them and to trust the
teacher; fifthly, familiarity with differences of opinion (as taught in
Aristotelian philosophy); sixthly, constant reflection on the rela
tionship between knowledge, virtuous action and livelihood;
seventhly, devotion to knowledge with no ulterior motives;
eighthly, willingness to seek a good teacher; and ninthly, a respect
for the teacher bordering on reverence.88

A comparison with duties set by Ghazzali reveals that they

share the same principles of education. The mastery of knowledge,
respect for the teacher and the principle of gradation and purity of

88 Ibid., p. 294.
87 Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, p. 293f.

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 AFKAR-BIL3/2002 [113-142]

character are common to them both. These principles are contained

in al-Dhari'ah, and we have no evidence of an earlier work dis
cussing them in the manner that Isfahani did. Ibn 'Aqnin imitated
him in a long section of his ethical work, but instead of Ghazzali's
'eight duties of the teacher', Ibn 'Aqnin has seven; and instead of
Ghazzali's ten duties of the student, Ibn 'Aqnin has nine. This is a
minor structural difference. Rosenthal assumes that the Jewish au
thor used the Ihya' as a source, but comparison with the Mizan
will confirm if the author used one or both these works of
Ghazzali.
Another question to raise is whether Ibn 'Aqnin was directly
influenced by his master, Moses Maimonides (who, according to
Rosenthal, was influenced by Ghazzali) or whether his educational
ideas were inspired directly by Ghazzali. Ghazzali was concerned
with the qualifications of scholars and their methods, and he was
influenced by Sufi ideas towards worldly and religious knowledge
(that is, favouring the latter, but not neglecting the former).
Rosenthal states that proof of the pervasive power of cultural and
literary custom with regard to knowledge can be found in the great
law code (Mishne Torah) of Moses Maimonides, which begins
with Seper ham-maddd' (Book of Knowledge), and which contains
ail the basic duties of the Law of Moses which human beings must
know.89 A part of the text begins with the relationship between
teachers and pupils, which is worthy of comparison with Ghazzali.
Furthermore, 'the remainder of the contents of Maimonides' Book
of Knowledge can be read as a summary of Ghazzali's Ihyd'.90

Another work in the spirit of the Shafi'i Ghazzali (and Khatib

al-Baghdadi) is Tadhkirat al-Sdmi' wa al-Mutakallim fi Adab al-
'Alim wa al-Muta'allim by the Shafi'i Ibn Jama'ah (733/1333).
The author, who reflects on the higher religious education preva
lent in the madrasah, imitates Ghazzali in the view that teachers
should have good manners (husn al-dddb) and study not for
worldly gain but for the love of God. They should also have dig-

89 Ibid., p. 95f.
90 Ibid., Knowledge Triumphant, p. 96.

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nity, piety and modesty. Furthermore, they should follow a graded

method of inslruction (note the principle of gradation above). Stu
dents should be helped to overcome bashfulness, and the teacher
should show concern for their welfare. Similar to Ghazzali's duties
of the student, the students should be pious, choose the right com
pany and respect their teachers.

Different from Ghazzali or Isfahani is the idea that the teacher

should show decorum in his dress, learn from the young and write
and publish. If he doubts the teacher's statement, he should resolve
the matter tactfully. Note the cultivation of a critical, yet respectful
attitude towards the teacher.91 The Tadhkirat al-Sami' has now
been translated into English, and so a close comparison with
Ghazzali would be worthwhile?

Similar ideas are also reflected in the educational philosophy

of Ibn Khaldun (809/1406) who, like Ghazzali, is also concerned
about the 'method of of giving such instruction' ,92 and about the
principle of gradation. Ibn Khaldun states: 'It should be known that
the teaching of scientific subjects is effective only when it pro
ceeds gradually and little by little'.93 The teacher should teach the
basics first before delving into the subject. Also, he should teach
the essentials of the discipline to avoid confusion, and at a higher
level, he should teach the details and even the secrets.

Teaching methodology should proceed according to the fol

lowing three steps which involve repetition at each level: first the
bare essentials should be taught, secondly the bare essentials
should be taught at a higher level, and then the final step is to
clarify all obscurity and explain all the secrets. The teacher should
focus on one book or one subject, depending on the age and recep
tivity of the student.94 On the subject of severity of punishment,

91 Ibid,, pp. 296-297.

92 Rosenthal (tr.), The Muqadditnah, vol. 2, (London, 1958), pp. 292-298; cf.
Ihya', HI, pp. 251-258.

93 Ibid., p. 292. See above for this principle in Isfahani and Ghazzali.
94 Ibid., p. 293f.

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Ibn Khaldun states that punishment leads to deceit and trickery,

and the child's outward behaviour will not conform to his inner
thinking. The teacher should therefore not be too severe on the
child, and should not strike the child who deserves punishment
more than three times. Religious law should internally discipline
one, then there will be no need for external punishment, which will
only humiliate the soul.95 There is a definite echo of Ghazzali in
Ibn Khaldun, in terms of the principle of gradation and the prin
ciples of allusion and gentle persuasion. Ibn Khaldun adopted these
educational principles from Ghazzali or from those who imitated
him, and elaborated on them in a more concrete manner.

To conclude, we have shown that both Isfahani and Ghazzali

wrote on the subject of educational ethics, and that they share simi
lar ideasregarding the duties of the teacher and the student.
Ghazzali extracted some of these duties from Isfahani, but
Ghazzali's greater systematic presentation proved to be far more
influential on later thinkers. It attracted the attention of the Jewish
Ibn 'Aqnin and the Shafi'i ibn Jama'ah. Finally, we noted some
parallels in the educational thought of a much later scholar, the
well-known historian, Ibn Khaldun.

9S Ibid., p. 305.

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