Heat Transfer Lectures

Chemical Engineering Department

University of Technology, Iraq

Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer

Introduction
Our preceding discussions of convection heat transfer have considered homogeneous
single-phase systems. Of equal importance are the convection processes associated with a change
of phase of a fluid. The two most important examples are condensation and boiling phenomena.
In many types of power or refrigeration cycles one is interested in changing a vapor to a
liquid, or a liquid to a vapor, depending on the particular part of the cycle under study. These
changes are accomplished by boiling or condensation, and the chemical engineer must understand
the processes involved in order to design the appropriate heat-transfer equipment. High heat-
transfer rates are usually involved in boiling and condensation, and this fact has also led designers
of compact heat exchangers to utilize the phenomena for heating or cooling purposes not
necessarily associated with power cycles.
Condensation Heat-Transfer Phenomena
Consider a vertical flat plate exposed to a condensable vapor. If the temperature of the plate
is below the saturation temperature of the vapor, condensate will form on the surface and under
the action of gravity will flow down the plate. If the liquid wets the surface, a smooth film is
formed, and the process is called film condensation. If the liquid does not wet the surface, droplets
are formed that fall down the surface in some random fashion. This process is called dropwise
condensation.
In the film-condensation process, the surface is blanketed by the film, which grows in
thickness as it moves down the plate. A temperature gradient exists in the film, and the film
represents a thermal resistance to heat transfer.
In dropwise condensation, a large portion of the area of the plate is directly exposed to the
vapor; there is no film barrier to heat flow, and higher heat-transfer rates are experienced. In fact,
heat-transfer rates in dropwise condensation may be as much as 10 times higher than in film
condensation. Figure 1 shows the film and dropwise condensation.
Because of the higher heat-transfer rates, dropwise condensation would be preferred to film
condensation, but it is extremely difficult to maintain since most surfaces become wetted after
exposure to a condensing vapor over an extended period of time. Various surface coatings and
vapor additives have been used in attempts to maintain dropwise condensation, but these methods
have not met with general success.
Figure 2 exhibits the steam condensation on a copper plate. The right side of the plate is
clean copper where steam condenses as a continuous film. The left side has a coating of cupric
oleate, which promotes dropwise condensation. The horizontal object is a thermocouple probe with
a diameter of 1.7 mm. In this case, the heat-transfer coefficient for the dropwise condensation is
about seven times that for the film wise condensation.

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Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

a) film condensation b) dropwise condensation

Figure 1: Steam condensation on a copper tube. a) film condensation b) dropwise condensation

Figure 2: Steam condensation on a copper plate. The right side represents the film condensation. The left side
represents the dropwise condensation.

Film condensation on a vertical plate may be analyzed in a manner first proposed by

Nusselt, 1916. Consider the coordinate system shown in Figure 3. The plate temperature is
maintained at Tw, and the vapor temperature at the edge of the film is the saturation temperature
Tg. The film thickness is represented by δ, and we choose the coordinate system with the positive
direction of x measured downward, as shown in Figure 3.

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Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Figure 3: Film condensation on a vertical flat plate

Assumptions
• Laminar flow and constant properties are assumed for the liquid film.
• The gas is assumed to be a pure vapor and at a uniform temperature equal to Tsat. With no
temperature gradient in the vapor, heat transfer to the liquid-vapor interface can occur only
by condensation at the interface and not by conduction from the vapor.
• It is assumed that the viscous shear of the vapor on the film is negligible at y=δ. It is
further assumed that a linear temperature distribution exists between wall and vapor
conditions.
The weight of the fluid element of thickness dx between y and δ is balanced by the viscous
shear force at y and the buoyancy force due to the displaced vapor. Thus
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝐷 + 𝐹𝐵

𝑚𝑙 . 𝑔 = 𝜏. 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑣 . 𝑔
𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 . 𝑉. 𝑔 = 𝜇 . 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑉. 𝑔
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 . (𝛿 − 𝑦)(𝑑𝑥)(1). 𝑔 = 𝜇 . (𝑑𝑥)(1) + 𝜌𝑣 . (𝛿 − 𝑦)(𝑑𝑥)(1). 𝑔
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 . (𝛿 − 𝑦). 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑣 . (𝛿 − 𝑦). 𝑔 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔(𝛿 − 𝑦) = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦

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𝑑𝑢 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔(𝛿 − 𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑦 𝜇

By separation of variables, the above equation can be written as follows:

(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔
𝑑𝑢 = (𝛿 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝜇

By integrating the above equation, we obtain the following equation:

(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝑦2
𝑢= (𝛿 𝑦 − ) + 𝐶
𝜇 2

By using the following boundary condition that u=0 at y=0, we can find the value of constant
(C=0). Hence, the above can be written as follows:
(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝑦2
𝑢= (𝛿 𝑦 − )
𝜇 2

The mass flow of condensate through any x position of the film is thus given by the following
equation:

𝛿 𝛿 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝑦2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚̇ = ∫ 𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 (1) = ∫ 𝜌𝑙 [ (𝛿 𝑦 − )] 𝑑𝑦 (1)
0 0 𝜇 2
𝛿
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝑦2
𝑚̇ = ∫ (𝛿 𝑦 − ) 𝑑𝑦
𝜇 0 2
𝛿
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝑦2 𝑦3
𝑚̇ = [𝛿 − ]
𝜇 2 6
0

𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝛿2 𝛿3 02 03
𝑚̇ = [(𝛿 − ) − (𝛿 − )]
𝜇 2 6 2 6

𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝛿3 𝛿3
𝑚̇ = [( − ) − (0)]
𝜇 2 6

𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 𝛿3
𝑚̇ = [( )]
𝜇 3

𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔𝛿3
𝑚̇ =
3𝜇

The heat transfer at the wall in the area dx when unit depth is assumed is given by the
following equation:

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Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

𝜕𝑇 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘 𝑑𝑥 1 ( ) = 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 𝛿

since a linear temperature profile was assumed. As the flow proceeds from x to x + dx, the
film grows from δ to δ+dδ as a result of the influx of additional condensate. The amount of
condensate added between x and x+dx is

𝑑 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔𝛿3 𝑑 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔𝛿3 𝑑𝛿 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔𝛿2 𝑑𝛿

[ ] 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 3𝜇 𝑑𝛿 3𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜇

The heat removed by the wall must equal this incremental mass flow times the latent heat of
condensation of the vapor. Thus

(𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑑𝑚̇ ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝛿
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔𝛿 2 𝑑𝛿 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝜇 𝛿
The above equation can be solved by the method of separation of the variables as follows:

𝜇 𝑘 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝛿 3 𝑑𝛿 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )

By integrating the above equation, we obtain the following equation:

𝛿4 𝜇 𝑘 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
= 𝑥+𝐶
4 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝛿=0⇒𝐶=0

𝛿4 𝜇 𝑘 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
= 𝑥
4 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )

4𝜇 𝑘 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝛿4 = 𝑥
𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )

By taking the fourth root for both sides, we obtain

1⁄4
4𝜇 𝑘 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝛿=[ ]
𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )

Now, the heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from the below equation:

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(𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑞 = ℎ 𝑑𝑥 (1) (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑔 ) = −𝑘 𝑑𝑥 (1)
𝛿
(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑔 )
ℎ 𝑑𝑥(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑔 ) = +𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝛿
𝑘
ℎ =
𝛿
1⁄4
4𝜇 𝑘 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝛿 = [ ] 𝑠𝑢𝑏. 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )
1⁄4 1⁄4
𝑘 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 𝑘 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )
ℎ = 1⁄4
=[ ] 1⁄4
=[ ] 𝑘3⁄4
4𝜇 𝑘 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 4𝜇 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 𝑘 4𝜇 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
[ ]
𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )
1⁄4
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘 3
ℎ𝑥 = [ ]
4𝜇 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )

Expressed in the dimensionless form in terms of the Nusselt number as follows:

1⁄4 1⁄4
ℎ𝑥 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘 3 𝑥 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = =[ ] =[ ] 𝑥 3⁄4 𝑘 −1⁄4
𝑘 4𝜇 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 𝑘 4𝜇 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
1⁄4
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑥 3
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = [ ]
4𝜇 𝑘(𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )

The average value of the heat-transfer coefficient is obtained by integrating over the length of the
plate:
1 𝐿 4
ℎ̅ = ∫ ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ𝑥=𝐿
𝐿 0 3
1⁄4
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎ̅ = 0.943 [ ]
𝐿𝜇𝑓 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )

The above equation can be used for vertical plates and cylinders.
The physical properties of fluid should be evaluated at the film temperature as follows:
𝑇𝑔 + 𝑇𝑤
𝑇𝑓 =
2

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

For laminar film condensation on horizontal tubes, Nusselt obtained from

the following relation:
1⁄4
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎ̅ = 0.725 [ ]
𝜇𝑓 𝑑 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )

where d is the diameter of the tube. When condensation occurs on a

horizontal tube bank with n tubes placed directly over one another in the
vertical direction, the heat transfer coefficient may be calculated by
replacing the diameter in the above equation with nd.
1⁄4
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎ̅ = 0.725 [ ]
𝜇𝑓 𝑛𝑑 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )

When a plate on which condensation occurs is sufficiently large or there is a

sufficient amount of condensate flow, turbulence may appear in the condensate
film. This turbulence results in higher heat-transfer rates. As in forced-convection
flow problems, the criterion for determining whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent is the Reynolds number, and for the condensation system it is defined as
follows:
𝐷𝐻 𝜌𝑉 4𝐴𝜌𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑓 = =
𝜇𝑓 𝑃𝜇𝑓

where
𝐷𝐻 : hydraulic diameter
𝐴: flow area
𝑃: wetted perimeter
𝑉: average velocity in flow
Since
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
Hence
4𝑚̇
𝑅𝑒𝑓 =
𝑃𝜇𝑓

where 𝑚̇ is the mass flow through the particular section of the condensate film.
For a vertical plate of unit depth, P =1;
for a vertical tube, P =πd.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

The critical Reynolds number is approximately 1800, and turbulent correlations for heat
transfer must be used at Reynolds numbers greater than this value.
The Reynolds number is sometimes expressed in terms of the mass flow per unit depth of
plate Γ, so that
4Γ
𝑅𝑒𝑓 =
𝜇𝑓

In calculating the Reynolds numbers the mass flow may be related to the total heat transfer and
the heat transfer coefficient by the following equation:
𝑞 = ℎ̅𝐴(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = 𝑚̇ℎ𝑓𝑔

where A is the total surface area for heat transfer. Thus

𝑞 ℎ̅𝐴(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑚̇ = =
ℎ𝑓𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔

4𝑚̇ 4ℎ̅𝐴(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑅𝑒𝑓 = =
𝑃𝜇𝑓 𝑃𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔

But
𝐴 = 𝐿𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 𝑊
where L and W are the height and width of the plate, respectively, so that
4𝑚̇ 4ℎ̅𝐿𝑊(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑅𝑒𝑓 = =
𝑃𝜇𝑓 𝑊𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔

4ℎ̅𝐿(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝑅𝑒𝑓 =
𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔

Film Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes

Our discussion of film condensation so far has been limited to exterior surfaces, where the
vapor and liquid condensate flows are not restricted by some overall flow-channel dimensions.
Condensation inside tubes is of considerable practical interest because of applications to
condensers in refrigeration and air-conditioning systems, but unfortunately, these phenomena are
quite complicated and not amenable to simple analytical treatment. The overall flow rate of vapor
strongly influences the heat-transfer rate in the forced convection-condensation system, and this,
in turn, is influenced by the rate of liquid accumulation on the walls. Because of the complicated
flow phenomena involved, we will present only two empirical relations for heat transfer.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Chato, 1962 obtained the following expression for condensation of refrigerants at low
vapor velocities inside horizontal tubes:

′ 1⁄4
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎ̅ = 0.555 [ ]
𝜇𝑓 𝑑 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
where the modified enthalpy of vaporization is given by
′
ℎ𝑓𝑔 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 0.375𝐶𝑝,𝑙 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )
Liquid properties in the above equation are evaluated at the film temperature while ℎ𝑓𝑔 and
𝜌𝑣 are evaluated at the saturation temperature 𝑇𝑔 . The above equation is restricted to low vapor
Reynolds numbers such that
𝑑𝐺𝑣
𝑅𝑒𝑣 = < 35,000
𝜇𝑣
where 𝑅𝑒𝑣 is evaluated at inlet conditions to the tube.
For higher flow rates an approximate empirical expression is given by Akers, Deans, and
Crosser 1958 as follows:
ℎ̅𝑑 ⁄
= 0.026 𝑃𝑟𝑓1 3 𝑅𝑒𝑚0.8
𝑘𝑓
where now 𝑅𝑒𝑚 is a mixture Reynolds number, defined as follows:
𝑑 𝜌𝑓 1⁄2
𝑅𝑒𝑚 = [𝐺𝑓 + 𝐺𝑣 ( ) ]
𝜇𝑓 𝜌𝑣
The mass velocities for the liquid 𝐺𝑓 and vapor 𝐺𝑣 are calculated as if each occupied the entire
flow area.
Example 1: A vertical square plate, 30 by 30 cm, is exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure.
The plate temperature is 98 °C. Calculate the heat transfer rate and the mass of steam condensed
per hour.
Solution:
The Reynolds number must be checked to determine if the condensate film is laminar or turbulent.
Properties are evaluated at the film temperature:
100 + 98
𝑇𝑓 = = 99 °𝐶
2
From Appendix A of heat transfer book (J.P. Holman), the physical properties of water at a film
temperature of 99 °C are as follows:
𝜌𝑙 = 960 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝜇𝑙 = 2.82 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚. 𝑠 , 𝑘𝑙 = 0.68 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. °𝐶

For this problem the density of the vapor is very small in comparison with that of the liquid,
and we are justified in making the substitution
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) ≈ 𝜌𝑙2

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

In trying to calculate the Reynolds number we find that it is dependent on the mass flow of
condensate. But this is dependent on the heat-transfer coefficient, which is dependent on the
Reynolds number. To solve the problem, we assume either laminar or turbulent flow, calculate the
heat-transfer coefficient, and then check the Reynolds number to see if our assumption was correct.
Let us assume laminar film condensation. At atmospheric pressure we have
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 100 °𝐶, ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2255 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

1⁄4 1⁄4
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3 𝜌𝑙2 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎ̅ = 0.943 [ ] = 0.943 [ ]
𝐿𝜇𝑓 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 𝐿𝜇𝑓 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )

1⁄4
(960)2 (9.8) (2255000) (0.68)3
ℎ̅ = 0.943 [ ] = 13150 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . °𝐶
(0.3)(2.82 × 10−4 )(100 − 98)
Now, we can check the Reynolds number from the following equation:

4ℎ̅𝐿(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 4(13150)(0.3)(100 − 98)

𝑅𝑒𝑓 = = = 49.6
𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔 (2.82 × 10−4 )(2255000)

So that the laminar assumption was correct. The heat transfer rate is now can be calculated
from the following equation:
𝑞 = ℎ̅𝐴(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = (13150)(0.3 × 0.3)(100 − 98) = 2367 𝑊

𝑞 2367
𝑞 = ℎ̅𝐴(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = 𝑚̇ℎ𝑓𝑔 ⇒ 𝑚̇ = = = 0.0015 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠 = 5.4 𝑘𝑔⁄ℎ𝑟
ℎ𝑓𝑔 2255000

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Example 2: One hundred tubes of 0.50-in (1.27-cm) diameter are arranged in a square array and
exposed to atmospheric steam. Calculate the mass of steam condensed per unit length of tubes for
a tube wall temperature of 98 °C.
Solution:
Properties are evaluated at the film temperature:
100 + 98
𝑇𝑓 = = 99 °𝐶
2
From Appendix A of heat transfer book (J.P. Holman), the physical properties of water at a film
temperature of 99 °C are as follows:
𝜌𝑙 = 960 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝜇𝑙 = 2.82 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚. 𝑠 , 𝑘𝑙 = 0.68 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. °𝐶
For this problem the density of the vapor is very small in comparison with that of the liquid,
and we are justified in making the substitution
𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) ≈ 𝜌𝑙2

1⁄4 1⁄4
𝜌𝑙2 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3 (960)2 (9.8) (2255000)(0.68)3
ℎ̅ = 0.725 [ ] = 0.725 [ ]
𝜇𝑓 𝑛𝑑 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 ) (2.82 × 10−4 )(10)(0.0127) (100 − 98)

ℎ̅ = 12540 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 . °𝐶

𝑞 = ℎ̅𝐴(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = ℎ̅𝜋𝑑𝐿𝑁(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 )

𝑞
= ℎ̅𝜋𝑑𝑁(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = (12540)(𝜋)(0.0127)(100)(100 − 98) = 100014 𝑊 ⁄𝑚
𝐿
𝑞
𝑞 = 𝑚̇ℎ𝑓𝑔 ⇒ × 𝐿 = 𝑚̇ℎ𝑓𝑔 ⇒ 100014 × 𝐿 = 𝑚̇ (2255000)
𝐿
𝑚̇ 100014
= = 0.4 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠 𝑚
𝐿 2255000

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