Reading comprehension strategies

Teaching & Learning Toolkit 5th September, 2018

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Reading comprehension strategies
High impact for very low cost, based on extensive evidence.

Reading comprehension strategies focus on the learners’ understanding of written text. Pupils are taught a range of techniques
which enable them to comprehend the meaning of what they read. These can include: inferring meaning from context;
summarising or identifying key points; using graphic or semantic organisers; developing questioning strategies; and monitoring
their own comprehension and identifying difficulties themselves (see also Metacognition and self-regulation).

How effective is it?

On average, reading comprehension approaches deliver an additional six months’ progress. Successful reading comprehension
approaches allow activities to be carefully tailored to pupils’ reading capabilities, and involve activities and texts that provide an
effective, but not overwhelming, challenge.

Many of the approaches can be usefully combined with Collaborative learning techniques and Phonics to develop reading skills.
The use of techniques such as graphic organisers and drawing pupils’ attention to text features are likely to be particularly
useful when reading expository or information texts.

There are some indications that computer-based tutoring approaches can be successful in improving reading comprehension
(although the evidence is less robust in this area), particularly when they focus on the development of strategies and self-
questioning skills.

Comparative findings indicate that, on average, reading comprehension approaches appear to be more effective than Phonics
or Oral language approaches for upper primary and secondary pupils, for both short-term and long-term impact. However,
supporting struggling readers is likely to require a coordinated effort across the curriculum and a combination of approaches. No
particular strategy should be seen as a panacea, and careful diagnosis of the reasons why an individual pupil is struggling
should guide the choice of intervention strategies.

How secure is the evidence?

There is extensive evidence in this area from a range of studies over the last 30 years. The majority of studies are from the USA
and focus on pupils aged between 8 and 18 who are falling behind their peers or have difficulties with reading.

In the UK, recent evaluations of programmes that have included a focus on teaching reading comprehension strategies have not
found such an extensive impact, though there is evidence that children from disadvantaged backgrounds may benefit more .

Guidance report
The EEF has published guidance on improving literacy in Key Stages 1 and 2. Improving Literacy in Key Stage One can be found
here and Improving Literacy in Key Stage Two here.

What are the costs?

The cost of the resources and professional training required to deliver reading comprehension strategies is estimated as very
low. Evidence suggests that reading comprehension approaches need to be tailored to a pupil's current reading capabilities, so
it is important that teachers receive professional development in effective diagnosis as well as training in the use of particular
techniques and materials. The cost for an intervention with this type of training is estimated at £1,200 per teacher or £48 per
pupil.

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Reading comprehension strategies: What should I consider?

Before you implement this strategy in your learning environment, consider the following:

1. A key issue for teachers is identifying the level of difficulty for comprehension activities that is required to extend pupils’ reading
capabilities. How will you ensure the texts used provide an effective challenge?
2. Effective diagnosis of reading difficulties is important in identifying possible solutions, particularly for older struggling readers.
Pupils can struggle with decoding the words, understanding the structure of the language used, or understanding particular
vocabulary, which may be subject-specific. What techniques will you use to identify particular pupils’ needs?
3. A wide range of strategies and approaches can be successful, but they need to be taught explicitly and consistently. How are you
going to identify the strategies that will meet the needs of your pupils and how will these be reinforced?
4. How can you focus learners’ attention on developing comprehension strategies that they can apply more widely?

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Technical Appendix

Definition
Reading comprehension strategies involve the teaching of explicit approaches and techniques a learner can use to
improve their reading fluency and comprehension of written text. Examples of such techniques include: inferring
the meaning from context; summarising or identifying key points; using graphic or semantic organisers;
developing questioning strategies; and monitoring their own comprehension and identifying difficulties themselves
(see also Metacognition and self-regulation).

Search terms: reading comprehension strategies; text comprehension strategies.

Evidence Rating
There are eight meta-analyses which look at improving reading outcomes by developing reading comprehension
strategies, five of which have been undertaken in the last ten years. These mainly use studies which focus on
helping pupils who are low attaining readers aged between eight and eighteen to catch up with their peers, rather
than on accelerating normal progress, so tend to have relatively small samples. The evidence in this area dates
back over last 30 years, with the majority of studies conducted in the USA. The pooled effect sizes range between
0.10 and 0.74 (a range of nearly two-thirds of a standard deviation). Overall, the evidence is rated as extensive.

Additional Cost Information

The cost of the resources and professional training required to deliver reading comprehension strategies is
estimated as very low. Evidence suggests that reading comprehension approaches need to be tailored to a pupil's
current reading capabilities, so it is important that teachers receive professional development in effective
diagnosis as well as training in the use of particular techniques and materials. The cost for an intervention with
this type of training is estimated at £1,200 per teacher or £48 per pupil.

For more information, tools & supporting resources, please visit: Copyright © 2020 Education Endowment Foundation
https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/
 Reading comprehension strategies
Teaching & Learning Toolkit 5th September, 2018

References

1 Berkeley, S., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. 2 Berkeley, S., Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (Abstract arrow_downwa
)
Reading comprehension strategy instruction and attribution Reading comprehension instruction for students with learning
retraining for secondary students with learning and other disabilities, 1995–2006: A meta-analysis open_in_new
mild disabilities open_in_new
Remedial and Special Education. 31 (6): 423-436
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(1), 18-32
(2010)
(2011)

3 Clarke, P. J., Snowling, M. J., Truelove, E., & Hulme, C. 4 Crawford, C. & Skipp, A.
Ameliorating children’s reading-comprehension difficulties: A LIT Programme Evaluation Report and Executive Summary open_in_ne
randomized controlled trial open_in_new EEF, London
Psychological Science, 21(8), 1106-1116
(2014)
(2010)

5 Davis, D. S. (Abstract arrow_downward

) 6 Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., Tackett, K.
K., & Schnakenberg, J. W (Abstract arrow_downward
)
A meta-analysis of comprehension strategy instruction for
upper elementary and middle school students open_in_new A synthesis of reading interventions and effects on reading
Doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University, USA comprehension outcomes for older struggling readers open_in_new
Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 262- 300
(2010)
(2009)

7 Elleman, A. M., Lindo, E. J., Morphy, P., & Compton, D. L. (Abstract 8 Fauzan, N. (Abstract arrow_downward
)
)
arrow_downward The effects of metacognitive strategies on reading
The impact of vocabulary instruction on passage-level comprehension: a quantitative synthesis and the empirical
comprehension of school-age children: A meta-analysis investigation open_in_new
open_in_new
Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(1), 1- 44 Doctoral dissertation, University of Durham

(2009) (2003)

9 1 Galloway, A. M. (Abstract arrow_downward

Fukkink, R. G., & De Glopper, K. (Abstract arrow_downward
) )
Effects of instruction in deriving word meaning from context: 0 Improving reading comprehension through metacognitive
A meta-analysis open_in_new strategy instruction: Evaluating the evidence for the
effectiveness of the reciprocal teaching procedure open_in_new
Review of Educational Research, 68(4), 450- 469
Doctoral dissertation ETD collection for University of Nebraska -
(1998)
Lincoln. AAI3092542

(2003)

1 Ness, M. 1 Scammacca, N. K., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., & Stuebing, K. K. (Abstract arrow_do
1 Explicit reading comprehension instruction in elementary 2 )
classrooms: Teacher use of reading comprehension A meta-analysis of interventions for struggling readers in Grades
strategies open_in_new 4–12: 1980–2011 open_in_new
Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 25(1), 98- 117 Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48 (4): 369-390
(2011) (2015)

1 Scammacca, N., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Edmonds, M., Wexler, J., 1 Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D.,
3 Reutebuch, C. K., & Torgesen, J. K. 4 Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J.
Interventions for Adolescent Struggling Readers: A Meta- Improving Reading Comprehension in Kindergarten through 3rd
Analysis with Implications for Practice open_in_new Grade: IES Practice Guide open_in_new

Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation: Center on NCEE 2010-4038. What Works Clearinghouse
Instruction
(2010)
(2007)

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1 Spörer, N., Brunstein, J. C., & Kieschke, U. L. F. 1 Stetter, M. E., & Hughes, M. T.

5 Improving students' reading comprehension skills: Effects of 6 Computer-Assisted Instruction to Enhance the Reading
strategy instruction and reciprocal teaching open_in_new
Comprehension of Struggling Readers: A Review of the Literature
Learning and Instruction, 19(3), 272-286 open_in_new
Journal of Special Education Technology, 25(4)
(2009)
(2010)

1 Suggate, S. P.

7 A Meta-Analysis of the Long-Term Effects of Phonemic

Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, and Reading Comprehension
Interventions open_in_new
Journal of Learning Disabilities

(2014)

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Summary of effects

Meta-analyses Effect size FSM effect size

Berkeley, S., Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A., (2010) 0.65 -

Davis, D. S., (2010) 0.36 0.31

Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., 0.47 -
Tackett, K. K., & Schnakenberg, J. W, (2009)

Elleman, A. M., Lindo, E. J., Morphy, P., & Compton, D. L., (2009) 0.10 -

Fauzan, N., (2003) 0.50 -

Fukkink, R. G., & De Glopper, K., (1998) 0.43 -

Galloway, A. M., (2003) 0.74 -

Scammacca, N. K., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., & Stuebing, K. K., (2015) 0.49 -

Single Studies Effect size FSM effect size

Berkeley, S., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2011) 0.71 -

Clarke, P. J., Snowling, M. J., Truelove, E., & Hulme, C. (2010) 0.24 -

Crawford, C. & Skipp, A. (2014) 0.09 -

Spörer, N., Brunstein, J. C., & Kieschke, U. L. F. (2009) 0.38 -

Weighted mean 0.45

The right hand column provides detail on the specific outcome measures or, if in brackets, details of the intervention or control
group.

Meta-analyses abstracts

2 Berkeley, S., Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2010)

Meta-analysis procedures were employed to synthesize findings of research for improving reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities published in the
decade following previous meta-analytic investigations. Forty studies, published between 1995 and 2006, were identified and coded. Nearly 2,000 students served as
participants. Interventions were classified as fundamental reading skills instruction, text enhancements, and questioning/strategy instruction—including those that
incorporated peer-mediated instruction and self-regulation. Mean weighted effect sizes were obtained for criterion-referenced measures: .69 for treatment effects, .69
for maintenance effects, and .75 for generalization effects. For norm-referenced tests, the mean effect size was .52 for treatment effects. These outcomes were
somewhat lower than but generally consistent with those of previous meta-analyses in their conclusion that reading comprehension interventions have generally been
very effective. Higher outcomes were noted for interventions that were implemented by researchers. Implications for practice and further research are discussed.

5 Davis, D. S. (2010)

This meta-analytic review includes intervention studies published between 1980 and 2009 in which students in grades 4-8 are taught to use two or more
comprehension strategies. The collected studies were coded using a systematic data extraction scheme developed to address the central questions of the review.
Information related to the characteristics of the student sample and instructional and methodological characteristics of each study were compiled in a database.
Numerical effect sizes for each study for each major outcome measure were computed. The mean effect of comprehension strategy instruction on each of the
targeted outcome constructs was calculated to provide an overall summary of instructional effectiveness.

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6 Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., Tackett, K. K., & Schnakenberg, J. W (2009)

This article reports a synthesis of intervention studies conducted between 1994 and 2004 with older students (Grades 6–12) with reading difficulties. Interventions
addressing decoding, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension were included if they measured the effects on reading comprehension. Twenty-nine studies were
located and synthesized. Thirteen studies met criteria for a meta-analysis, yielding an effect size (ES) of 0.89 for the weighted average of the difference in
comprehension outcomes between treatment and comparison students. Word-level interventions were associated with ES = 0.34 in comprehension outcomes between
treatment and comparison.

7 Elleman, A. M., Lindo, E. J., Morphy, P., & Compton, D. L. (2009)

A meta-analysis of vocabulary interventions in grades pre-K to 12 was conducted with 37 studies to better understand the impact of vocabulary on comprehension.
Vocabulary instruction was found to be effective at increasing students' ability to comprehend text with custom measures (d = 0.50), but was less effective for
standardized measures (d = 0.10). When considering only custom measures, and controlling for method variables, students with reading difficulties (d = 1.23)
benefited more than three times as much as students without reading problems (d = 0.39) on comprehension measures. Gains on vocabulary measures, however,
were comparable across reading ability. In addition, the correlation of vocabulary and comprehension effects from studies reporting both outcomes was modest (r =
.43).

8 Fauzan, N. (2003)

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies on reading comprehension by means of (a) a meta-analysis and (b) an
experiment designed following the metaanalysis implemented in Sarawak, Malaysia. Before the meta-analysis, the prevalent theories and issues in the reading
literature such as metacognition, models of reading, measurements, motivation and previous meta-analysis were discussed to provide a better understanding of the
research area in this study. A meta-analytic procedure conducted to review the primary research studies of metacognitive strategies used effect size as the measure
of effectiveness. Searching for the articles and theses in the 1980s until 2001 yielded a record of 473 abstracts and articles from which there were twenty seven
studies with a total number of eighty two effect sizes that could be quantitatively synthesized to compare the group performance of the experimental and control
groups. The weighted effect size was 0.50 (95% Cl = 0.45 to 0.56) when dependent effect sizes were synthesized, and 0.55 (95% CI=0.48 to 0.63) when the extreme
'outliers' or deviated effect sizes were excluded and independent effect sizes were created. Overall, the effect size was moderate indicating a positive outcome of the
metacognitive strategies. The effect sizes were not homogeneous and further analyses of the qualitative and quantitative features of the studies were made to
develop possible reliable estimates.

9 Fukkink, R. G., & De Glopper, K. (1998)

A meta-analysis of 21 instructional treatments aimed at enhancing the skill of deliberately deriving word meaning from context during reading shows a medium effect
size of 0.43 standard deviation units (p < .000). An exploratory multilevel regression analysis shows that clue instruction appears to be more effective than other
instruction types or just practice (β = 0.40). Effect size correlates negatively with class size (β = .03). Implications for instruction and future research are discussed.
Future studies should investigate the effect of instruction on both the skill of deriving word meaning from context and incidental word learning to evaluate its
contribution to vocabulary growth.

1 Galloway, A. M. (2003)
0 Over the past 30 years, research has increasingly sought to examine the efficacy of metacognitive strategy instruction to improve reading comprehension. While
some interventions have focused on single-strategy interventions, others have employed multiple-component strategy packages to improve the self-regulatory skills
of readers. Reciprocal Teaching is the most widely researched multi-component metacognitive strategy-training program. Although an early review of the Reciprocal
Teaching procedure was conducted in 1994 (Rosenshine & Meister), it was based primarily on unpublished work. Since that time, the number of published studies
examining the Reciprocal Teaching procedure has more than doubled. In addition, recent advances in the evaluation of the evidence base for interventions in school
psychology have helped to delineate the variables important for reviewing interventions in education and psychology. ^ Using a traditional meta-analysis in
conjunction with recently developed standards for evaluating evidence-based interventions in School Psychology, this study found a moderate effect size for
interventions employing the Reciprocal Teaching procedure to improve reading comprehension. Unlike the earlier review of the Reciprocal Teaching procedure, this
study did not find significant differences between the effect sizes produced for norm-referenced and experimenter/teacher-generated tests. Analysis of measures of
strategy use and reading comprehension follow-up measures suggest that the effects of Reciprocal Teaching are not only a function of strategy use but are maintained
over time. ^ While the certainty with which conclusions can be drawn from this study is limited due to a relatively small sample size, the Reciprocal Teaching
procedure appears to hold promise for helping students to develop the types of self-regulatory strategies used by skilled readers to promote reading comprehension.
While there remain a number of questions regarding the conditions under which Reciprocal Teaching is maximally effective, the available evidence suggests that the
procedure can help readers to develop skills that promote independent reading comprehension. Future research that investigates permutations of the procedure, its
utility with populations with varying demographic characteristics, and the relationship between this procedure and other forms of reading instruction is likely to
promote greater understanding of the procedure and its effects.

1 Scammacca, N. K., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., & Stuebing, K. K. (2015)

2 This meta-analysis synthesizes the literature on interventions for struggling readers in Grades 4 through 12 published between 1980 and 2011. It updates Scammacca
et al.’s analysis of studies published between 1980 and 2004. The combined corpus of 82 study-wise effect sizes was meta-analyzed to determine (a) the overall
effectiveness of reading interventions studied over the past 30 years, (b) how the magnitude of the effect varies based on student, intervention, and research design
characteristics, and (c) what differences in effectiveness exist between more recent interventions and older ones. The analysis yielded a mean effect of 0.49,
considerably smaller than the 0.95 mean effect reported in 2007. The mean effect for standardized measures was 0.21, also much smaller than the 0.42 mean effect
reported in 2007. The mean effects for reading comprehension measures were similarly diminished. Results indicated that the mean effects for the 1980–2004 and
2005–2011 groups of studies were different to a statistically significant degree. The decline in effect sizes over time is attributed at least in part to increased use of
standardized measures, more rigorous and complex research designs, differences in participant characteristics, and improvements in the school’s “business-as-usual”
instruction that often serves as the comparison condition in intervention studies.

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