BT 362: Sustainable Energy Processes

MODULE IV
1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOMASS ENERGY
The energy obtained from organic matter derived from biological organisms (plants and
animals) is known as biomass energy or simply bio-energy. Plants grow through photosynthesis
process using solar energy. This process is primarily responsible for the generation of biomass
energy. During photosynthesis, plant combines carbon-dioxide from air and water from ground to
form carbohydrates, which form the biochemical building blocks of biomass.
Biomass can be used as a solid fuel or converted in to liquid or gaseous forms to produce
electric power, heat, chemicals or fuels. Biomass is considered as a renewable energy source because
the growth of new plants and trees replenishes the supply.
Bio-energy is obtained through the conversion of organic matter, either directly through
combustion to generate heat, or converted in to a more manageable energy carrier such as liquid or
gas. Biomass resources are mainly classified in to two categories:
i. Biomass from cultivated fields, crops and forests.
ii. Biomass from municipal waste, animal dung, forest waste, fishery waste etc.
Thus, bio-energy can be derived from a wide range of raw materials and produced in a variety of
ways. It is the oldest form of energy used by mankind.

1.1. Biomass as a fuel

• Biomass energy can be transformed either by chemical or biological processes to produce

intermediate bio-fuels such as methane, producer gas, ethanol, charcoal etc.
• During combustion, it reacts with oxygen to release heat, but the element of material remains
available for recycling in natural ecological or agricultural processes. When they are burnt,
the release of carbon-dioxide amounts to the same level since they are absorbed by plants and
trees while growing.
• Biomass has several potential advantages when compared to other renewable energy sources.
It can be used for heat, power and combined heat and power.
• It is also able to produce continuous energy and therefore doesn’t have intermittency
problems, like those associated with wind, solar power etc.
• The energy obtained from biomass is controllable, so that it can be adjusted to meet desired
demand.

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 BT 362: Sustainable Energy Processes

2. BIOMASS RESOURCES
Biomass resources for energy production encompass a wide spectrum of materials ranging
from forest, agriculture, industrial and social activities such as food processing, urban refuse etc. In
India, we have plenty of agricultural and forest resources for reproduction of biomass. Due to this,
there is a great potential for application of biomass as an alternative source of energy.

2.1. Forests
Forests, natural or cultivated, serve as sources of fuel wood, charcoal and producer gas. Some
fast-growing intensive trees such as eucalyptus, poplar and pine are specially cultivated for energy
production.

2.2. Agricultural Residues

Crop residues such as straw, rice husk, coconut shell, groundnut shell, sugarcane baggage
etc., are gasified to obtain producer gas.

2.3. Energy Crops

Certain cultivated plants produce raw material for bio-fuels. They are as follows:
a) Sugarcane: It is a raw material for bio-ethanol. It consists of alcohol that represents one third
of the total sugarcane mass and other similar amount is available in bagasse, leaves and tops.
b) Oil Producing Plants: Oil producing plants such as sunflower, rapeseed, palm oil, castor oil,
soybean, groundnut and cotton seed have capabilities of producing energy.

2.4. Aquatic Plants

Some water plants grow very fast and provide raw materials for producing biogas or ethanol.
These are water kelp, seaweed, algae etc.

2.5 Urban Waste

Urban waste is of two types:
a) Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
b) Sewage (Liquid Waste)

MSW includes commercial and residential wastes generated in municipal or notified areas in
either solid form or semi-solid form excluding industrial wastes. MSW can be a source of energy
either by burning it in waste-to-energy plants, or by producing biogas.

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• Energy (Methane) can be recovered from the organic fraction of the waste through thermo-
chemical and bio-chemical methods. The methane is burned to produce heat and electricity.

3. BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

The biomass sources are highly dispersed and bulky and contain large amount of water (50 to
90%). Thus, it is not economical to transport them over long distances. Hence, conversion to usable
energy must take place close to the source. However, biomass can be converted to liquid or gaseous
fuels thereby increasing its energy density and making transportation feasible over long distances.
The following processes are used for the conversion of biomass in to energy or to bio-fuels:

3.1. Physical Process

The simplest method of physical conversion of biomass is through the compression of

combustible material. It is densified by compression processes called briquetting and palletization.
Briquetting is brought about by a compression mechanism. Densification is carried out by
compression under a die. Briquettes (66mm diameter and 96 mm thick) made from paddy husk or
sawdust is a cheap and effective fuel.
Palletization is a process in which wood is compressed and extracted in the form of rods (5-
12mm diameter and 12 mm long). It has applications in steam power plants and gasification systems.
The purpose of palletization is to reduce the moisture contents and increase the energy density of
wood for longer transportation haulage.

3.2. Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass

Thermo-chemical conversion of biomass uses heat and catalysts to convert biomass into
thermal energy, gas or liquid which can be used either directly for the generation of electric power
and heat, or it can be further processed into fuel and chemicals. In this process, biomass is
decomposed in various combinations of temperatures and pressures.
• Thermo-chemical conversion of biomass can take place by the pathways categorized as direct
combustion, carbonization, pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction.
• By using these processes, the biomass can be converted into either a solid fuel, liquid fuel or
gaseous fuel which can be further used for the generation of electricity, heat, chemicals and
fuels.

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 BT 362: Sustainable Energy Processes

3.2.1. Direct Combustion

It is the oldest and most complex form of combustion systems. In direct combustion, biomass is
burned in presence of excess oxygen. The products from the combustion of biomass are heat, light,
and byproducts at temperatures around 800°C – 1000°C. This is a result of the exothermic reaction
between the carbon and oxygen in the fuel that releases a significant amount of heat, while forming
water vapour and carbon dioxide.

The main biomass for combustion is wood. Energy produced by combustion of biomass can be
utilized in the generation of electricity, or used directly for stoves, boilers, district heating (heat
and/or cooling to multiple buildings from a central source), crop drying, factory processes etc. The
combustion of biomass is more difficult than other fuels, since it contains relatively higher moisture
content. Several types of pretreatment are applied to biomass to reduce the need to invest in very
complex, robust, and expensive combustion installations:
➢ Size reduction
➢ Drying
➢ Compacting – Briquetting & Palletization

Exhaust

Steam
Furnace/Boiler Turbine

Electricity
Biomass Storage Pretreatment
Generator
Ash
Condenser
Condensate
Direct combustion/Steam turbine system

An open fireplace may let a large amount of heat to escape, while a significant proportion of
the fuel may not even get burnt. The combustion of biomass is more difficult than other fuels, since it
contains relatively higher moisture content. Furnaces and boilers are used typically to produce hot
air/steam for use in heating systems, or to drive turbines to produce electricity. Complete combustion
of biomass to ashes is called incineration. The heat or steam produces are used to generate electricity
or provide heat for industrial process, space heating or cooking.

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• Co-firing or co-combustion of biomass wastes with coal and other fossil fuels can provide a
short term, low risk, low-cost option for producing renewable energy while simultaneously
reducing the use of fossil fuels.
• The technology of ‘Fluidized Bed Combustion’ (FBC) may be used for the efficient
combustion of forestry and agricultural wastes such as saw dust, wood chips, rice husks,
straws and nutshells.
Flue gas
In fluidized bed combustion of biomass, the
biomass is fed into a bed of hot inert particles, such
as sand. The biomass-particle mix is suspended by
an upward flow of combustion air within the bed. Fluidized bed
At enough flow rates, the bed acts as a fluid (and Biomass
hence the name) resulting in rapid mixing of the
particles. The operating temperature is normally
controlled within the range 750°C – 950°C. The Bottom bed
Ash
rapid mixing and turbulence within the fluidized
bed enables efficient combustion to be achieved
with high heat releases. Because of better heat Combustion air
Fluidised bed combustion
transfer in FBC, the unit size and hence the capital
costs are reduced.

• Since thermal equilibrium between air and coal particles in the bed is quickly established,
FBC can respond rapidly respond to changes in load demand.
• FBC system can use solid, liquid or gaseous fuel or mix as well as domestic and industrial
waste.

3.2.2. Carbonization

Wood is heated with restricted air flow to form a high carbon product by removing volatile
materials from it. This is termed as carbonization. The final product is known as charcoal. It is
extensively used as a domestic fuel. Charcoal contains 20-25% volatiles and 75-80% fixed carbon on
a dry basis. It burns smokeless and it can be preserved for longer period. Charcoal stoves have a
higher overall burning efficiency than wood stoves.

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3.2.3. Pyrolysis (Destruction Distillation)

The basic thermo-chemical process to convert biomass into a more valuable and/or convenient
product is known as pyrolysis. “Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at
elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen”. It involves the simultaneous change of chemical
composition and physical phase. Biomass is heated either in the absence of oxygen or by partial
combustion with restricted air or oxygen supply. Pyrolysis can process all forms of organic materials
including rubber and plastics, which cannot be handled by other methods. The products of pyrolysis
are three types of fuels:

i. A gas mixture (H2, CO2, CH4 and N2),

ii. An oil-like liquid CO (bio-oil- a water-soluble phase including acetic acid, acetone,
methanol and a non-aqueous phase including oil and tar) and,
iii. A nearly pure carbon char.

The distribution of these products depends upon the type of feedstock, the temperature and
pressure during the process and its duration and the heating rate. For example, the products of
pyrolysis of wood are mainly charcoal (25%), wood gas/producer gas (20%), pyro ligneous acid
(40%), and tar or wood oil (15%) excluding the moisture content. Pyrolysis is a general term for all
processes whereby organic material is heated or partially combusted with restricted supply of air to
produce secondary fuels and chemical products.

Pyrolysis Products
a) Solid Char: The solid fraction produced from pyrolysis is often referred to as char or
biochar. It contains 85% carbon and large fractions of hydrogen & oxygen. It has higher
heating value compared to raw feedstock. It contains more carbon content than charcoal.
Biochar is mainly used for altering the properties of soil (attracts and holds soil nutrients and
hence reduces fertilizer requirements.
b) Gas: Pyrolysis yields a gas fraction from the primary decomposition, which consists of
mainly H2, CH4, CO2, CO and traces of other primary gases.
c) Oil: Liquid fraction produced from the pyrolysis is a black, high viscosity fluid called tar or
‘Bio oil’. This liquid has a high moisture content (about 20%) and consist of several complex
hydrocarbons with high oxygen content. Bio-oil is used for direct burning in boilers, gas
turbines & diesel engines for heat and power supply.

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Types of Pyrolysis Reactions

Based on the differences in the operating parameters, pyrolysis can be divided in to two types:
a) Slow pyrolysis: It is used when the desired product is char. Biomass is heated at a slow
hating rate (5 – 7 0C/min) at relatively low temperature (650 0C). In addition to the solid
residue, some amount of gas & bio oil is also produced through slow pyrolysis.
b) Fast Pyrolysis: It is used to produce a larger fraction of liquid called Bio-Oil. during this
process, biomass is rapidly heated until it achieves the peak temperature (pyrolysis
temperature) before the material starts to decompose. A typical product distribution from fast
pyrolysis on a weight basis contains 60-75% of bio oil , 15-25% solid fraction and 10 – 20%
primary gases depending on the feed stock used.

3.2.4. Biomass Gasification

Gasification is a thermochemical process of converting solid biomass into a gaseous combustible

gas (Producer gas) under controlled temperature (500-1000 0C) and air supply through a series of
thermochemical reactions. It can convert any matter with high carbon content into a gaseous energy
carrier. Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. Gasifier is the equipment that converts biomass into producer gas.

The most common raw materials used are wood chips, coconut shells, straw and other waste from
wood industry. The producer gas is cleaned to make it suitable for use in boilers, engines and
turbines to produce heat and power. Biomass can be effectively gasified at lower temperatures than
coal. Abundant quantities of agricultural wastes like rice husk, sugarcane waste, coconut husk etc.
are produced worldwide every year. Conversion of the same biomass to a combustible mixture such
as producer gas solves most of the problems related to the use and disposal of solid biomass.

In a typical combustion process, generally, the oxygen is surplus, while in a gasification process,
the solid fuel (biomass) is surplus with restricted supply of oxygen. It involves the conversion of
solid and carbonaceous fuels in to gas mixture known as producer gas (also referred to as wood gas
or synthesis gas). This gas can be burned directly in a furnace to generate process heat for electricity
generation. the following main reactions occur inside the biomass gasifier.

1) Drying – Biomass usually contain 10 – 35% moisture. When biomass is heated to about 100
0
C, the moisture is converted in to steam.

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2) Pyrolysis – After drying, as heating continues, the biomass undergoes pyrolysis. Pyrolysis
involves burning biomass completely without supplying any oxygen. As a result, the biomass
is decomposed or separated in to solids, liquids and gases. Charcoal is the solid part, tar is the
liquid part, and flue gases make up the gaseous part.
3) Oxidation (combustion) – Air is introduced into the gasifier after the decomposition process.
During oxidation, which takes place at about 700-1400 0C, charcoal or the solid carbonized
fuel, reacts with oxygen in the air to produce CO2 and heat.
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
4) Reduction – At higher temperatures and under reducing conditions, that is when not enough
oxygen is available, the following reactions take place forming carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and
methane.
C + CO2 2CO
C + H2 O CO + H2
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
C + 2H2 CH4
Hence, gasification involves the partial combustion and reduction operations of biomass. In a
typical combustion process, the combustion products mainly carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen,
carbon monoxide and hydrogen pass through glowing layer of charcoal for the reduction process to
occur. Biomass gasifiers are broadly classified based on the following factors:

i. According to type of combustion bed,

a. Fixed – bed gasifier
b. Fluidized bed gasifier
ii. According to the direction of gas flow,
a. Downdraft gasifier
b. Up draft gasifier
c. Cross draft gasifier
iii. According to output power or capacity of the gasifiers,
a. Small size gasifiers (<10 kW)
b. Medium size gasifiers (10 kW to 50 kW)
c. Large size gasifiers (50 kW to 300 kW)
d. Very large size gasifiers (> 300 kW)

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a) Fixed Bed Updraft Gasifier

It is the simplest type of gasifier. It is also known as counterflow gasifier. Biomass is fed at the
top of the reactor and moves downwards by gravity as fuel conversion proceeds. The air intake is at
the bottom and the gas leaves at the top. The biomass moves in opposite direction to the gas flow and
passes through the drying zone, distillation zone, reduction zone & oxidation zone. These gasifiers
are suitable for fuels such as wood and agricultural wastes. It is used for power generation up to
about 150 kW.

➢ Advantages ➢ Drawbacks
o Simple construction o Of High amounts tar and
o Low gas exit temperature pyrolysis products.
o High gasification efficiency o Producer gas needs to be
o Easier to clean to higher purity thoroughly cleaned before use.
o Direct heating applications
Biomass feed
Biomass feed

Producer gas
Drying zone Drying zone

Pyrolysis zone Pyrolysis zone

Reduction zone
Combustion zone
Combustion zone Air Air
Reduction zone
Air Producer gas
Ash Ash
Fixed-bed updraft gasifier Fixed-bed downdraft gasifier

b) Fixed Bed Downdraft Gasifier

In this type, air enters at the combustion zone and biomass is fed at the top of the reactor. The
gas leaves at the bottom of the reactor, hence fuel & gas moves in the same direction. A downdraft
gasifier is so designed that the tar, which is produced in the pyrolysis zone, travels through the
combustion zone, where it is broken down or burnt. As a result, the mixture of gases in the exit
stream is relatively clean with low tar content.

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 BT 362: Sustainable Energy Processes

The gas from the downdraft gasifiers can be cleaned to very high purity such that it can be
used in IC engines or for direct heating applications. These gasifiers are suitable for fuels such as
wood and agricultural wastes. It is used for power generation up to about 150 kW.
➢ Advantages ➢ Drawbacks
o Its maintenance is easy. o High amount of ash & dust
o It is reliable in operation. particles in the gas.
o Easier to clean to higher purity. o High temperature of the outlet
o It is very easy to operate the gas
gasifier.
c) Fixed Bed Cross-Draft Gasifier
Cross draft gasification is one of the simplest types of gasification. In these gasifiers, solid
fuels move in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the gas flow. The thermochemical reaction
will occur progressively as this fuel descends in to the reactor. Air enters the gasifier through a
nozzle mounted on one side of the firebox. It operates at a higher temperature (800 – 900 0C) and
confines its combustion and reduction zone near the air nozzle. A cross-draft gasifier is adapted for
the use of charcoal.

Because of the short path length for gasification reactions, this type of gas producer responds
most rapidly for change in gas production. Because of the limited capacity of these gasifiers and
limited scope for large scale implementation, cross-draft gasifiers are not widely used.

➢ Advantages
Biomass feed
o Only few steps of cleaning are required.
o The system is simple, cheap and easy to
operate.
o Charcoal can be used instead of wood, which
Drying zone
does not produce tar.
o Responds rapidly for change in gas production.
Pyrolysis zone
➢ Drawbacks
o Very high temperature of exit gas. Combustion zone
Air Producer gas
o Low efficiency. Reduction zone
o Limited in capacity.
o Large loss of energy potential. Fixed-bed cross-draft gasifier

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d) Fluidized Bed Gasifier

In fluidized bed gasifier, air is blown through a bed of solid particles (sand or limestone) at
enough velocity to keep these in a state of suspension. Biomass is fed into the fluidized system from
either above the bed or directly in to the bed. Pressurized air starts bubbling through the bed and the
particles attain a state of high turbulence, and the bed exhibits fluid like properties. During normal
operation, the bed is maintained at a temperature between 850 - 1000 0C. When biomass is fed into the
fluidized bed, the high heat & transfer permits the rapid energy conversion at isothermal condition.
Large surface area is created in the fluidized bed and the constantly changing area per unit
volume provides a higher conversion efficiency at low operating temperatures compared to the fixed
beds. High heating capacity of sand and the uniform temperature of fluidized bed makes possible to
gasify low-grade fuels of even non-uniform size and high moisture content. Fuel gas so produced
contains impurities, dust, char particles and tar. It needs conditioning and cleaning for utilization as an
engine fuel.

➢ Advantages
o High surface area available in fluidized bed
and constantly moving mass results good
conversion efficiency.
o Lower operating temperature compared to
fixed bed gasifiers.
➢ Disadvantages
o Cleaning of the producer gas – ash particles
must be removed from the gas stream.

3.2.5. Liquefaction

Liquefaction is the thermo-chemical conversion

where wet biomass is converted into liquid product. It
Pre-treated H2 + CO
is a relatively low temperature (150-330 0C) & high-
slurry inlet
pressure process (5-200 bar). Liquid yields are NaCO3

maximized by rapid heating of feedstock to

Biomass

comparatively low temperature. A catalyst such as

sodium carbonate and pressurized reducing gas
(Hydrogen & carbon monoxide) are also introduced Liquefaction reactor
into the reactor to enhance the rate of reaction.

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Liquefaction process helps to produce oils which permit storage & transferability through
pumping systems. Oil can be directly used in combustion furnaces or as fuels. This process is used
to get maximum liquid yields with higher quality than from the pyrolysis process. The products have
higher heating value & lower oxygen content which makes the fuel chemically stable.

3.3. Bio-chemical Conversion of Biomass

Bio - Chemical conversion of biomass involves the use of micro - organisms, bacteria and
enzymes to breakdown biomass into liquid or gaseous fuels such as biogas or bioethanol. It consists
two phenomenon, biological decomposition of the biomass (using bacteria) and conversion of
biomass into biofuel (using catalyst & reagents). There are two major biochemical processes:
a) Anaerobic Digestion
b) Alcoholic or Ethanol Fermentation

3.4. Agro-chemical Conversion of Biomass

In agro-chemical route of conversion, fuel is extracted from freshly cut plants. The plant
usually remains alive and unharmed. Some plants form not only partly oxidized C-H bonds
(cellulose or lignin) but also form completely oxygen-free hydrocarbons. The oil of the plant itself
can be directly used as an energy source.
The agro-chemical process involves an Agriculture phenomenon (Cultivation of the plants) &
Chemical phenomenon (Conversion of biomass into biofuel). Straight Vegetable Oils (SVO)/ Pure
Plant Oil (PPO) are prepared from the organic matter (plants). Vegetable oils are esters of glycerin
commonly known as triglycerides. They can be used as fuel as it is, without being converted to
biodiesel. Straight Vegetable Oils can also be blended with conventional diesel to form Bio Diesel.
Pure Plant Oil (PPO) is obtained from cotton seeds, groundnuts, jatropha, sunflower, canola etc.

4. BIOGAS PRODUCTION
Bio gas is flammable fuel gas with 60% methane and rest carbon dioxide. It also consists of
small quantities of other gases like H2 and H2S. It is a clean and efficient fuel. This gas can be
upgraded by removal of carbon dioxide and gas with high heating value is obtained. The main
applications of biogas are:
➢ Cooking
➢ Domestic lighting and heating
➢ IC Engines

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4.1. Properties of Biogas:

• Comparatively simple and can be produced easily
• Burns out without smoke & without leaving ash as residues
• Household wastes & bio-wastes can be disposed of usefully & in a healthy manner
• Reduces the use of wood & to certain extent prevents deforestation
• The slurry from the biogas plant is excellent manure

4.2. Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobe is a micro-organism that can live and grow without air or oxygen. Anaerobic
digestion is the bacterial decomposition of organic matter (biomass) in the absence of air or oxygen
to ultimately produce a gaseous mixture (biogas) of methane, carbon dioxide and small quantities
of other gases such as hydrogen sulfide.
20°C– 55°C
Decaying wet biomass Biogas (largely CH4 and CO2)
Anaerobic fermentation
Normal composting is an aerobic process (aerobic digestion) resulting in the formation of
nutrient rich fertilizer and releases CO2, but not methane. Anaerobic digestion, on the other hand,
uses no oxygen and results in the formation of methane which is a key component to biogas.
• The biomass in the form of water slurry is digested by the bacteria an-aerobically for several
days in an airtight container
• The output gas obtained from this process can be directly burnt or upgraded to superior fuel
gas by the removal of carbon dioxide and other impurities.
• The reactions are slightly exothermic and a small of heat is also generated that helps in
maintaining a favorable temperature.
• Animal manure, algae, kelp hyacinth, organic wastes are used.
Advantages:
• Both fuel & fertilizer is obtained. It is a simple and low-cost process.
• 70-75 % of biomass weight is conserved, clean process.

4.3. Biogas Plant (Biogas digester)

A biogas plant (digester) converts wet biomass in to biogas (methane) by the process of
anaerobic digestion. The bacteria called anaerobe carries out digestion of biomass without oxygen
and produces methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Biogas plants are very popular in India
especially in rural areas. Usually, two types of biogas plants are used for production of biogas:

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1) Fixed Dome type digester (constant volume type) and,

2) Floating Gas Holder type digester (constant pressure type).

4.3.1. Fixed Dome Type Digestor

The fixed dome design is of Chinese origin which consists of dome structure made of
cement, concrete or bricks. It is a constant volume plant. It is an economical design where the
digestor is combined with a dome-shaped gas holder. It is also known as Janata model. In this type,
the digestor and gas collector (gas dome) are enclosed in the same chamber. The digestor is
conveniently built at or below ground level in a comparatively cooler zone. It requires high masonry
skills and is prone to cracks and gas leakages.

Working
The slurry is prepared in the mixing tank (cattle dung and water in the ratio 1:1), is fed through
the inlet. Due to anaerobic fermentation, biogas is formed, which starts collecting in the dome of the
digester. The pressure inside the digester increases as more and more biogas is liberated. An outlet
pipe is provided at the top of the fixed dome. The outlet valve is opened when a supply of biogas is
required. The pressure exerted by the biogas forces the slurry inside the digester to move towards
the outlet chamber. It gets collected in the outlet tank, which can be manually removed. It can be
used as manure for plants. The fixed dome type digester can be fed on daily basis with small
quantities of slurry. The excess slurry can be accommodated in the displacement chamber.
Advantages of fixed dome type digester
➢ Easy construction.
➢ Inexpensive compared to floating drum.

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➢ Less maintenance required.

➢ It has no corrosion trouble.
➢ Heat insulation is better, and temperature will be constant.

Disadvantages of fixed dome type digester

➢ It requires high masonry skills.
➢ They are more prone to crack and leakages.
➢ Gas production per unit volume of the digestor is less.
➢ It produces varying gas pressure.

4.3.2. Floating Dome Type Digestor

In a floating gas holder type digester, the gas holder is separated from the digester. It
comprises an underground cylindrical masonry digester having an inlet pipe for feeding animal dung
slurry and an outlet pipe for sludge. An inverted steel drum is resting above the digester, which
allowed to move up & down (float) depending upon accumulation and discharge of gas. The floating
drum has a central guide which facilitates its vertical up and down movement. A partition wall is
also provided in the digester to improve circulation, necessary for fermentation. The gas outlet pipe
is connected to the uppermost point of the floating drum. The axis of the fixed digester and the
floating dome digester are in one line.

Working Slurry inlet tank

Gas
The slurry prepared in the mixing tank, is fed
Sludge
through the inlet pipe. Due to anaerobic Gound level
fermentation, biogas is formed in the digester. The
gas generated from the slurry gets collected in the Central guide
dome (gas holder). Due to this, the gas holder starts
Outlet tank
Inlet pipe
moving up and it stops at a certain limit. The weight Outlet pipe
of the floating steel cylinder ensures that the gas is Digester
produced under constant pressure. As the pressure Partition wall
inside the digester increases further, the slurry is
forced to move out through outlet pipe. The slurry
collected outside can be further used a manure for
Floating dome type digester
plants.

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Advantages of floating drum digester

➢ It has no problem of gas leakage.
➢ Gas is produced under constant pressure.
➢ High efficiency when compared with fixed type.
➢ It has less trouble because solids are constantly submerged.
➢ Higher gas production per unit volume of digester is achieved.

Disadvantages of floating drum digester

➢ Higher cost of construction.
➢ More maintenance is required.

5. BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION

Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol, known as alcohol, is a colorless and flammable liquid with a
chemical formula C2H5OH. It is the alcoholic product of fermenting the sugars in natural raw
materials with yeast. Ethanol can be produced by the fermentation of any feedstock that contains
sugar or starch. It can also be produced from cellulose materials that can be converted in to
fermentable sugar. The natural raw materials include vegetable matter, sugarcane, farm waste, waste
organic products (straw & dust), wastes of paper and pulp industries etc.

Bio-ethanol is one of the forms of renewable energies. It is generally produced by the

conversion of carbon-based feedstock. It is most often used as a motor fuel mainly as a bio-fuel
additive for gasoline. Bio-ethanol is generally produced by the conversion of carbon-based feed
stock. The most commonly used feedstock is sugarcane, due to its high productivity when supplied
with enough water. Other feedstocks include sugar beet, carbohydrate rich potatoes, wheat and
maize. Ethanol thus produced, can be mixed with petrol which can be used as an automobile fuel.
The solid residue from the fermentation process can be used as cattle feed.

5.1. Alcoholic Fermentation

Fermentation is the use of ferment such as yeast, bacteria, enzymes to convert carbohydrates
into alcohol mostly ethanol or bioethanol. It is the decomposition of biomass in the absence of air
with the use of ferments. Starch & sugar-based biomass such as grains and sugar crops ae converted
by fermentation into ethanol (C2H5OH) by the action of enzymes present in the yeast in acidic
conditions. The most commonly used feedstock is sugarcane, sugar-beet, potatoes, maize & wheat.
The chemical process involved in ethanol fermentation is given by:

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32°C
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2 CO2
Glucose Fermentation

Fermentation is a process of decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms especially,

bacteria and yeasts. Yeast is a single-celled fungus that feeds on sugar and causes fermentation. As
the fungus feeds on the sugar, it produces alcohol. Sugar crops contain glucose which can be readily
fermented in to alcohol by yeast without intermediate processing. After about 30 hours of
fermentation, the brew contains 6-10% alcohol which is removed by distillation.
One tonne of sugar will produce up to 520 litres of alcohol, a tonne of grain – 350 litres and
a tonne of wood are estimated to produce 260 to 540 litres of alcohol. The ethanol formation of
biomass occurs at 20 – 35 0C. the process takes about 50 hours. Yield is about 90% liquid. It
contains about 10 – 20% alcohol depending upon the tolerance of yeast to alcohol. Concentration of
alcohol is increased by distillation.
Advantages:
• Both fuel & cattle feed is obtained.
• 60-65% of biomass weight is conserved.

5.2. Bioethanol Production from Sugarcane/Corn

Bioethanol is produced by fermentation of sugarcane or corn or any other sugars or starches.
In fermentation process, energy is obtained when sugar is changed to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Changing corn to ethanol by fermentation takes place in many steps. Starch in corn must be broken in
to simple sugars before the fermentation process can occur. Ethanol can be produced from corn by
using any one of two standard processes such as wet milling or dry milling process. Dry milling plants
costs less to build and produce higher yields of ethanol. The major steps of dry milling process are as
follows:
a) Milling: After the corn or sugarcane is cleaned, it is first passed through hammer mills which
grind it in to a fine powder. This process reduces the crystallinity and increases the bulk density.
The milled material also allows for a high slurry concentration thereby reducing the reactor
volume and hence, the capital cost is reduced.
b) Liquefaction (Cooking): The meal is then mixed with water and enzyme (alpha amylase) and it
passes through cookers where starch is liquified. It is cooked for 30 minutes. A pH of 7 is
maintained by adding sulphuric acid or sodium hydroxide. Heat is applied to enable the
liquefaction process with the help of cookers with a temperature range of 120 – 150 0C.

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c) Saccharification: The mash from the cookers is cooled and the enzyme gluco amylase is added
to convert the starch molecules in to fermentable sugars.
d) Fermentation: Yeast is added to the mash to ferment sugars to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Using a continuous process, the fermenting mash flows through several fermenters until the
mash is fully fermented and leaves the tank. In a batch fermentation process, the mash stays in
one fermenter for 48 hours.
The conversion of cellulose, starch and sugars to ethanol (C2H5OH) is given by:
(C6H10O5)n (cellulose) + nH2O n C6H12O6 (glucose)
C12H22O11 + H2O 2C6H12O6 (glucose)
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH (ethanol) + 2CO2
e) Distillation: The fermented mash called “beer” contains 10% alcohol as well as non-fermentable
solids from corn and yeast cells. The mash is then pumped to continuous flow and multi-column
distillation system where the alcohol is removed from the solids and water.

Fig: Ethanol production from sugarcane/ corn

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f) Dehydration: The alcohol then passes through a dehydration system where the remaining water
is removed. Benzene and petrol are common additives in a further process to separate the
residual water. The alcohol after this stage is anhydrous ethanol (100% pure ethanol without
water).
g) Denaturing: Ethanol is used as fuel and it is to be denatured with a small amount (2 – 5 %) of
some product such as gasoline to make it unfit for human consumption.

Two primary co-products of ethanol production are distiller grain and carbon-dioxide, both of
which have market value. Distiller grain consists of the protein value of corn, yeast, fibre and water
discharge from the first stage distillation column. The distiller grain has a high protein content of
about 27%. Therefore, it makes an excellent animal feedstock supplement.

6. BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

Biodiesel is an alternative renewable fuel, like conventional or ‘fossil’ diesel. Biodiesel

(fatty acid methyl esters) can be produced from vegetable oil, animal oil/fats and waste cooking oil.
Vegetable oils are esters of glycerin, commonly known as triglycerides. Fats and oils are chemically
reacted with an alcohol (usually methanol) to produce chemical compounds known as fatty acid
methyl esters. Glycerin is produced as a co-product. The process of converting the triglyceride oils to
methyl (or ethyl) esters is known as transesterification.

6.1. Transesterification
This process involves both extraction of oils form biomass & conversion of them to bio
diesel. In transesterification process, triglycerides (Straight Vegetable Oils) reacts with alcohol
(Ethanol or Methanol) in the presence of a catalyst (sodium hydroxide or sodium methoxide) to
produce alkyl ester (Biodiesel) & glycerin.

The heavier co-product, glycerol settles out and may be used as it is, or it may be purified for
use in industries. Glycerin is used in many common products like soap and it is highly marketable.
Therefore, there is little waste in this process. The key factors regulating transesterification are
temperature (>240 0C), pressure (>5 bars), reaction time and mixing.

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Oil is extracted from seeds of many plants like jatropha, soya

Biomass feedstock
beans, sunflower, rape seed etc., by crushing. The oils are compounds
called triglycerides, whose large molecules are effectively various
organic acids combined with glycerol (an alcohol). The conversion Oil extraction
process (transesterification) involves adding methanol or ethanol to
the vegetable oil. This converts triglycerides in to esters of methanol
Transesterification
or ethanol, together with free glycerol. The glycerol, a valuable by –
product, is removed, and the excess alcohol is extracted for recycling,
leaving the biodiesel. Biodiesel is non-toxic, biodegradable and Separation of biodiesel
from glycerin
essentially free from Sulphur. Biodiesel can be blended with diesel to
the extent of 5% in different Indian climatic conditions. In countries
Biodiesel
with warmer climates, blends of up to 30% vegetable oil with diesel
are used often without transesterification. Transesterification process

No engine modification other than tuning is required to use it, although its lower energy
content means that the fuel consumption is about 10% higher. Most biodiesel produced at present are
is from waste vegetable oil from restaurants, bakeries etc.

6.2. Advantages of Biodiesel Fuel

• It is ‘carbon neutral’ which produces 80% less CO 2 and is essentially free from Sulphur.
• It is non-toxic and biodegradable.
• It can be either used in pure form (100% biodiesel) or may be blended with petroleum diesel
at any concentration for use in modern diesel engines.
• It has a higher flash point making it safe to transport.
• Hydrocarbon and particulate matter emissions can be reduced by 50%.
• It enables diesel engines to run smoother and quitter and have a longer life.

6.3. Disadvantages of Biodiesel Fuel

• High production cost compared to petroleum-based diesel fuel.

• It is not readily available.
• It increases NOx emissions.

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7. BIOBUTANOL PRODUCTION
Butanol (C4H9OH) is a colourless, flammable alcohol. It is widely used in industry, as a
solvent. Biobutanol is a four-carbon alcohol produced by the fermentation of biomass. Its properties
are similar to that of gasoline. Some gasoline-powered vehicles can even use biobutanol without
being modified. Biobutanol can be blended with gasoline in concentrations up to 11.5% by volume.
Biobutanol exhibits the potential to reduce carbon emissions by 85% when compared to gasoline,
thus making it a viable and suitable alternative to gasoline and gasoline-ethanol blended fuels. The
production of biobutanol can be carried out in ethanol production facilities.

7.1. Applications of Biobutanol

➢ The primary use of biobutanol is a fuel in an internal combustion engine.
➢ Biobutanol can also be used as an industrial solvent and chemical feedstock.
➢ Possible other applications may include paints/coatings, resins, plasticizers,
pharmaceuticals, food grade extractants, chemical intermediates and herbicides.

7.2. Biobutanol production process

Biobutanol is produced by microbial fermentation,
similar to bioethanol, and can be made from the same
range of sugar, starch or cellulosic feedstocks. The most
common method of producing biobutanol is the
fermentation of simple sugars in biomass feedstock.
Butanol is a by-product of this process in addition to
ethanol and acetone. The process, known as ABE
(Acetone Butanol Ethanol), uses the microbial species
Clostridium acetobutylicum. In addition to butanol, these
organisms also produce acetone and ethanol, so the
process is often referred to as the “ABE fermentation”.
The main concern with Clostridium acetobutylicum is that
it easily gets poisoned at concentrations above 2% of
biobutanol in the fermenting mixture. This hinders the
production of bio-butanol in economically viable
quantities.

Researchers have made significant advances in developing new micro-organisms capable of

surviving in high butanol concentrations.

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8. HYDROGEN AS A FUEL

• Hydrogen is an odourless and colourless gas with density 0.837 Kg/m3.

• Hydrogen is an ideal replacement of fuels such as coal, oil & natural gas.
• It is nontoxic and recyclable.
• It burns cleanly, when burnt with oxygen, only byproducts are heat and water.
• Hydrogen is the simplest element consisting of only one proton and one electron.
• It has the highest energy content per unit weight of any known fuel 120.7 kJ/g.
• A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water.
• It is also the most plentiful element in the universe.
• It does not occur naturally as a gas on earth, it us always combined with other elements. E.g.;
water.
• It is also found in many organic compounds like hydrocarbons.

8.1. Uses of Hydrogen

➢ Hydrogen is used to produce ammonia & methanol.
➢ Hydrogen is used in fuel cells to produce electricity.
➢ It can also serve as a fuel in internal combustion engines.
➢ Hydrogen in its liquid form has been used as a fuel in space vehicles.
➢ It is also used in semi-conductor industries and rockets.

8.2.Advantages of using hydrogen as a fuel

➢ Hydrogen can be produced anywhere.
➢ It is renewable and most abundantly available.
➢ Hydrogen is a non-toxic substance.
➢ Hydrogen is much more fuel efficient than petroleum-based fuels – produces more energy
per unit of fuel.
➢ It can be directly burnt in turbines.
➢ When hydrogen is burned, the only emission is water vapour. Carbon dioxide is not
produced.
➢ Hydrogen has the potential to run a fuel-cell engine with greater efficiency over an IC
engine.

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8.3. Disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel

➢ Since hydrogen is the smallest molecule, it has greater tendency to leak.

➢ Hydrogen gets ignited even in the absence of an external ignition.
➢ Hydrogen flame is nearly invisible, which may be dangerous.
➢ More energy is needed to liquefy hydrogen.
➢ Hydrogen must be stored in extremely low temperatures & high pressure. Hence it requires
larger containers.
➢ It is extremely reactive, highly combustible & inflammable.
➢ Fuel cost would be high with current technology & availability.
➢ NOx emissions are high because of high flame temperature.

8.4. Methods of producing hydrogen fuel

The world’s annual production of hydrogen gas from all sources is about 500 billion cubic
meters (plus 125 cubic meter as a co-product) weighing 50 million tonnes with an energy content of
6×1018 joules. Today, about 95% of the hydrogen is produced by steam reforming of natural gas and
some form of fossil fuel. Hydrogen is produced from different raw materials and from different
processes. Some of the methods used are:

a) Steam reforming of hydrocarbons

➢ Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons through the application of heat. This
process is known as reforming.
➢ Hydrocarbons such as methane, propane etc., reacts with steam under 3 – 25 bar
pressure in the presence of a catalyst (nickel) to produce hydrogen, carbon monoxide
and a relatively small amount of carbon dioxide.
➢ Steam reforming is endothermic, i.e., heat must be supplied to the process for the
reaction to proceed.
b) Electrolysis
➢ Electrolysis of water to separate oxygen and hydrogen is the simplest method of
hydrogen production.
➢ Currently not efficient of cost effective as compared to thermo – chemical methods.
➢ This method is most suitable when primary energy is available as electrical energy
(E.g., solar photovoltaic energy)

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c) Partial oxidation of hydrocarbons

➢ In this process, the methane and other hydrocarbons in natural gas react with limited
amount of oxygen (typically from air) that is not enough to completely oxidize the
hydrocarbons to CO2 and water.
➢ The reaction products contain primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and a
relatively small amount of carbon dioxide and other compounds.
➢ It is an exothermic process and is much faster than steam reforming.
d) Coal Gasification
➢ It generates hydrogen from the reaction of steam and oxygen with pulverized coal
(powdered coal).
➢ Coal gasification produces syngas, a product of high temperature gasification of
biomass/coal.
➢ Syngas primarily consists of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2).
➢ The syngas is cleaned of its impurities and hydrogen is generated.

9. BIOHYDROGEN PRODUCTION
Biohydrogen is the hydrogen that is produced biologically. It is produced through the action
of living organisms. Photo-biological systems use micro-organisms to split water using sunlight.
Biological systems use microbes to break down a variety of biomass feed stocks in to hydrogen.
Gasification systems uses heat to break down biomass into a gas from which pure hydrogen can be
generated. Renewable energy of the sun and wind can also be utilized to generate hydrogen.
Electrolysis of water can be carried out by using power from PV solar cells or wind turbines.

9.1. Bio-photolysis Method

Photolytic hydrogen production technologies use the energy from sunlight to split water into
hydrogen and oxygen. Certain photosynthetic microbes produce hydrogen in their metabolic
activities using light energy. By employing catalysts and engineered systems, hydrogen production
efficiency could reach to 24%.

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In this method, the ability of plants (algae) to split water during photosynthesis process is
utilized. An artificial system is devised which could produce both hydrogen and oxygen from water
using isolated photosynthesis membrane and other catalysts. The system consists of three distinct
components:

1. Photosynthetic membrane – which absorbs light, split water to generate oxygen, electrons
and protons.
2. An electron mediator – which is reducible by photosynthetically generated electrons and;
3. A proton activator – which will accept electrons from the reduced mediator and catalyze the
reaction.
The reaction is given by:
2H+ + 2e- H2

9.2. Production of Hydrogen Fuel from Sunflower Oil

Scientists in the University of Leads, England have developed an experimental hydrogen
generator which needs only sunflower, air and water vapour along with two highly specialized
nickel-based and carbon-based catalysts. These are alternatively used to store and then release
oxygen or CO2 while producing hydrogen intermittently. This process does not involve burning of
fossil fuel, hence the hydrogen becomes renewable.

First, the nickel-based unit catalyst absorbs oxygen from the air and this interaction heats up
the reactor bed of the device. Simultaneously, in the presence of heat, another catalyst (a carbon-
based adsorbent) released CO2 previously trapped in the device. Once the reactor bed is hot and all
the CO2 has been released from the reactor, the mixture of vaporized oil and water is fed in to the
reactor chamber. The heat from the reactor bed breaks down the Carbon-hydrogen bonds in the
vaporized oil. Water (steam) binds its oxygen to the carbon, releasing its hydrogen and yielding
carbon monoxide. Water vapour and carbon monoxide tend to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen in
the presence of each other. This overall process results in a cyclical production of hydrogen.

Hydrogen fuel thus produced is of 90% purity which is more efficient than other hydrogen
producers which produce hydrogen fuel of about 70% purity. Methane and CO2 are the by-products
of sunflower oil transformation which are generated in equal proportions. At present, the generator is
heated electrically, but in near future, all the heat necessary to carry out the reaction of steam with
oil vapour will come from the intake of oxygen on the nickel catalyst.

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10. STORAGE OF HYDROGEN

At ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure, 1kg of the gas has a volume of 11m3
which is the quantity needed to drive only 100 km. For this reason and due to its inflammability,
hydrogen is stored using one of the following techniques.
a) Storing hydrogen as compressed gas – The easiest way to decrease the volume of a gas, at
constant temperature, is to increase its pressure. So, at 700 bar, which is 700 times normal
atmospheric pressure, hydrogen has a density of 42 kg/m3, compared with 0.090 kg/m3 under
normal pressure and temperature conditions. At this pressure, 5 kg of hydrogen can be stored
in a 125-liter tank. Storing hydrogen as pressurized gas is currently the most developed
storage technology. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar and 700 bars is used
for hydrogen vehicles. Issues with compressed hydrogen gas tanks relates to high pressure,
weight, volume, conformability and cost.
b) Storing hydrogen as liquid – Another method for storing maximum hydrogen in a restricted
volume is to convert hydrogen gas to liquid hydrogen by cooling it to a very low
temperature. Hydrogen turns in to a liquid when it is cooled to a temperature below -252.87
0
C. At -252.87 0C and 1.013 bar, liquid hydrogen has a density close to 71 kg/m3. At this
pressure, 5kg of hydrogen can be stored in a 75-liter tank. In order to maintain liquid
hydrogen at this temperature, tanks must be perfectly isolated. The issues with liquid
hydrogen tanks are hydrogen boil-off, the energy required for hydrogen liquefaction, volume,
weight, and tank cost. Typically, 30% of the heating value of hydrogen is required for
liquefaction.
c) Storing hydrogen as solid – Hydrogen is stored as solid by either absorbing or reacting with
metals or chemical compounds or storing in an alternative chemical form. Hydrogen can be
stored at high densities in reversible metal hydrides. Whenever it is needed, it can be released
by heating the hydride and original metal or alloy is recovered for further recycling. Metal
hydrides offer the advantage of lower pressure storage, comfortable shape and reasonable
volumetric storage efficiency. But, only a low mass of hydrogen can be stored in these
materials, which is currently the major downside of this technology. Hydrides of alloys like
Lanthanum – Nickel, Iron – Titanium, Magnesium – Nickel are most promising means for
storage of hydrogen. Issues with metal hydrides includes low hydrogen capacity, heavy
weight, low uptake and release rate and cost.

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