ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®

J.R. Davis, editor, p 345-348 All rights reserved.

DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p345 www.asminternational.org

The Cobalt Industry: Occurrence,

Recovery, and Consumption

COBALT is classified as a strategic and cobalt is 8.85 g/cm3, which is similar to that of • 0.2% yield strength: 305 to 345 MPa (44–50
critical metal because of its applications in de- nickel (8.902). Cobalt is ferromagnetic, exhib- ksi)
fense-related industries and the dependence of iting a room-temperature initial permeability of • Tensile strength: 800 to 875 MPa (116–127
industrialized nations on cobalt imports. Co- 68, a maximum permeability of 245, and a Cu- ksi)
balt is used to make heat resistant superalloys, rie temperature of 1121 °C (2050 °F), which is • Elongation: 15 to 30%
corrosion resistant and wear resistant alloys, considerably higher than that of iron (770 °C,
magnets, high-speed tool steels, and cemented or 1418 °F) or nickel (358 °C, or 676 °F). Other Air-melted materials are much less ductile.
carbides. Some cobalt alloys are also biocom- important physical properties include:
patible, which has prompted their use as ortho-
pedic implants. Cobalt compounds are also • Melting point: 1493 °C (2719 °F)
important for nonmetallurgical applications, • Boiling point: 3100 °C (5612 °F)
such as catalysts for the petroleum and chemi- • Coefficient of thermal expansion: 13.8 Occurrence and Supply
cal industries; drying agents for paints, var- μm/m · K at room temperature
nishes, and inks; ground coats for porcelain • Specific heat: 0.414 kJ/kg · K at room tem-
enamels; pigments; batteries; and magnetic re- Cobalt occurs in nature in a fairly wide-
perature spread but dispersed form, being detectable in
cording media.
• Thermal conductivity: 69.04 W/m · K at trace quantities in many rocks, coals, soils,
room temperature plant life, and manganese-rich marine nodules.
• Electrical conductivity: 27.6% IACS at 20 °C The currently exploited sources of cobalt, how-
(68 °F) ever, are mainly those where it originates as a
Elemental Cobalt • Electrical resistivity: 52.5 nΩ · m at 20 °C byproduct of other more abundant or more
(68 °F) valuable metals, particularly copper and nickel,
• Coercive force: 8.9 Oe (708 A/m) but also zinc, lead, and platinum-group metals.
Physical Properties. With an atomic num- • Saturation magnetization: 1.87 T (18.7 kG) As shown in Table 1, cobalt-containing ores in-
ber of 27, cobalt (symbol Co) falls between iron • Residual magnetization: 0.49 T (4900 G) clude various copper and nickel sulfides, ox-
and nickel on the periodic table. The density of ides, and arsenides. Tables 2 and 3 list mining
Crystal Structure. At temperatures below and refining statistical data for cobalt. As these
417 °C (783 °F), cobalt exhibits a hexagonal data indicate, the so-called “Copper Belt” in
close-packed (hcp) structure (∈-cobalt). Be- Africa, which includes the Democratic Repub-
Temperature, °F tween 417 °C (783 °F) and its melting point of lic of Congo (formerly Zaire) and Zambia, is
32 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1493 °C (2719 °F), cobalt has a face-centered the largest supplier of cobalt. Other countries
250
cubic (fcc) structure (α-cobalt). where the mining or refining of cobalt is signif-
Mechanical Properties. The hardness at icant include Canada, Russia, Australia, Fin-
200 room temperature of various samples of cobalt land, and Norway.
has been reported as falling between 140 and
250 HV (Ref 1). For well-annealed samples of
Hardness, HV

150
high-purity metal, the values fall between 140
and 160 HV. The variation of hardness with
temperature is shown in Fig. 1. Extraction and Refining
100
The elastic moduli of cobalt are 211 GPa
(30.6 × 106 psi) for Young’s modulus, 82 GPa Because cobalt production is usually subsid-
50 (11.9 × 106 psi) for shear modulus, and 183 iary to that of copper or nickel, extraction pro-
GPa (26.5 × 106 psi) for compressive modulus. cedures vary according to which of these met-
For high-purity (99.5%) vacuum-melted co- als is associated with the cobalt. The extraction
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 balt that has been hot worked followed by an- process varies from ore to ore and also depends
Temperature, °C nealing at temperatures ranging from 800 to on the extractor. Hydrometallurgical, pyro-
1000 °C (1470–1830 °F), the tensile properties metallurgical, vapormetallurgical, and electro-
Fig. 1 Hardness of cobalt as a function of temperature.
Source: Ref 1 obtained fall with the following ranges (Ref 1): lytic processes, or combinations of these pro-
346 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 1 The principal cobalt-containing ores Cobalt-containing mattes and sulfide con-
centrates have also been treated by pressure
Ore Composition Locations leaching and by leaching in chloride media. De-
Skutterudite (Co,Ni)As3 Bou-Azzer, Morocco; Cobalt, Ontario, tails of these processes can be found in Ref 2.
Canada Recovery from Copper-Cobalt Oxide
Carrolite CuCo2S4 or CuSCo2S3 Congo; Zambia
Linnaeite Co3S4 (+Ni,Cu,Fe) Congo; U.S. (Mississippi Valley); Zambia Concentrates. The heterogenite mineral from
Cattierite CoS2 Congo the Congo (see Table 1) is obtained from
Nickel cattierite (Co,Ni)S2 Congo open-pit mines, and the crude ore is crushed
Cobaltite CoAsS U.S. (Idaho); Cobalt, Ontario, Canada and milled before concentration of the
Heterogenite 2Co2O3CuO·6H2O Congo metal-bearing fraction by froth flotation. In this
Asbolite Mixed manganese-iron oxides + Co Congo; Zambia; New Caledonia
Pyrrhotite Ni,Cu,(Co) sulfides Sudbury, Ontario, Canada process, the milled ore is suspended in an aque-
Laterites Weathered igneous rock containing silicates, magnesium Moa Bay, Cuba; various locations in the U.S., ous medium through which air is blown and to
oxide, limonite, and 2–3% Ni+Co Australia, Brazil, and Russia which specific frothing and surface-active
agents are added. These selectively carry the
valuable mineral from the unwanted gangue.
The cobalt-rich oxides, with roughly equal cop-
per and cobalt contents, are then sintered to pel-
lets and fed to electric smelting furnaces along
cesses, are used to extract and refine cobalt. Recovery from Nickel-Cobalt Sulfide
with selected high-grade ores that are suitable
Several examples are described below. Addi- Concentrates. Nickel sulfide concentrates can
for smelting without prior concentration. The
tional information on recovery of cobalt from be treated by either roasting or flash smelting to
cobalt-bearing concentrate is then mixed with
nickel-bearing ores can be found in the article produce a matte from which nickel and cobalt
lime and coal and melted in a reducing atmo-
“The Nickel Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, can be recovered hydrometallurgically, or they
sphere to produce cobalt-copper (+Fe) alloys.
and Consumption” in this Handbook. may be treated by an ammonia solution pres-
Two types are obtained: a heavy red alloy con-
Recovery from Copper-Cobalt Sulfide sure leach. In the Sherritt Gordon process used
taining approximately 5% cobalt that is pro-
Concentrates (Ref 2). The copper-cobalt sul- at Fort Saskatchewan in Alberta, Canada, a
cessed for copper, and a lighter white alloy
fide ores of central Africa (Congo and Zambia) feed of matte and sulfide concentrate contain-
containing approximately 40% cobalt that is
are treated by a sulfatizing roast in a fluidized- ing approximately 0.4% cobalt and 30% sulfur
further refined by hydrometallurgical process-
bed furnace to convert copper and cobalt sul- is pressure leached at elevated temperature and
ing to produce cobalt of 99% purity.
fides into soluble oxides and iron into insoluble pressure in an ammoniacal solution to produce
Cobalt is also recovered from copper oxide
hematite. The calcine is subseqently leached a solution containing nickel, copper, and co-
ores containing much smaller proportions of
with sulfuric acid from the spent copper recov- balt. Copper is precipitated as sulfide, and the
cobalt, on the order of 1 part cobalt to 25 to 30
ery electrolyte. Oxide concentrates are intro- solution is then reduced with hydrogen, again
parts copper. These minerals undergo a combi-
duced at this leaching step to maintain the acid at high temperature and pressure, to precipitate
nation of hydrometallurgical and electrolytic
balance in the circuit. Iron and aluminum are nickel powder. The remaining solution contains
processing (Ref 1).
removed from the leach solution, and copper is approximately equal proportions of nickel and
Recovery from Laterite Ores. Laterites
electrowon on copper cathodes. A part of the cobalt, and these are separated by further selec-
consist of a mantle of completely weathered ig-
spent electrolyte enters the cobalt recovery cir- tive reduction processes carried out under con-
neous rocks forming a soil, from approximately
cuit and is purified by removal of iron, copper, trolled conditions of pH, temperature, and pres-
1 m (3 ft) to more than 30 m (100 ft) thick,
nickel, and zinc prior to precipitation of cobalt sure, yielding cobalt powder with a purity of
found mainly in tropical or subtropical cli-
as its hydroxide. In the final stages, this cobalt approximately 99.6%. The flow diagram of this
mates. Cobalt-bearing silicate laterites contain
hydroxide is redissolved and the metal is re- process is shown in Fig. 3. A more detailed de-
hydrated iron oxides, magnesium oxide, 2 to
fined by electrolysis. Figure 2 shows the flow scription of the Sherritt process for producing
diagram for this process as used at the Générale cobalt powders can be found in Powder Metal
des Carrières et des Mines (Gécamines) in the Technologies and Applications, Volume 7 of
Congo. the ASM Handbook (Ref 3).

Table 3 Worldwide cobalt refinery

capacity in 1998
Table 2 World mine production of cobalt
Country Metric tonnes(a)(b)

Metric tonnes(a)(b) Australia 2,000

Country 1997 1998 Belgium 1,200
Brazil 500
Australia 3,000 3,300 Canada 4,700
Botswana 334 335
China 1,500
Brazil 400 400
Congo (formerly Zaire) 17,000
Canada 5,709 6,039
Finland 10,600
China 200 210
Congo (formerly Zaire) 3,500 1,500 France 300
Cuba 2,082 2,200 Japan 480
Kazakhstan 300 300 Morocco 300
Morocco 714 287 Norway 4,500
New Caledonia 1,000 1,000 Russia 8,000
Russia 3,300 3,200 South Africa 1,500
South Africa 450 450 United States 900
Zambia 6,043 7,000 Zambia 5,000
Zimbabwe 100 90
Total 58,500
Total 27,100 26,300
(a) Data are rounded to three digits; may not add up to totals shown.
(a) Data are rounded to three digits; may not add up to totals shown. (b) Includes estimates. Source: U.S. Geological Survey (b) Includes estimates. Source: U.S. Geological Survey
 The Cobalt Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption / 347

3% nickel, and a cobalt content 1/15th to 1/50th ods and from which cobalt can be recovered by Market Percentage Form

that of nickel. Nickel-cobalt laterite ores can be electrolysis or by carbonate precipitation. Cemented carbides and 15.2 Powder
treated by either hydrometallurgical processes diamond tooling
Catalysts 8.0 Salts (carbonate, sulfate,
or pyrometallurgical processes, such as matte or End Uses of Cobalt nitrate, acetate), metal
ferronickel smelting, which require the entire Colorizers(a) 11.6 Oxide plus some sulfate,
ore to be melted and the metal values to be sep- hydroxide, and carbonate
arated from the residual components of the ore. According to the Cobalt Development Insti- Feedstuff, anodizing, 5.0 Mainly sulfate, but some
magnetic recording, carbonate and hydroxide
The hydrometallurgical processes for laterite ore tute, worldwide consumption of cobalt can be electrolysis, and
can use sulfuric acid or ammonia leach solutions. broken into the following market segments: copper electrowinning
Recovery from Arsenide Ores. Arsenic- Batteries 9.5 Hydroxide, powder, LiCoO2
Market Percentage Form Tire adhesives, soaps, 11.0 Soaps and complexes made
containing concentrates are roasted in a fluidized
Superalloys 24.3 Metal and driers (for paint from metal starting point
bed to remove 60 to 70% of the arsenic present (Ni-base/Co-base/Fe-base) and/or ink)
as arsenic oxide (Ref 2). The roasted ores can Hardfacing and other alloys 6.9 Powder, metal
be treated with hydrochloric acid and chlorine Magnets 8.5 Metal, powder Total 100
or with sulfuric acid to give a leach solution (continued) (a) For coloring glass, enamels, plastics, ceramics, and fabrics
that can be purified by hydrometallurgical meth-

Sulfide concentrate Matte and mixed

Sulfide
Sulfatizing roast SO2
Air
H2SO4 Pressure leaching Residue
Leaching Oxide concentrates NH3
Solution
Sulfate solution To dump

Purification Boil off NH3 CuS • CuS2

Solution To Cu smelter
Cu electrowinning Cu cathodes

Spent electrolyte H2S Cu strip autoclave NiS • CuS

Solution
Lime Fe and Al removal Fe residue

Air Oxyhydrolysis autoclave

To dumps

1st Cu H2 Ni reduction autoclave Ni powder

Lime precipitation Cu precipitate To Cu circuit

2nd Cu Mixed sulfide

Lime CuCo precipitate Solution
precipitation precipitation autoclave

Co
Mixed sulfides Concentration
Ni precipitation NiS
NaHS
Crystallization
Air
Pressure leaching
H2S H2SO4
Zn precipitation ZnS
Na2Co3
(NH4)2SO4

Lime Co precipitation
NH3 Fe removal autoclave Jarosite
Co(OH)2

NH3 Oxidation autoclave To dump

Co dissolution Air

Co H2SO4 Ni removal NiSO4 • (NH4)2SO4 • 6H2O

Co electrowinning Crushing
cathodes

Co powder
Co spent electrolyte Vacuum Co reduction Ni recovery
H2SO4
degassing

H2 Precipitation removal
Co metal

Co powder

Flow diagram for recovery of cobalt from copper sulfide concentrates. Fig. 3 Flow sheet for recovery of cobalt from nickel sulfide concentrates via
Fig. 2 Source: Ref 2 hydrometallurgical processing. Source: Ref 2
348 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 4 Consumption of cobalt in the United States by end use wide cobalt consumption was estimated to total
approximately 700 metric tonnes per year. Cur-
Metric tonnes(a)(b)(c)
rent estimates suggest that cobalt consumption
End use 1997 1998
in rechargeable batteries—primarily the lithium
Steel ion types—could exceed 5000 metric tonnes
Stainless and heat resisting 38 38
Tool 112 96 per year. The increasing use of cobalt in re-
Superalloys 4,170 4,110 chargeable batteries for electric vehicle appli-
Alloys (excludes steels and superalloys) cations is expected to increase this even further.
Magnetic alloys 879 771
Other alloys(d) 342 421
Cemented carbides(e) 789 844
Chemical and ceramic uses
Catalysts 734 W
Driers in paints or related usage 556 W REFERENCES
Ground coat frit 490 W
Pigments 201 W
Miscellaneous and unspecified(f) 602 2,900 1. W. Betteridge, Cobalt and its Alloys, Ellis
Horwood Limited, 1982
Total 8,910 9,180 2. Cobalt in Chemicals, Cobalt Development
(a) Data are rounded to three significant digits; may not add to totals shown. (b) Includes estimates. (c) W, withheld to avoid disclosing company pro- Institute, 1986
prietary data; included with “Miscellaneous and unspecified.” (d) Includes nonferrous alloys, welding materials, and wear-resistant alloys. (e) In- 3. G. Freeman, Production of Cobalt-Base
cludes diamond bit matrices, cemented and sintered carbides, and cast carbide dies or parts. (f) Includes feed or nutritive additive, alloy steel, glass
decolorizer, and mill products made from metal powder. Source: U.S. Geological Survey
Powders, Powder Metal Technologies and Ap-
plications, Vol 7, ASM Handbook, 1998, p
179–181
Consumption statistics in the U.S. differ con- balt compounds) account for more than 50% of
siderably with superalloys making up approxi- the cobalt consumed. Table 4 lists cobalt con-
mately 47% of all cobalt consumed versus ap- sumption by end use in the U.S.
proximately 24% worldwide. Metallurgical One of the fastest growing markets is the use SELECTED REFERENCE
uses account for more than 70% of the cobalt of cobalt in rechargeable batteries used for por-
consumed in the U.S. In some countries, most table electronic devices, such as mobile phones, • Cobalt Facts, Cobalt Development Institute,
notably Japan, nonmetallurgical uses (i.e., co- camcorders, and computers. In 1995, world- 2000
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®
J.R. Davis, editor, p 349-355 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p349 www.asminternational.org

Uses of Cobalt

USES OF COBALT can be broadly classi- sten, and molybdenum; the formation of metal of the turbine disk, a major portion of the cobalt
fied as metallurgical and nonmetallurgical. carbides; and the corrosion resistance imparted used in gas turbine engine components is used
Metallurgical uses include the wear resistant, by chromium. Generally, the softer and tougher in this application. The effects of reducing co-
corrosion resistant, and heat resistant co- compositions are used for high-temperature ap- balt in Waspaloy are reported in Ref 2. High-
balt-base alloys, the use of cobalt in nickel-base plications, such as gas turbine vanes and buck- lights of that study are shown in Fig. 1. Tensile
superalloys (the largest end-use sector for co- ets. The harder grades are used for resistance to strength decreased only slightly as the amount
balt), iron-base superalloys, cemented carbides, wear. More detailed information can be found of cobalt in the alloy decreased. However, rup-
magnetic materials, low-expansion alloys, in the article “Cobalt-Base Alloys” in this ture life decreased substantially with decreas-
steels, and, to a lesser extent, nonferrous alloys Handbook. ing amounts of cobalt. Table 1 summarizes the
and cobalt coatings. Nonmetallurgical uses in- major findings of this study. In addition to the
clude the use of cobalt compounds in chemicals slight decrease in the amount of γ ′ , the major
(for example, pigments, catalysts, driers, and Cobalt in Superalloys effects that removing cobalt had on mechanical
adhesives) and electronic applications (for ex- properties were attributed to a possible higher
ample, cobalt-containing magnetic recording Cobalt in Nickel-Base Superalloys. In stacking fault energy of the matrix and to
media and batteries). nickel-base superalloys, cobalt (which is pres- changes in carbide partitioning in grain bound-
ent typically in the range of 10–15%) provides aries. Similar studies have been carried out on
solid-solution strengthening and decreases the Udimet 700 (17% Co) and MAR-M 247 (10%
Metallurgical Uses of Cobalt solubility of aluminum and titanium, thereby Co). Summaries of these studies can be found
increasing the volume fraction of gamma in Ref 3.
prime, γ ′ , (Ni3Al), which is the phase required Cobalt in Iron-Base Superalloys. Cobalt is
Cobalt-Base Alloys for high-temperature strength and creep resis- also an important alloying element in some
tance. Cobalt in nickel-base superalloys also re- iron-base superalloys. For example, Haynes
As a group, the cobalt-base alloys can be duces the tendency for grain boundary carbide 556 (UNS R30556) is a solid-solution-strength-
generally described as wear resistant, corrosion precipitation, thus reducing chromium deple- ened Fe-Ni-Cr-Co alloy used extensively is sul-
resistant, and heat resistant (strong even at high tion at the grain boundaries. fur-bearing environments. The resistance of the
temperatures). The single largest use for co- A number of studies have been conducted to alloy to sulfidation is due to its comparatively
balt-base alloys is in the area of wear resistant determine the role of cobalt in nickel-base low nickel content (20%) coupled with the ad-
components and/or applications. In heat resis- superalloys. The goal of these studies was to dition of cobalt (18%) and a high chromium
tant applications, cobalt is more widely used as determine the effects of the reduction and/or re- level (22%). Table 2 compares the sulfidation
an alloying element in nickel-base alloys with placement of cobalt on the properties or resistance of alloy 556 with other heat resistant
cobalt tonnages in excess of those used in co- microstructural characteristics of various alloys.
balt-base heat resistant alloys. superalloys. The NASA program for the con- Another solid-solution-strengthened iron-base
Many of the properties of the alloys arise servation of strategic aerospace materials superalloy containing cobalt is Multimet (UNS
from the crystallographic nature of cobalt (in (COSAM) supports these studies (Ref 1). R30155), which is the predecessor of alloy 556.
particular, its response to stress); the solid-solu- Waspaloy, which contains 13% Co, is used
tion strengthening effects of chromium, tung- in turbine disks. Because of the size and weight
Table 1 Effects of removing cobalt from
Waspaloy
Property or characteristic Result
Hot workability
Heating No change
Cooling Decrease
Tensile strength Slight reduction
Tensile ductility No change
Stress-rupture life Major decrease
Creep rate Six-fold increase
γ ′ solvus temperature No change
γ ′ volume fraction Slight decrease (18–16%)
γ ′ chemistry Decrease of Cr and Ti and
increase of Al
Carbides
Chemistry More metal carbide as rolled;
more M23C6 843 °C
(1550 °F) aging
Fig. 1 Effect of cobalt content in Waspaloy on (a) rupture life at 730 °C (1345 °F) and 550 MPa (80 ksi) and (b) tensile Morphology Coarser
strength at 535 °C (995 °F)
350 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

This cobalt-containing alloy (20% Co) is used coatings are normally applied by vapor deposi- in TiC is relatively low in transverse strength
extensively in older aircraft gas turbines. tion techniques. and high in resistance to abrasion and cratering.
Some high-strength, precipitation-hardenable Nonmachining Grades. Cemented carbides It is used extensively for high-speed, light-duty
iron-base superalloys exhibiting low coeffi- are also being used increasingly for nonma- finishing. The alloyed grade highest in cobalt
cients of thermal expansion also contain from chining applications, such as mining, construc- content and in TaC is preferred for hot-work
13 to 16% Co. Low-expansion alloys are fur- tion, oil and gas drilling, metal forming, struc- tools, in both cutting and shaping of metals.
ther described later in this article. tural components, and wear parts. Straight
WC-Co grades are used for the majority of
these applications. In general, cobalt contents Cobalt in Magnetic Materials
Cobalt in Cemented Carbides range from 5 to 20% and WC grain sizes from
less than 1 to 8 μm and sometimes up to 30 μm. Magnetic materials can be classified as either
The role of cobalt in cemented carbides, or Influence of Cobalt on Properties. Specific soft magnet materials or permanent magnet ma-
“hard metals,” is to provide a ductile metallic properties of individual grades of cemented terials. A soft magnetic material is a ferromag-
binder for hard carbide particles. Cobalt is used carbides depend not only on the composition of netic alloy that becomes magnetized readily
as a matrix for carbide particles because its wet- the carbide but also on its grain size and on the upon the application of a magnetic field and
ting or capillary action during liquid phase sint- amount of cobalt binder. For straight grades of that returns to practically a nonmagnetic condi-
ering allows the achievement of high densities. comparable WC grain size, increasing cobalt con- tion when the field is removed. Such alloys ex-
Machining Grades. Approximately 50% of tent increases transverse strength and toughness hibit high magnetic permeability, low coercive
all cemented carbide production is used for ma- but decreases hardness, compressive strength, force, and low magnetic hysteresis loss. A per-
chining applications, and a wide variety of elastic modulus, and abrasion resistance (Fig. manent magnet material is a ferromagnetic al-
compositions are available. “Straight” grades, 2). Table 3 also lists properties of various loy capable of being magnetized permanently
which consist of tungsten carbide bonded with straight grades with varying cobalt contents. because of its ability to retain induced magneti-
cobalt (WC-Co), generally contain 3 to 12% For complex alloyed grades, comparisons zation and magnetic poles after removal of ex-
Co, and carbide grain sizes range from 0.5 to similar to those drawn for the straight grades ternally applied fields. Such alloys exhibit a
more than 5 μm. Alloy grades, or steel-cutting are not as readily made. Variations in carbide high coercive force. Cobalt, which is naturally
grades, contain titanium carbide (TiC), titanium type, as well as binder content, affect proper- ferromagnetic, provides resistance to demagne-
carbonitride (TiCN), titanium nitride (TiN), ties, which in turn influence suitability for spe- tization in several groups of magnetic materials.
tantalum carbide (TaC) and/or niobium carbide cific types of service. The two complex grades Soft Magnetic Alloys. For soft magnetic
(NbC). Improved wear resistance of cemented listed in Table 3 contain about the same amount materials, cobalt is alloyed with iron
carbide tools is achieved by multilayer hard of WC, but one contains about twice as much (49Co-49Fe-2V and Fe-27Co-0.6Cr). The
coating of TiC, TiCN, TiN, alumina (Al2O3) cobalt binder. The lower-cobalt grade is used iron-cobalt alloys exhibit a high positive
and occasionally hafnium carbide (HfC). These for lighter-duty cutting. The alloyed grade high magnetostrictive coefficient and high magnetic
saturation making them useful in laminations
for motors and generators, transformer lamina-
tions and tape torroids, magnetic pole caps, and
Table 2 Sulfidation resistance of various alloys at elevated temperatures in extremely accurate positioning devices.
Note the improved performance of the cobalt-containing alloys HR-160 (29% Co) and 556 (18% Co). Amorphous cobalt-base alloys containing
various amounts of metalloids are also avail-
760 °C (1400 °F)(a) 871 °C (1600 °F)(a) able as soft magnetic materials. A typical com-
Average metal Average metal position is Co72Fe3P16B6Al3. These materials,
Metal loss affected(b) Metal loss affected(b)
which are characterized by low hysteresis loss
Material μm mils μm mils μm mils μm mils
and low coercive force, are used as a core mate-
HR-160 alloy 5 0.2 30 1.1 3 0.1 95 3.8 rial for power-distribution transformers.
556 alloy 65 2.5 95 3.8 130 5.2 295 11.7 Permanent Magnetic Alloys. In permanent
Type 310 155 6.2 230 9.1 240 9.5 345 13.5
Alloy 800H 180 7.1 285 11.2 295 11.7 490 19.2 magnets, cobalt increases the Curie tempera-
X alloy >750 >29.5 Perforated >550 >21.7 Consumed ture and saturation magnetism. On a tonnage
Alloy 600 >560 >21.7 Perforated >550 >21.7 Consumed basis, cobalt is used to a greater extent in per-
Alloy 601 >750 >29.5 Perforated >550 >21.7 Perforated manent magnets than in soft magnets.
(a) 215 h exposure in Ar + 5% H2 + 5% CO + 1% CO2 + 0.15% H2S + 0.10% H2O. (b) Metal loss + average internal penetration The first cobalt-containing permanent
magnets were steels containing 36% Co

Table 3 Properties of representative cobalt-bonded cemented carbides

Coefficient of thermal
Relative expansion, μm/m · K Thermal
Nominal Hardness, Density Transverse strength Compressive strength Modulus of elasticity abrasion at 200 °C at 1000 °C conductivity,
composition Grain size HRA g/cm3 oz/in.3 MPa ksi MPa ksi GPa 106 psi resistance(a) (390 °F) (1830 °F) W/m · K
97WC-3Co Medium 92.5–93.2 15.3 8.85 1590 230 5860 850 641 93 100 4.0 … 121
94WC-6Co Fine 92.5–93.1 15.0 8.67 1790 260 5930 860 614 89 100 4.3 5.9 …
Medium 91.7–92.2 15.0 8.67 2000 290 5450 790 648 94 58 4.3 5.4 100
Coarse 90.5–91.5 15.0 8.67 2210 320 5170 750 641 93 25 4.3 5.6 121
90WC-10Co Fine 90.7–91.3 14.6 8.44 3100 450 5170 750 620 90 22 … … …
Coarse 87.4–88.2 14.5 8.38 2760 400 4000 580 552 80 7 5.2 … 112
84WC-16Co Fine 89 13.9 8.04 3380 490 4070 590 524 76 5 … … …
Coarse 86.0–87.5 13.9 8.04 2900 420 3860 560 524 76 5 5.8 7.0 88
75WC-25Co Medium 83–85 13.0 7.52 2550 370 3100 450 483 70 3 6.3 … 71
71WC-12.5TiC-12TaC-4.5Co Medium 92.1–92.8 12.0 6.94 1380 200 5790 840 565 82 11 5.2 6.5 35
72WC-8TiC-11.5TaC-8.5Co Medium 90.7–91.5 12.6 7.29 1720 250 5170 750 558 81 13 5.8 6.8 50

(a) Based on a value of 100 for the most abrasion-resistant material

 Uses of Cobalt / 351

Fig. 2 Variation in properties with cobalt content and grain size for straight WC-Co alloys. (a) Variation in hardness. (b) Variation in abrasion resistance. (c) Variation in density.
(d) Variation in compressive strength. (e) Variation in transverse rupture strength

having a coercive force as high as 20 kA · m–1 widely used. Both cast (with equiaxed or co- performance. Table 4 lists various properties of
(250 Oe). These materials, which were devel- lumnar grain structures) and sintered forms of the six most important cast Alnico alloys.
oped in Japan in 1917, are now considered ob- Alnico magnets are available. Cobalt contents Platinum-cobalt (23% Co) permanent mag-
solete. in the most commercially important grades nets are isotropic, ductile, easily machined, re-
Alnico alloys (Al-Ni-Co-Fe) constitute a range from 5 to 35%. Generally, Alnico alloys sistant to corrosion and high temperatures, and
group of industrial permanent magnet materials are superior to other permanent magnet materi- have magnetic properties superior to the Alnico
developed in the 1940s and 1950s that are still als in resisting temperature effects on magnetic alloys. Due to their high cost, however, they

Table 4 Magnetic, mechanical, and physical properties of major cast Alnico alloys
The value (BH)max is the most important because it represents the maximum magnetic energy that a unit volume of the material can produce in an air gap.

Mechanical and physical properties(d)

Nominal magnetic properties(c) Transverse Curie
Nominal composition(b), wt% Br Hc (BH)max Tensile strength modulus of rupture Hardness, temperature
Cast alloy(a) Al Ni Co Cu Ti T kG A · m–1 × 104 Oe J · m–3 × 104 Mg · Oe Density, g/cm3 MPa ksi MPa ksi HRC °C °F
Alnico 2 10 19 13 3 … 0.75 7.5 4.46 560 1.4 1.7 7.1 21 3.0 48 7.0 45 810 1490
Alnico 5 8 14 24 3 … 1.28 12.8 5.09 640 4.4 5.5 7.3 37 5.4 72 10.5 50 860 1580
Alnico 5-7 8 14 24 3 … 1.35 13.5 5.88 740 6.0 7.5 7.3 34 5.0 55 8.0 50 860 1580
Alnico 6 8 16 24 3 1 1.05 10.5 6.21 780 3.1 3.9 7.3 160 23 310 45 50 860 1580
Alnico 8 7 15 35 4 5 0.82 8.2 13.1 1650 4.2 5.3 7.3 70 10 210 30 55 860 1580
Alnico 9 7 15 35 4 5 1.06 10.6 11.9 1500 7.2 9.0 7.3 48 7.0 55 8.0 55 860 1580

(a) Alnico 2 is isotropic. Alnico 5, 5-7, 6, 8, and 9 are aniosotropic. Alnico 5-7 and Alnico 9 are also directional grain (columnar crystals). (b) The composition balance for all alloys is iron. Small percentages of silicon, zirco-
nium, niobium, and sulfur may also be present in certain alloys. (c) Br, remanent magnetization; Hc, normal coercive force; (BH)max, maximum magnetic energy = magnetic induction × magnetic field strength. (d) Measure-
ment of properties, such as hardness plus tensile and rupture strength, can be determined only under laboratory conditions and only for comparison purposes.
352 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 5 Compositions, thermal expansion coefficients, and room-temperature tensile properties of high-strength controlled-expansion
alloys

Coefficient of thermal expansion, Ultimate

from room temperature to: Inflection tensile 0.2% yield

Alloy 260 °C (500 °F) 370 °C (700 °F) 415 °C (780 °F) temperature strength strength Elongation, Reduction
designation UNS No. Composition, % ppm/°C ppm/°F ppm/°C ppm/°F ppm/°C ppm/°F °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi % in area,%
Incoloy 903 and N19903 0.03 C, 0.20 Si, 37.7 Ni, 16.0 Co, 7.51 4.17 7.47 4.15 7.45 4.14 440 820 1480 215 1310 190 15 45
Pyromet CTX-1 1.75 Ti, 3.0 (Nb + Ta), 1.0 Al,
0.0075 B, bal Fe
Incoloy 907 and N19907 0.06 C max, 0.5 Si, 38.0 Ni, 7.65 4.25 7.50 4.15 7.55 4.20 415 780 1170 170 825 120 15 25
Pyromet CTX-3 13.0 Co, 1.5 Ti, 4.8 (Nb + Ta),
0.35 Al max, 0.012 B max, bal Fe
Incoloy 909 and N19909 0.06 C max, 0.40 Si, 38.0 Ni, 7.75 4.30 7.55 4.20 7.75 4.30 415 780 1310 190 1070 155 10 20
Pyromet CTX-909 14.0 Co, 1.6 Ti, 4.9 (Nb + Ta),
0.15 Al max, 0.012 B max, bal Fe

have been replaced by rare earth-cobalt alloys sequently, it has been referred to as “Stainless hardening of the low-carbon, iron-nickel lathe
except in very specialized applications. Invar.” martensite matrix.
Rare earth permanent magnets using cobalt High-Strength, Controlled-Expansion Al- Commercial maraging steels are designed to
additions include the samarium-cobalt com- loys. There is a family of Fe-Ni-Co alloys provide specific levels of yield strength from
pounds SmCo5 and Sm2Co17. Developed strengthened by the addition of niobium and ti- 1380 to 2415 MPa (200–350 ksi). These steels
around 1970, these were the materials of choice tanium that show the strength of precipita- typically have very high nickel, cobalt, and mo-
for most small, high-performance devices oper- tion-hardened superalloys while maintaining lybdenum contents and very low carbon con-
ating between 175 and 350 °C (345–660 °F) low coefficients of thermal expansion typical of tents. Carbon, in fact, is considered an impurity
until the subsequent development of the less certain alloys from the Fe-Ni-Co system. Table in these steels.
expensive, more powerful neodymium-iron-bo- 5 shows compositions and properties of these As indicated in Table 7, cobalt contents in
ron alloys in 1983. For more corrosion resistant alloys. The combination of exceptional strength standard maraging steels range from 8.5 to
applications, small amounts of cobalt are added and low coefficient of expansion makes this 12.5%. The main contribution of cobalt is to
to NdFeB alloys. family useful for applications requiring close lower the solubility of molybdenum in the
operating tolerances over a range of tempera- martensitic matrix and thus increase the amount
tures. Several components for gas turbine en- of Ni3Mo precipitate formed during age hard-
gines are produced from these alloys. ening. Some hardening also results from a
Cobalt in Low-Expansion Alloys
short-range ordering reaction in the matrix that
involves cobalt.
Cobalt in Steels High-fracture toughness steels are struc-
Low-expansion or controlled-expansion al-
tural steels capable of yield strengths of 1380
loys are materials with dimensions that do not
MPa (200 ksi) and fracture toughness (KIc) val-
change appreciably with temperature. Although Cobalt is not one of the common elements
ues of 100 MPa (90 ksi) or more. Examples in-
iron-nickel alloys such as Invar (UNS added to low-alloy steels, because its direct ef-
clude HP-9-4-30 (4.50% Co), AF1410 (14.0%
K93603), a 64%Fe-36%Ni alloy, are the best fect on properties is generally less than that ob-
Co), and AerMet 100 (13.4% Co). Composi-
known of the low-expansion alloys, ternary al- tained from other more economical elements,
tions for these steels are listed in Table 8. Co-
loys of Fe-Ni-Co, Fe-Co-Cr, and high-strength such as nickel or molybdenum. Cobalt does,
balt enhances the precipitation of the
controlled-expansion alloys containing cobalt however, influence the behavior of some spe-
(Mo,Cr)2C phase, thereby increasing strength.
are also of commercial and technical impor- cialty steels.
It also raises the martensite transition tempera-
tance. High-Speed Tool Steels. The main effect of
ture, counteracting the effects of the high nickel
Fe-Ni-Co Alloys. Replacement of some of cobalt in high-speed tools steels is to increase
the nickel by cobalt in an alloy of the Invar the hot hardness (Fig. 3) and thus increase the
composition lowers the thermal expansion co- cutting efficiency when high tool temperatures
efficient and makes the expansion characteris- are attained during the cutting operation. Co-
tics of the alloy less susceptible to variations in balt is used in both molybdenum high-speed
heat treatment. One such alloy is the Super In- steels and tungsten high-speed steels in con-
var with a nominal 32% Ni and 4 to 5% Co. Its tents ranging from about 5 to 12% (Table 6).
expansion coefficient is lower than that of In- Cobalt is also used in some hot- and
var, but over a narrower temperature range. cold-work tool steels. For example, H19, a
Kovar (UNS K94610) is a nominal 29% chromium hot-work steel contains 4 to 4.50%
Ni-17%Co-54%Fe alloy that is a well-known Co; D5, a high-chromium cold-work steel con-
glass-sealing alloy suitable for sealing to hard tains 2.50 to 3.50% Co.
(borosilicate) glasses. Kovar has a nominal ex- Maraging steels comprise a special class of
pansion coefficient of approximately 5 ppm/°C ultrahigh-strength steels that differ from con-
and inflection temperature of approximately ventional steels (e.g., medium-carbon content
450 °C (840 °F). 4340 low-alloy steel) in that they are hardened
Fe-Co-Cr Alloys. An alloy containing 36.5 by a metallurgical reaction that does not in-
to 37% Fe, 53 to 54.5% Co, and 9 to 10% Cr volve carbon. Instead, these steels are strength-
has an exceedingly low, and at times, negative ened by the precipitation of intermetallic com-
(over the range from 0 to 100 °C, or 32 to 212 pounds (Ni3Mo, Fe2Mo, and Ni3Ti) at
°F) coefficient of expansion. This alloy has a temperatures of approximately 480 °C (900 Effect of cobalt content on the hot hardness of T1
good corrosion resistance compared with °F). The term maraging is derived from Fig. 3 high-speed steel. Initial hardness of 66 HRC at
low-expansion alloys without chromium. Con- martensite age hardening and denotes the age different testing temperatures
 Uses of Cobalt / 353

Table 6 Nominal compositions of high-speed tool steels Test temperature, °C

0 100 200 300 400 500
Composition, % 70
CSS-422
CSS-42L
AISI type UNS designation C Si Cr V W Mo Co
AMS 6278 (M50 NiL)
Molybdenum high-speed tool steels 65
M1 T11301 0.83 0.35 3.75 1.18 1.75 8.70 …

Hardness, HRC
M2
Regular C T11302 0.83 0.33 4.13 1.98 6.13 5.00 …
High C … 1.00 0.33 4.13 1.98 6.13 5.00 … 60
M3
Class 1 T11313 1.05 0.33 4.13 2.50 5.88 5.63 …
Class 2 T11323 1.20 0.33 4.13 3.00 5.88 5.63 … Pyrowear 675 ) AMS 5618
55 AMS 6490 (M50
M4 T11304 1.33 0.33 4.25 4.13 5.88 4.88 … (AISI 440C)
M6 T11306 0.80 0.33 4.13 1.50 4.25 5.00 12.00 AMSAMS
56186490
(AISI(M50)
440 C)
M7 T11307 1.01 0.38 3.75 2.00 1.75 8.70 …
M10 50
Regular C T11310 0.89 0.33 4.13 2.00 … 8.13 … 0 200 400 600 800 1000
High C … 1.00 0.33 4.13 2.00 … 8.13 … Test temperature, °F
M15 T11315 1.50 0.33 4.00 5.00 6.50 3.50 5.00
M30 T11330 0.80 0.33 4.00 1.25 2.00 8.00 5.00 Fig. 4 Hot hardness of case-carburized cobalt-contain-
M33 T11333 0.89 0.33 3.75 1.18 1.70 9.50 8.25 ing stainless steel (CSS-42L and Pyrowear 675)
M34 T11334 0.89 0.33 3.75 2.10 1.75 8.48 8.25 and comparative alloys
M35 T11335 0.80 0.33 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 5.00
M36 T11336 0.85 0.33 4.13 2.00 6.00 5.00 8.25
M41 T11341 1.10 0.33 4.13 2.00 6.63 3.75 8.25
M42 T11342 1.10 0.40 3.88 1.15 1.50 9.50 8.25
hardness of these cobalt-containing steels with
M46 T11346 1.26 0.53 3.95 3.15 2.05 8.25 8.30 comparative alloys.
M48 T11348 1.50 0.33 3.88 3.00 10.00 5.13 9.00 Stainless steel hardfacing alloys containing
M50 (a) T11350 0.80 0.40 4.13 1.00 … 4.25 … cobalt have also been developed. Cobalt-con-
M52 (a) T11352 0.90 0.40 4.00 1.93 1.25 4.45 …
M62 T11362 1.30 0.28 3.88 2.00 6.25 10.50 …
taining (9% Co) austenitic stainless steel
hardfacing alloys are used for repair of the cav-
Tungsten high-speed tool steels
itation erosion damage of hydraulic turbines in
T1 T12001 0.73 0.30 4.13 1.10 18.00 … …
electric power plants. Cobalt-containing (2.5%
T4 T12004 0.75 0.30 4.13 1.00 18.25 0.70 5.00
T5 T12005 0.80 0.30 4.38 2.10 18.25 0.88 8.25 Co) martensitic stainless steel hardfacing alloys
T6 T12006 0.80 0.30 4.38 1.80 19.75 0.70 12.00 are used as weld overlays on continuous caster
T8 T12008 0.80 0.30 4.13 2.10 14.00 0.70 5.00 rolls. The cobalt contributes to wear resistance
T15 T12015 1.55 0.28 4.38 4.88 12.38 1.00 5.00 and enhances resistance to thermal fatigue crack-
(a) Intermediate high-speed tool steel ing. Compositions of cobalt-containing stain-
less steel hardfacing alloys are listed in Table 8.

Cobalt in Nonferrous Alloys

content. Applications for high-fracture tough- where high strength is required in combination
ness steels include landing gear components, with smaller size and/or lighter weight.
arresting hooks, catapult hooks, fasteners, Stainless Steels. Some high-performance Beryllium copper alloys are high-copper
structural members, armor, actuators, ordnance, carburizing martensitic stainless steels for bear- alloys containing 0.2 to 2.85% Be. They are
ballistic-tolerant components, jet engine shafts, ing and gear applications also contain cobalt. used for a variety of electronic components and
drive shafts, helicopter masts, and containment Examples include Pyrowear 675 (5.40% Co) electrical equipment. The beryllium additions
rings. and CSS-42L (12.5% Co). Compositions for promote strengthening through precipitation hard-
High Strength-to-Density Ratio Steels. A these steels are listed in Table 8. Cobalt con- ening. The addition of cobalt (and/or nickel) to
companion to AerMet 100, AerMet 310, which tributes to the high fracture toughness, hot the binary Cu-Be system restricts grain growth
contains 15% Co (Table 8), has a hardness, metal-to-metal wear resistance, and during annealing by establishing a dispersion of
strength-to-density ratio greater than that of corrosion resistance. Figure 4 compares the hot beryllide, (Cu,Co)Be, particles in the matrix.
Ti-6Al-4V (Table 9). Although AerMet 310 has Cobalt additions (from a minimum of 0.20% up
a lower fracture toughness than its predecessor to 2.7% Co) also enhance the magnitude of the
alloy AerMet 100, its higher yield and ultimate age-hardening response and retards the ten-
tensile strengths make it a candidate for landing Table 8 Nominal compositions of dency to overage or soften at extended aging
gear and other critical aircraft components cobalt-containing steels times and higher aging temperatures.
High-Strength Aluminum Alloys. Rapid
Composition, % solidification processing is used to produce
Alloy C Cr Ni Mo Co Others
Table 7 Nominal compositions of
cobalt-containing maraging steels High-fracture toughness steels
AF1410 0.15 2.0 10.0 1.0 14.0 …
Table 9 Strength-to-density ratios for
Composition(a), % HP-9-4-30 0.31 1.0 7.5 1.0 4.5 0.09V various alloys
Grade Ni Mo Co Ti Al AerMet 100 0.23 3.0 11.5 1.2 13.4 …
Ratio
18Ni(200) 18 3.3 8.5 0.2 0.1 High strength-to-density ratio steel
Alloy km in. × 106
18Ni(250) 18 5.0 8.5 0.4 0.1 AerMet 310 0.25 2.4 11.0 1.4 15.0 …
18Ni(300) 18 5.0 9.0 0.7 0.1 AerMet 310 27.9 1.10
18Ni(350) 18 4.2(b) 12.5 1.6 0.1 Stainless steels AerMet 100 25.7 1.01
18Ni(cast) 17 4.6 10.0 0.3 0.1 CSS-42L 0.12 14.0 2.0 4.75 12.5 0.6V; 0.02Nb Ti-6Al-4V 25.4 1.00
12-5-3(180) (c) 12 3 … 0.2 0.3 Pyrowear 675 0.07 13.0 2.6 1.8 5.4 0.06V; 0.4Si Marage 300 25.4 1.00
IRECA 0.2 17.0 … … 9.0 9.5 Mn; 0.2N Custom 465 23.4 0.92
(a) All grades contain no more than 0.3% C. (b) Some producers use a Thermaclad 0.12 13.5 2.5 1.2 2.5 1.2 Mn; 0.4 Si;
combination of 4.8% Mo and 1.4% Ti, nominal. (c) Contains 5% Cr 423 0.18V; 0.18Nb Source: Ref 2
354 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys 7090 and 7091, which are deposits are not of commercial or technical im- adhesion required by the aerospace industry
similar in composition to conventional wrought portance. Cobalt does, however, play an (particularly for aluminum alloys).
(ingot metallurgy) alloy 7175, but contain 1.5 important role as a constituent in a number of
and 0.4% Co, respectively. Cobalt forms alloy electrodeposits. For example, cobalt addi-
Co2Al9 or (Co,Fe)2Al9 particles, which are ho- tions to nickel plating solutions increase the Nonmetallurgical Uses of Cobalt
mogeneously dispersed. These dispersoids re- hardness and strength of nickel plating, espe-
fine the grain size for improved high strength cially in electroforming. Most of the published
and ductility and enhance resistance to data about nickel-cobalt plating were deter- Chemical and Ceramic Uses
stress-corrosion cracking. mined using a 600 g/L (8 oz/gal) nickel
sulfamate solution (Ref 4). As shown in Fig. 5, Catalysts. Cobalt has marked catalytic activ-
a peak hardness of 520 HV is attained with 6 ity and is widely used in the petrochemical and
Cobalt in Coatings g/L (0.8 oz/gal) Co in the solution, which gives plastic industries. The most widely used cobalt
an alloy containing about 34% Co. Other co- catalyst consists of cobalt and molybdenum ox-
Hardfacing. The most common application balt-containing electrodeposits include co- ides supported on alumina. This is used for the
of cobalt-base coatings is that of wear-resistant balt-tungsten, cobalt-molybdenum, and hydrogen desulfurization of petroleum feed-
hardfacing alloys deposited by welding or ther- zinc-cobalt. Additional information on these stocks; desulfurization enables high-sulfur crude
mal spraying (plasma arc spray or high-velocity coatings can be found in Surface Engineering, oils to be used, reduces atmospheric pollution,
oxyfuel powder spray). Examples include the Volume 5 of the ASM Handbook, and Ref 5. and prevents poisoning of platinum catalysts
well-known Stellite alloys, which are co- Electroless Cobalt Alloy Plating. Nonelec- used on later stages of the reforming process.
balt-chromium alloys containing varying trolytically produced cobalt alloy coatings have The second major use of cobalt is in the
amounts of tungsten, molybdenum, and/or been used in a limited number of magnetic and mixed cobalt acetate/manganese sodium bro-
nickel and Co-Mo-W-Si (Tribaloy) alloys. wear applications. Examples include Co-P, mide catalyst for production of terephthalic
These materials are described in the articles Co-W-P, Co-B, and Co-W-B. Table 11 lists acid and di-methylterephthalate. These materi-
“Cobalt-Base Alloys” and “Wear Behavior of property and application information on these als are used to manufacture resin for plastic
Cobalt Alloys” in this Handbook. cobalt alloy coatings. bottles and also to make the strong plastics used
Overlay coatings are deposited on superal- Conversion Coating. Cobalt/molybdenum- in recording tapes.
loys to increase their resistance to high-temper- base conversion coatings are being developed Driers. Cobalt salts of the higher carboxylic
ature corrosion. Either electron-beam physical as possible replacements for chromate conver- acids (cobalt soaps) are used to accelerate dry-
vapor deposition or plasma spraying can pro- sion coatings, which pose health and safety ing in oil-base paints, varnishes, and inks.
duce such coatings, which are generally re- risks and which are under increasing regulatory Pigments for Ceramics and Glasses. Com-
ferred to as MCrAlY overlay coatings, where scrutiny. Laboratory tests have shown that the plex cobalt oxides are used for coloring and
M represents Co, Ni, Fe, or some combination cobalt/molybdenum process, which uses cobalt decorating ceramics and glasses. The colors ob-
of these metals. More detailed information on and molybdates rather than chromates, is capa- tained by cobalt-containing pigments are gener-
CoCrAlY coatings can be found in the article ble of imparting corrosion protection and paint ally blue to green and are largely based on co-
“High-Temperature Coatings for Superalloys”
in this Handbook.
Electroplating. Although cobalt is readily Table 10 Electrolytes and operating conditions for cobalt electroplating
electrodeposited from a number of electrolytes
(Table 10), nominally pure cobalt electro- Temperature Current density,
Electrolyte Concentration pH °C °F A/dm2
(1) Cobalt sulfate (CoSO4 · 7H2O), 332 g/L 1–4 20–50 68–122 0.5–5
boric acid (H3BO3) 30 g/L 1–4 20–50 68–122 0.5–5
(2) Cobalt chloride (CoCl2 · 6H2O), 300 g/L 1–4 20–50 68–122 0.5–5
boric acid (H3BO3) 30 g/L 1–4 20–50 68–122 0.5–5
(3) Cobalt ammonium sulfate 200 g/L 5.2 25 77 1–3
(Co(NH4)2(SO4)2 · 6H2O) 25 g/L 5.2 25 77 1–3
boric acid (H3BO3)
(4) Cobalt sulfamate (Co(SO3NH2)2 · 4H2O), 450 g/L … 20–50 68–122 1–5
formamide (HCONH2) 30 ml/L … 20–50 68–122 1–5
(5) Cobalt fluoborate, 116–154 g/L 3.5 50 122 5.6
boric acid (H3BO3) 15 g/L 3.5 50 122 5.6

Source: Cobalt Development Institute

Table 11 Electroless cobalt alloy plating systems

Environments in which plating
Hardness, has demonstrated Significant properties
Alloy HK100 corrosion resistance and applications Availability
Hypophosphite-reduced cobalt- 550–650 Alkali, brine solutions Magnetic and medical Production
phosphorus (3–6% P, bal Co) applications
Hypophosphite-reduced cobalt- 570–640 … High-temperature wear Production
tungsten-phosphorus (4–8% P, resistance
1–5%W, bal Co)
Boron-reduced cobalt-boron 350–500(a) … Wear resistance in high- Laboratory; limited
(3–4% B, bal Co) temperature applications application
Boron-reduced cobalt-tungsten-boron 750–850 … Wear applications requiring Laboratory
(3–5% B, 1–5%W, bal Co) resistance to galling can be
used at higher temperatures
than phosphorus systems
Fig. 5 Relationship between deposit hardness and co-
balt concentration in the sulfamate solution and (a) As plated; 800–1000 HK100 after 30 min at 400 °C (750 °F)
in the deposit. Source: Ref 4
 Uses of Cobalt / 355

Table 12 Cobalt-containing pigments for Table 13 Cobalt compounds in paint coefficient thermistors. More detailed infor-
coloring ceramics pigments mation on these applications can be found in
Ref 6.
Pigment system Chemical formula Color Compounds
Purple-blue CoO/SiO2/K2O
Green
Blue CoO/Al2O3
Cobalt-chromite blue-green spinel Co(Al2Cr)2O4 Violet CoO/P2O5 REFERENCES
Cobalt-chromite green spinel CoCr2O4 Green CoO/ZnO
Cobalt-titanate green spinel Co2TiO4 Light blue CoO/SnO2/SiO2
Blue Turquoise CoO/Cr2O3/Al2O3 1. F.E. Sczerenie and G.E. Maurer, “COSAM
Cobalt-aluminate blue spinel CoAl2O4 Pink CoO/MgO (Conservation of Strategic Aerospace Mate-
Cobalt-zinc-aluminate blue spinel (Co,Zn)Al2O4 Brown CoO/FeO rials) Program Overview,” NASA TM-83006,
Cobalt-silicate blue olivine Co2SiO4 Yellow K3Co(NO2)6 National Aeronautic and Space Administra-
Cobalt-zinc-silicate blue phenacite (Co,Zn)2SiO4 tion, 1982
Cobalt-tin blue-gray spinel Co2SnO2 2. J.M. Dahl and P.M. Novotny, Airframe and
Cobalt-tin-alumina blue spinel CoAl2O4/Co2SnO4
Landing Gear Alloy, Adv. Mater. Process.,
Black Electronic Uses March 1999, p 23–25
Iron-cobalt black spinel (Fe,Co)Fe2O4 3. Strategic Materials Availability and Supply,
Iron-cobalt-chromite black spinel (Co,Fe)(Fe,Cr)2O4
Batteries. One of the fastest growth areas for Properties and Selection: Iron, Steels, and
Gray cobalt is its use in rechargeable batteries used High-Performance Alloys, Vol 1, ASM Hand-
Cobalt-nickel gray periclase (Co,Ni)O in power tools, toys, electric vehicles, comput- book, ASM International, 1990, p 1009–1022
ers, cellular phones, camcorders, and similar 4. S.A. Watson, Nickel Alloy Plating, Surface
electronic devices. In nickel-cadmium and Engineering, Vol 5, ASM Handbook, ASM
balt spinel or cobalt silicate. Various cobalt ox- nickel-metal hydride batteries, fine powders of International, 1994, p 266–269
ides used for coloring ceramics are listed in Ta- cobalt oxide or hydroxide are added to improve 5. J.D. Donaldson, S.J. Clark, and S.M.
ble 12. battery performance. In lithium-ion batteries, Grimes, Cobalt Chemicals in Electro- and
Pigments for Paints. Cobalt salts and oxides LiCoO2 accounts for 50% of the weight of the Electroless-Plating, in Cobalt in Chemicals,
play a prominent role in the manufacture of cathode (the electrode through which electrons Cobalt Development Institute, 1986
paint pigments and, in combination with other enter a cell). 6. J.D. Donaldson, S.J. Clark, and S.M.
oxides or acid radicals, yield a wide range of Magnetic Recording Media. Cobalt-modi- Grimes, Cobalt in Electronic Technology,
colors. Table 13 shows the pigments used in fied iron oxide (Fe2O3) particles are the pre- Cobalt Development Institute, 1988
paints and the final colors produced. dominant material used in video tapes. Cobalt
Enamel Frits. Cobalt oxide (Co3O4) is a con- thin films (CoNi, CoP, CoCr) with high
stituent in ground coat frits used in porcelain coercivities are also deposited on video and au-
enameling of steel sheet. Cobalt oxide contents dio tapes and discs using evaporation and sput- SELECTED REFERENCES
range from 0.65 to 1.27%. tering techniques.
Adhesives. Cobalt complex salts are incor- Other electronic uses for cobalt include • W. Bettridge, Cobalt and Its Alloys, Ellis
porated into the rubber stock used in radial tire semiconductors, integrated circuits, solar collec- Horwood Ltd., 1982
manufacturing. They improve the bond between tors, gas sensors, piezoelectric transducers, zinc • Cobalt Facts, Cobalt Development Institute,
the rubber and the brass-coated steel cords. oxide varistors, and negative temperature 2000
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®
J.R. Davis, editor, p 356-361 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p356 www.asminternational.org

Phase Diagrams of Binary and

Ternary Cobalt Systems

PHASE DIAGRAMS covering many of the transformation from a stable hexagonal with both phases present in the intervening
commercially important cobalt alloy systems close-packed (hcp) structure (ε-cobalt) to a sta- field. To a first approximation, the quoted tem-
are presented in this article. Crystallographic ble face-centered cubic (fcc) structure (α-co- peratures for the ε → α and α → ε transforma-
data in tabular form accompany some of the di- balt)—makes even the simplest binary system a tions in the binary phase diagrams may be taken
agrams. The binary alloy diagrams included little more complex than the equivalent nickel as indicating the completion of the transforma-
here (Fig. 1–6, Tables 1–6) are the result of alloy system. The transformation temperature tions and, hence, as representing the equilibrium
critical assessment by experts in the field under of pure cobalt is 417 °C (783 °F). Alloying ele- boundaries of the two-phase field (Ref 1).
the coordination of the International Programme ments such as nickel, iron, and carbon (within The binary systems included in this article
for Alloy Phase Diagrams. The ternary alloy di- the soluble range) are known as fcc stabiliz- include C-Co, Co-Cr, Co-Fe, Co-Mo, Co-Ni,
agrams (Fig. 7–25) were selected from the ers, and they suppress the transformation and Co-W. Ternary systems illustrated include
comprehensive collection of ternary diagrams, temperature. Chromium, tungsten, and molyb- Co-Cr-Fe, Co-Cr-Ni, Co-Cr-W, Co-Fe-Mo,
the multivolume Handbook of Ternary Alloy denum, on the other hand, are hcp stabilizers Co-Fe-Ni, Co-Fe-W, and Co-Mo-Ni. The ter-
Phase Diagrams, edited by P. Villars, A. and have the opposite effect. In reality, the nary diagrams are all isothermal sections at
Prince, and H. Okamoto, and published by transformation is extremely sluggish, and most various temperatures. Solidus and liquidus pro-
ASM International in 1994. All of the binary cobalt-base alloys exhibit a metastable fcc jections for some of these ternary systems can
and ternary phase diagrams presented herein structure at room temperature, even if their be found in Volume 3 of the ASM Handbook.
were also published in Alloy Phase Diagrams, transformation temperatures are considerably
Vol 3 of the ASM Handbook. This Volume higher.
should be consulted for original bibliographic Because of the sluggishness of the transfor- REFERENCES
citations relating to specific phase diagrams. mation in alloys, very few published phase dia-
A full understanding of the constitution and grams indicate the presence of a two-phase 1. W. Betteridge, Constitution and Metal-
structure of cobalt-containing alloys important α + ε field, as is required for compliance with lography of Cobalt Alloys, Cobalt and its
in industry must be based on a study of the sim- the phase rule (Ref 1, 2). Although pure cobalt Alloys, Ellis Horwood Ltd., 1982, p 41–59
pler binary and ternary systems from which transforms from one structure to the other at a 2. H. Baker, Introduction to Phase Diagrams,
more complex alloys have been developed. The fixed temperature (as described above), alloys Alloy Phase Diagrams, Vol 3, ASM Handbook,
allotropic transformation of cobalt—that is, the transform gradually over a temperature range ASM International, 1992, p 1-1 to 1-29

Table 1 Co-C crystal structure data

Phase Composition, wt% C Pearson symbol Space group
(αCo) 0 to 0.9 cF4 Fm3m
(εCo) ∼0 hP2 P63/mmc
C ∼100 hP4 P63/mmc
Metastable phases
(ε′Co) ∼0.3 to ∼0.4 (a) …
Co3C 6 oP6 Pnma
Co2C 9 oP6 Pnnm

(a) Hexagonal
Fig. 1 Cobalt-carbon (Co-C) binary phase diagram
 Phase Diagrams of Binary and Ternary Cobalt Systems / 357

Table 2 Co-Cr crystal structure data

Phase Composition, wt% Cr Pearson symbol Space group
(αCo) 0–40 cF4 Fm3m
(εCo) 0–36 hP2 P63/mmc
(αCr) 43.9–100 cI2 Im3m
σ 50.5–63 tP30 P42/mnm
Metastable phases
(αCr) ∼16 cI2 Im3m
(αCo) 40–62.9 cF4 Fm3m
(δCr) 54–100 cP8 Pm3n
Co3Cr 23 hP8 P63/mmc

Fig. 2 The cobalt-chromium (Co-Cr) binary phase diagram

Table 3 Co-Fe crystal structure data

Phase Composition, wt% Fe Pearson symbol Space group
(αCo, γFe) 0–100 cF4 Fm3m
α′ ∼28 to ∼74 cP2 Pm3m
(αFe) ∼22–100 cI2 Im3m
(δFe) 82–100 cI2 Im3m
Metastable phase
η 0.5–5.7 hP4 P63/mmc

Fig. 3 The cobalt-iron (Co-Fe) binary phase diagram

Table 4 Co-Mo crystal structure data

Phase Composition, wt% Co Pearson symbol Space group
(Mo) 0 to ∼6 cI2 Im3m
σ ∼27.8–28 tP30 P42/mnm
ε ∼38.8 to ∼46.7 hR13 R3m
Κ ∼64.2 to ∼65.4 hP8 P63mmc
cph ∼72 hP2 P63/mmc
(αCo) ∼72–100 cF4 Fm3m
(εCo) ∼86–100 hP2 P63/mmc

Fig. 4 The cobalt-molybdenum (Co-Mo) binary phase diagram

358 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 5 Co-Ni crystal structure data

Phase Composition, wt% Ni Pearson symbol Space group
(αCo,Ni) 0–100 cF4 Fm3m
(εCo) 0–35 hP2 P63/mmc

Fig. 5 The cobalt-nickel (Co-Ni) binary phase diagram

Table 6 Co-W crystal structure data

Phase Composition, wt% W Pearson symbol Space group
(αCo) 0–39.8 cF4 Fm3m
(εCo) 0 hP2 P63/mmc
Co3W 48.1–51.4 hP8 P63/mmc
Co7W6 70.3–74.6 hR13 R3m
(W) 99.7–100 cI2 Im3m

Fig. 6 The cobalt-tungsten (Co-W) binary phase diagram

Fig. 7 Co-Cr-Fe isothermal section at 1200 °C (2190 °F) Fig. 8 Co-Cr-Fe isothermal section at 1000 °C (1830 °F)
 Phase Diagrams of Binary and Ternary Cobalt Systems / 359

Fig. 9 Co-Cr-Fe isothermal section at 800 °C (1470 °F) Fig. 10 Co-Cr-Fe isothermal section at 600 °C (1110 °F)

Fig. 11 Co-Cr-Ni isothermal section at 1200 °C (2190 °F) Fig. 12 Co-Cr-W isothermal section at 1350 °C (2460 °F)

Fig. 13 Co-Cr-W isothermal section at 700 °C (1290 °F) Fig. 14 Co-Fe-Mo isothermal section at 1300 °C (2370 °F)
360 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Fig. 15 Co-Fe-Mo isothermal section at 1093 °C (2000 °F) Fig. 16 Co-Fe-Mo isothermal section at 982 °C (1800 °F)

Fig. 17 Co-Fe-Mo isothermal section at 800 °C (1470 °F) Fig. 18 Co-Fe-Mo isothermal section at 20 °C (70 °F)

Fig. 19 Co-Fe-Ni isothermal section at 800 °C (1470 °F) Fig. 20 Co-Fe-Ni isothermal section at 600 °C (1110 °F)
 Phase Diagrams of Binary and Ternary Cobalt Systems / 361

Fig. 21 Co-Fe-W isothermal section at 1200 °C (2190 °F) Fig. 22 Co-Fe-W isothermal section at 1000 °C (1830 °F)

Fig. 23 Co-Fe-W isothermal section at 800 °C (1470 °F) Fig. 24 Co-Mo-Ni isothermal section at 1100 °C (2010 °F)

Fig. 25 Co-Mo-Ni isothermal section at 1200 °C (2190 °F)

ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®
J.R. Davis, editor, p 362-370 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p362 www.asminternational.org

Cobalt-Base Alloys

COBALT-BASE ALLOYS can conveniently suitable investment-cast dental material. This cations to enhance structural stability, was used
be categorized as follows: biocompatible material, which has the trade- successfully for many years in this and other el-
name Vitallium, is in use today for surgical im- evated-temperature applications. This early
• High-carbon alloys designed for wear ser- plants. In the 1940s this same alloy also under- high-temperature material, Stellite alloy 21, is
vice went investment casting trials for World War II still in use today, but predominantly as an alloy
• Low-carbon alloys designed for high-tem- aircraft turbocharger blades, and, with modifi- for wear resistance.
perature service
• Low-carbon alloys designed to combat cor-
rosion or simultaneous corrosion and wear
Table 1 Compositions of various cobalt-base alloys
Table 1 lists typical compositions of pres- Nominal composition, wt%
Alloy
ent-day cobalt-base alloys in these three appli- tradename UNS No. Co Cr W Mo C Fe Ni Si Mn Others
cation areas. Many of the properties of the al- Cast, P/M, and weld overlay wear resistant alloys
loys arise from the crystallographic nature of Stellite 1 R30001 bal 30 13 0.5 2.5 3 1.5 1.3 0.5 …
cobalt, Co (in particular its response to stress), Stellite 3 (P/M) R30103 bal 30.5 12.5 … 2.4 5 (max) 3.5 (max) 2 (max) 2 (max) 1 B (max)
the solid-solution-strengthening effects of Stellite 4 R30404 bal 30 14 1 (max) 0.57 3 (max) 3 (max) 2 (max) 1 (max) …
Stellite 6 R30006 bal 29 4.5 1.5 1.2 3 (max) 3 (max) 1.5 (max) 1 (max) …
chromium, Cr, tungsten, W, and molybdenum, (max)
Mo, the formation of metal carbides, and the Stellite 6 (P/M) R30106 bal 28.5 4.5 1.5 1 5 (max) 3 (max) 2 (max) 2 (max) 1 B (max)
corrosion resistance imparted by chromium. (max)
Generally, the softer and tougher compositions Stellite 12 R30012 bal 30 8.3 … 1.4 3 (min) 1.5 0.7 2.5 …
Stellite 21 R30021 bal 27 … 5.5 0.25 3 (max) 2.75 1 (max) 1 (max) 0.007 B(max)
are used for high-temperature applications, Stellite 98M2 … bal 30 18.5 0.8 2 5 (max) 3.5 1 (max) 1 (max) 4.2 V, 1 B (max)
such as gas-turbine vanes and buckets. The (P/M) (max)
harder grades are used for resistance to wear. Stellite 703 … bal 32 … 12 2.4 3 (max) 3 (max) 1.5 (max) 1.5 (max) …
Historically, many of the commercial cobalt- Stellite 706 … bal 29 … 5 1.2 3 (max) 3 (max) 1.5 (max) 1.5 (max) …
Stellite 712 … bal 29 … 8.5 2 3 (max) 3 (max) 1.5 (max) 1.5 (max) …
base alloys are derived from the Co-Cr-W and Stellite 720 … bal 33 … 18 2.5 3 (max) 3 (max) 1.5 (max) 1.5 (max) 0.3 B
Co-Cr-Mo ternaries first investigated by El- Stellite F R30002 bal 25 12.3 1 (max) 1.75 3 (max) 22 2 (max) 1 (max) …
wood Haynes at the turn of the century. He dis- Stellite Star J R30102 bal 32.5 17.5 … 2.5 3 (max) 2.5 (max) 2 (max) 2 (max) 1 B (max)
(P/M)
covered the high strength and stainless nature Stellite Star J R31001 bal 32.5 17.5 … 2.5 3 (max) 2.5 (max) 2 (max) 2 (max) …
of the binary cobalt-chromium alloy, and he Tantung G … bal 29.5 16.5 … 3 3.5 7 (max) … 2 (max) 4.5 Ta/Nb
later identified tungsten and molybdenum as Tantung 144 … bal 27.5 18.5 … 3 3.5 7 (max) … 2 (max) 5.5 Ta/Nb
powerful strengthening agents within the co- Laves-phase wear resistant alloys
balt-chromium system. When he discovered Tribaloy T-400 R30400 bal 9 … 29 … … … 2.5 … …
these alloys, Haynes named them the Stellite Tribaloy T-800 … bal 18 … 29 … … … 3.5 … …
alloys after the Latin, stella, for star because of Wrought wear resistant alloys
their star-like luster. Having discovered their Stellite 6B R30016 bal 30 4 1.5 max 1 3 (max) 2.5 0.7 1.4 …
high strength at elevated temperatures, Haynes Stellite 6K … bal 30 4.5 1.5 max 1.6 3 (max) 3 (max) 2 (max) 2 (max) …
also promoted the use of Stellite alloys as cut- Wrought heat resistant alloys (see Table 4 for cast alloy compositions)
ting tool materials. Haynes 25 R30605 bal 20 15 … 0.1 3 (max) 10 0.4 (max) 1.5 …
Following the success of cobalt-base tool (L605)
Haynes 188 R30188 bal 22 14 … 0.1 3 (max) 22 0.35 1.25 0.03 La
materials during World War I, they were then Inconel 783 R30783 bal 3 … … 0.03 25.5 28 0.5 (max) 0.5 (max) 5.5 Al, 3 Nb, 3.4
used from about 1922 in weld overlay form to (max) Ti (max)
protect surfaces from wear. These early co- UMCo-50 … bal 28 … … 0.02 21 … 0.75 0.75 …
balt-base “hardfacing” alloys were used on (max)
S-816 R30816 40 (min) 20 4 4 0.37 5 (max) 20 1 (max) 1.5 4 Nb
plowshares, oil well drilling bits, dredging cut-
ters, hot trimming dies, and internal combus- Corrosion resistant alloys
tion engine valves and valve seats. Ultimet (1233) R31233 bal 26 2 5 0.06 3 9 0.3 0.8 0.08 N
MP159 R30159 bal 19 … 7 … 9 25.5 … … 3 Ti, 0.6 Nb, 0.2
Later in the 1930s and early 1940s, cobalt- Al
base alloys for corrosion and high-temperature MP35N R30035 35 20 … 10 … … 35 … … …
applications were developed in a series of re- Duratherm 600 R30600 41.5 12 3.9 4 0.05 8.7 bal 0.4 0.75 2 Ti, 0.7 Al, 0.05
lated events involving the Austenal Labora- (max) Be
Elgiloy R30003 40 20 … 7 0.15 bal 15.5 … 2 1 Be (max)
tories and the Haynes Stellite Division of Un- (max)
ion Carbide. Of the corrosion resistant alloys, a Havar R30004 42.5 20 2.8 2.4 0.2 bal 13 … 1.6 0.06 Be (max)
Co-Cr-Mo alloy with a moderately low carbon P/M, powder metallurgy; bal, balance
content was developed to satisfy the need for a
 Cobalt-Base Alloys / 363

Cobalt-Base Wear Resistant Alloys Physical Metallurgy to Cr7C3). At 1 wt% carbon (Stellite 6B), the
carbides constitute approximately 13 wt% of
Carbides. As can be deduced from Table 1, the material, these being predominantly chro-
The cobalt-base wear alloys of today are lit- the chief difference among the individual mium-rich eutectic carbides of the M7C3 type.
tle changed from the early alloys of Elwood Stellite wear resistant alloys is carbon content The size and shape of the carbide particles
Haynes. The most important differences relate and, thus, carbide volume fraction in the mate- within the Stellite alloys are strongly influ-
to the control of carbon and silicon (which were rial. For example, at a carbon level of 2.4 wt% enced by cooling rate and subtle chemistry
impurities in the early alloys). Indeed, the main (Stellite 3), the carbides constitute about 30 changes. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 and 2,
differences in the current Stellite alloy grades wt% of the material. These are of the M7C3 which show typical overlay (hardfacing) micro-
are carbon and tungsten contents (hence the (chromium-rich primary) and M6C (tung- structures as applied by different welding pro-
amount and type of carbide formation in the sten-rich eutectic) types, where M represents cesses. Such changes markedly affect abrasion
microstructure during solidification). the metal component (e.g., M7C3 corresponds resistance because there is a distinct relation-

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1 Typical overlay microstructures of Stellite 1 alloy applied by different weld processes. (a) Three-layer gas tungsten arc. (b) Three-layer oxyacetylene. (c) Three-layer shielded
metal arc. See also Fig. 2. All 500×

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2 Typical overlay microstructures of Stellite 6 alloy applied by different weld processes. (a) Three-layer gas tungsten arc. (b) Three-layer oxyacetylene. (c) Three-layer shielded
metal arc. See also Fig. 1. All 500×
364 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

ship among the size of abrading species, the ical stress or time at elevated temperature. The loy 1 being the hardest, most abrasion resistant,
size of the structural hard particles, and the rate unstable fcc structure and its associated low and least ductile (Table 2). The carbides in the
of abrasive wear. stacking fault energy are believed to result in: Co-Cr-W-base Stellites are generally of the
Chromium has a dual function in the Stellite chromium-rich M7C3 type, although in
alloys. It is both the predominant carbide for- • High yield strengths high-tungsten alloys (such as Stellite alloy 1)
mer (i.e., most of the carbides are chromium • High work-hardening rates (due to the inter- tungsten-rich M6C carbides usually are present
rich) and the most important alloying element action between stacking faults) also.
in the matrix, where it provides added strength • Limited fatigue damage under cyclic Stellite alloy 21 differs from the three alloys
(as a solute) and resistance to corrosion and ox- stresses (due to the lack of cell walls within mentioned above in that it employs molybde-
idation. The most common carbide in the plastically deformed material) num, rather than tungsten, to strengthen the
Stellite alloys is a chromium-rich M7C3 type, • The ability to absorb stresses (through trans- solid solution. Stellite alloy 21 also contains
although chromium-rich M23C6 carbides are formation of the structure to hcp) considerably less carbon. By virtue of the high
abundant in low-carbon alloys such as Stellite molybdenum content, and the fact that most of
alloy 21. The first three of these attributes are believed
the chromium is in solution (rather than in
Tungsten and molybdenum in the Stellite to be important in preventing metallic damage
Cr7C3 carbides), the alloy is more resistant to
alloys serve to provide additional strength to during sliding wear. The last two are believed
corrosion than Stellite alloys 1, 6, and 12.
the matrix. They do so by virtue of their large to be responsible for the outstanding resistance
The most recently developed alloys in the
atomic size (i.e., they impede dislocation flow to cavitation and erosion-corrosion of the co-
Stellite family are those in the 700 series (al-
when present as solute atoms). When present in balt alloys.
loys 703, 706, 712, and 720 in Table 1). As
large quantities (e.g., in Stellite alloy 1), they with Stellite alloy 21, the tungsten in these al-
participate in the formation of carbides during loys has been replaced by molybdenum (mo-
alloy solidification and promote the precipita- Alloy Compositions and
Product Forms lybdenum contents range from 5 to 18%). The
tion of M6C. They also improve general corro- 700 series alloys possess excellent corrosion re-
sion resistance of the alloys. Although these al-
sistance in reducing environments. Molybde-
loying elements are critical to the performance The chemical compositions of various co-
num also partitions in the carbides formed in
of the Stellite alloys in service, the main reason balt-base wear resistant alloys are given in Ta-
these alloys to enhance the wear resistance.
for the commercial success of the Stellite alloys ble 1. The type of wear encountered (e.g., abra-
Powder metallurgy (P/M) versions of sev-
is the cobalt. sive wear, sliding wear, or erosive wear) in a
eral Stellite alloys (typically containing low
Cobalt imparts to its alloys an unstable, particular application is an important factor that
influences the selection of these alloys. More levels of boron—1.0% max as listed in Table
face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure with
a very low stacking fault energy. The instability detailed information on the selection of co- 1—to enhance sintering) are available for ap-
arises from the fact that elemental cobalt, if balt-base alloys for wear resistant applications plications where the P/M process is cost effec-
cooled extremely slowly, transforms from an can be found in the article “Wear Behavior of tive (e.g., high-volume production of small
fcc to a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal Cobalt Alloys” in this Handbook. simple shapes). Powder metallurgy compo-
structure at 417 °C (782.6 °F). In most cobalt The Stellite alloys listed in Table 1 are gen- nents have outstanding wear resistance and me-
alloys, the transformation temperature is some- erally used in the form of castings or weld over- chanical properties and provide exceptional re-
what higher. lays (hardfacing alloys). Some alloys (e.g., liability needed for anything from aerospace
Because of the sluggish nature of the trans- Stellite alloys 1, 6, and 12) are derivatives of bearings to industrial saw teeth. The
formation, the fcc structure in cobalt and its al- the original Co-Cr-W alloys developed by microstructure of P/M Stellite alloys contains
loys is usually retained to room temperature, Haynes. These alloys are characterized by their complex combinations of M7C3, M6C, and
and hcp formation is triggered only by mechan- carbon and tungsten contents, with Stellite al- M23C6 carbides embedded in a Co-Cr-W ma-
trix. Figure 3 shows a range of structures that
can be tailored to give a desired combination of
Table 2 Properties of selected cobalt-base hardfacing alloys wear, corrosion, and mechanical properties.
Cast cobalt-base cutting tools have been
Property Stellite 21 Stellite 6 Stellite 12 Stellite 1 Tribaloy T-800 widely used for machining steel, gray iron,
Density, g/cm3 (lb/in.3) 8.3 (0.30) 8.3 (0.30) 8.6 (0.31) 8.6 (0.31) 8.6 (0.31) malleable iron, cast steel, brass, bronze, alumi-
Ultimate compressive strength, MPa (ksi) 1295 (188) 1515 (220) 1765 (256) 1930 (280) 1780 (258) num, and most other machinable materials.
Ultimate tensile strength, MPa (ksi) 710 (103) 834 (121) 827 (120) 620 (90) 690 (100)
Elongation, % 8 1.2 1 1 <1
These alloys, which include Tantung G,
Coefficient of thermal expansion, °C–1 (°F–1) 14.8 × 10–6 15.7 × 10–6 14 × 10–6 13.1 × 10–6 12.3 × 10–6 Tantung 144, and Stellite 100 described in Ta-
(8.2 × 10–6) (8.7 × 10–6) (7.8 × 10–6) (7.3 × 10–6) (6.8 × 10–6) ble 1, were developed to bridge the gap be-
Hot hardness, HV, at: tween high-speed tool steels and cemented car-
445 °C (800 °F) 150 300 345 510 659 bides.
540 °C (1000 °F) 145 275 325 465 622
650 °C (1200 °F) 135 260 285 390 490 Although comparable in room-temperature
760 °C (1400 °F) 115 185 245 230 308 hardness to high-speed steel tools, cast cobalt
Unlubricated sliding wear (a), mm3 (in.3 × 10–3) at: alloy tools retain their hardness to a much
670 N (150 lbf) 5.2 (0.32) 2.6 (0.16) 2.4 (0.15) 0.6 (0.04) 1.7 (0.11) higher temperature and can be used at higher
1330 N (300 lbf) 14.5 (0.90) 18.8 (1.17) 18.4 (1.14) 0.8 (0.05) 2.1 (0.13)
Abrasive wear(b), mm3 (in.3 × 10–3)
(~20%) cutting speeds than high-speed steel
OAW … 29 (1.80) 12 (0.75) 8 (0.50) … tools. Unlike the high-speed steels that can be
GTAW 86 (5.33) 64 (3.97) 57 (3.53) 52 (3.22) 24 (1.49) heat treated to obtain the desired hardness, cast
Unnotched Charpy impact strength, J (ft ⋅ lbf) 37 (27) 23 (17) 5 (4) 5 (4) 1.4 (1) cobalt alloys are hard in the as-cast condition
Corrosion resistance(c):
65% nitric acid at 65 °C (150 °F) U U U U S
and cannot be softened or hardened by heat
5% sulfuric acid at 65 °C (150 °F) E E E E … treatment. Figure 4 shows the typical micro-
50% phosphoric acid at 400 °C (750 °F) E E E E E structure of permanent graphite mold-cast
Tantung G. Additional information on cast co-
(a) Wear measured from tests conducted on Dow-Corning LFW-1 against 4620 steel ring at 80 rev/min for 2000 rev varying the applied load. (b)
Wear measured from dry sand rubber wheel abrasion tests. Tested for 2000 rev at a load of 135 N (30 lbf) using a 230 mm (9 in.) diam rubber wheel balt alloys for machining applications can be
and American Foundrymen’s Society test sand. OAW, oxyacetylene welding; GTAW, gas-tungsten arc welding. (c) E, less than 0.05 mm/yr (2 found in the ASM Specialty Handbook: Tool
mils/year); S, 0.5 to less than 1.25 mm/yr (over 20 to less than 50 mils/year); U, more than 1.25 mm/year (50 mils/year)
Materials (see pages 32–35).
 Cobalt-Base Alloys / 365

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3 Microstructure of Stellite powder metallurgy materials. Chromium and tungsten alloy carbides are supported by a cobalt-base matrix. Carbide level varies from 5 to 60 vol%. (a)
Stellite 12. (b) Stellite 31. (c) Stellite 98M2. All 500×

Laves-phase alloys include the Tribaloy the smallest components given adequate pre- Tungsten provides additional solid-solution
family of wear resistant materials. Two cobalt- heat. For this reason, these alloys have been strength. Alloy 6B (Fig. 6a) contains approxi-
base Laves-type alloy compositions (T-400 and more successful as thermal (plasma) spray coat- mately 12.5 wt% carbides of the M7C3 and
T-800) are listed in Table 1. In these materials, ings. M23C6 types in the ratio 9 to 1. Alloy 6K (Fig.
molybdenum and silicon are added at levels in Properties of alloy T-800 are summarized in 6b) exhibits an even greater carbide volume
excess of their solubility limit with the objec- Table 2. A typical microstructure of a T-800 fraction, again with the M7C3 as the predomi-
tive of inducing the precipitation of the hard weld overlay is shown in Fig. 5. nant type. Additional information pertaining to
(and corrosion resistant) Laves phase (CoMoSi Wrought Alloys. The high-carbon alloys, alloys 6B and 6K can be found in the articles
or Co3Mo2Si). Carbon is held as low as possi- such as Stellite alloys 6B and 6K in Table 1, are “Properties of Cobalt Alloys” and “Wear Be-
ble in these alloys to discourage carbide forma- essentially wrought versions of the hardfacing havior of Cobalt Alloys” which immediately
tion. (Stellite) alloys described above. Wrought pro- follow in this Handbook.
Because the Laves intermetallic phase is so cessing improves chemical homogeneity (im-
abundant in these alloys (35–70 vol%), its pres- portant in a corrosion sense), markedly in-
ence governs all the material properties. Ac- creases ductility, and modifies substantially the
cordingly, the effects of the matrix composition geometry of the carbide precipitates within the Cobalt-Base Heat Resistant Alloys
in these alloys are less pronounced than in the alloys (blocky carbides within the micro-
case for the cobalt-base carbide-type alloys structure enhance abrasion resistance). In terms For many years, the predominant user of heat
(Stellite), for example. The Laves phase is spe- of composition, the alloys are essentially Co-Cr- resistant alloys was the gas turbine industry. In
cifically responsible for outstanding abrasion W-C quaternaries with chromium providing the case of aircraft gas turbine power plants, the
resistance, but it severely limits the material strength and corrosion resistance to the solid chief material requirements were elevated-tem-
ductility and the impact strength. In fact, it is solution in addition to functioning as the chief perature strength, resistance to thermal fatigue,
difficult to attain crack-free overlays on all but carbide former (during alloy solidification). and oxidation resistance. For land-base gas tur-
bines, which typically burn lower grade fuels
and operate at lower temperatures, sulfidation
resistance was the major concern. Today, the
use of heat resistant alloys is more diversified,
as more efficiency is sought from the burning
of fossil fuels and waste, and as new chemical
processing techniques are developed.
Although cobalt-base alloys are not as widely
used as nickel and nickel-iron alloys in high-
temperature applications, cobalt-base heat re-
sistant alloys nevertheless play an important role,
by virtue of their excellent resistance to sulfi-
dation, hot corrosion, and their strength at tem-
peratures exceeding those at which the gamma-
prime and gamma-double-prime precipitates in
the nickel and nickel-iron alloys dissolve.
As previously noted, Stellite 21 was an early
type of cobalt-base heat resistant alloy that is
used now primarily for wear resistance. Since
the early use of Stellite 21, cobalt-base heat re-
Fig. 4 Microstructure of permanent graphite mold-cast
Tantung G alloy. The typical as-cast hardness for
sistant materials have gone through various
this material and similar alloys ranges from 60 to 65 HRC. Microstructure of Laves-phase alloy T-800 stages of development to increase their high-
Fig. 5
Etched with Murakami’s reagent. 400× (two-layer plasma transferred arc deposit). 200× temperature capability. The use of tungsten (or
366 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

(a) (b)

(c) (d) (e)

Fig. 6 Microstructure of wrought cobalt-base alloys etched with hydrochloric acid/oxalic acid solution. (a) Alloy 6B. (b) Alloy 6K. (c) Alloy 25. (d) Alloy 188. (e) Ultimet alloy. All
200×

tantalum) rather than molybdenum, moderate stable than the wear resistant wrought cobalt al- (together with a range of matching welding
nickel and chromium contents, lower carbon loys. Both alloys contain approximately 0.1 products for joining purposes). Haynes 25 has
contents, and rare-earth additions typify cobalt- wt% C (about one-tenth of that in alloy 6B), been widely used for hot sections of gas tur-
base high-temperature alloys of today. Table 3 which is sufficient to provide carbide strength- bines, components of nuclear reactors, devices
summarizes some of the effects various alloy- ening, yet low enough to maintain ductility. for surgical implants, and, in the cold-worked
ing elements can produce in cobalt-base heat Carbide precipitation, which is predominately condition, for fasteners and wear pads. Haynes
resistant alloys. of the M6C type, is important to the high-tem- 188 is an alloy that was specially designed for
perature properties of these materials, partially sheet-metal components, such as combustors
because it restricts grain growth during heat and transition ducts, in gas turbines. The basic
Alloy Compositions and treatment and service. Structural stability is en- composition, provided that lanthanum, silicon,
Product Forms hanced in these alloys by nickel, which de- aluminum, and manganese contents are judi-
creases the fcc/hcp transformation temperature ciously controlled, provides excellent qualities,
Wrought Heat Resistant Alloys. Table 1 in cobalt-base alloys. such as oxidation resistance at temperatures up
lists typical wrought compositions developed Alloys 25 (also known as L605) and 188, to 1100 °C (2000 °F), hot corrosion resistance,
for high-temperature use. Alloys 25 (Fig. 6c) which are the most frequently employed co- creep resistance, room-temperature formability,
and 188 (Fig. 6d) are considerably more duc- balt-base heat resistant alloys, are available in and ductility after long-term aging at service
tile, oxidation resistant, and microstructurally the form of sheets, plates, bars, pipes, and tubes temperatures. Additional information on alloys
25 and 188 can be found in the articles “Prop-
Table 3 Effects of alloying elements in cobalt-base heat resistant alloys erties of Cobalt Alloys” and “Corrosion Behav-
ior of Cobalt Alloys” in this Handbook.
Element Effect(a)
Inconel 783 has a low coefficient of thermal
Chromium Oxidation and sulfidation resistance, carbide former (M7C3 and M23C6) expansion (approximately 20% less than the
Molybdenum, tungsten Solid-solution strengtheners, carbide former (M6C), intermetallic compound (Co3M)
Tantalum, niobium Solid-solution strengtheners, carbide former (MC) and (M6C), intermetallic compound (Co3M) nickel-iron alloy Inconel 718), good oxidation
Aluminum Oxidation resistance, intermetallic compound (CoAl) resistance up to and beyond 705 °C (1300 °F),
Titanium Carbide former (MC), intermetallic compound (Co3Ti and with sufficient nickel Ni3Ti) and better impact resistance and metallurgical
Nickel Stabilize fcc form of matrix, intermetallic compound (Ni3Ti) facilitates working stability than the low-expansion Fe-Ni-Co alloy
Boron, zirconium Increase stress-rupture strength
Carbon Formation of carbides (MC, M7C3, M6C, M23C6) Incoloy 909 up to 715 °C (1300 °F). It also has
Yttrium, lanthanum Oxidation resistance a lower density (7.78 g/cm3, or 0.281 lb/in.3)
than competing alloys 718 and 909, which con-
(a) Not all these effects necessarily occur in a given alloy.
tributes to an important improvement in
 Cobalt-Base Alloys / 367

Table 4 Nominal compositions of cast cobalt-base heat resistant alloys alloying elements contributing to the solid-so-
lution and/or carbide formation are tantalum,
Alloy Nominal composition, % niobium, zirconium, vanadium, and titanium.
designation C Ni Cr Co Mo Fe Al B Ti Ta W Zr Other Yttria is also added to some alloys for im-
AiResist 13 0.45 … 21 62 … … 3.4 … … 2 11 … 0.1 Y proved oxidation resistance.
AiResist 213 0.20 0.5 20 64 … 0.5 3.5 … … 6.5 4.5 0.1 0.1 Y Investment-cast cobalt alloys are generally
AiResist 215 0.35 0.5 19 63 … 0.5 4.3 … … 7.5 4.5 0.1 0.1 Y
FSX-414 0.25 10 29 52.5 … 1 … 0.010 … … 7.5 … … used for complex shapes such as first- and sec-
Haynes 25 0.1 10 20 54 … 1 … … … … 15 … … ond-stage vanes/nozzles in gas turbine engines.
(L-605) Stress-rupture properties of commonly used
J-1650 0.20 27 19 36 … … … 0.02 3.8 2 12 … … cobalt-base casting alloys are shown in Fig. 8.
MAR-M 302 0.85 … 21.5 58 … 0.5 … 0.005 … 9 10 0.2 …
MAR-M 322 1.0 … 21.5 60.5 … 0.5 … … 0.75 4.5 9 2 … Additional information can be found in the arti-
MAR-M 509 0.6 10 23.5 54.5 … … … … 0.2 3.5 7 0.5 … cle “Properties of Cobalt Alloys” in this Hand-
NASA 0.40 … 3 67.5 … … … … 1 … 25 1 2 Re book.
Co-W-Re
S-816 0.4 20 20 42 … 4 … … … … 4 … 4 Mo, 4 Nb, 1.2
Mn, 0.4 Si
V-36 0.27 20 25 42 … 3 … … … … 2 … 4 Mo, 2 Nb, 1 Mn,
0.4 Si Cobalt-Base
WI-52 0.45 … 21 63.5 … 2 … … … … 11 … 2 Nb + Ta Corrosion Resistant Alloys
Stellite 23 0.40 2 24 65.5 … 1 … … … … 5 … 0.3 Mn, 0.6 Si
Stellite 27 0.40 32 25 35 5.5 1 … … … … … … 0.3 Mn, 0.6 Si
Stellite 30 0.45 15 26 50.5 6 1 … … … … … … 0.6 Mn, 0.6 Si
Stellite 31 0.50 10 22 57.5 … 1.5 … … … … 7.5 … 0.5 Mn, 0.5 Si
Although the cobalt-base wear resistant al-
(X-40) loys possess some resistance to aqueous corro-
sion, they are limited by grain boundary car-
bide precipitation, the lack of vital alloying
strength-to-weight ratios. Inconel 783 is used tance, hot corrosion resistance (Fig. 7), and elements in the matrix (after formation of the
for gas turbine casings, rings, and seals. sulfidation resistance, but also participates in carbides or Laves precipitates), and, in the case
UMCo-50, which contains approximately 21% carbide formation (Cr7C3 and M23C6) and of the cast and hardfacing materials, by chemi-
iron, is not as strong as Haynes 25 or 188. It is solid-solution strengthening. Carbon content cal segregation in the microstructure.
not used extensively in the United States, and generally ranges from 0.25 to 1.0%, with nitro- By virtue of their homogeneous microstruc-
especially not in gas turbine applications. In gen occasionally substituting for carbon. tures and lower carbon contents, the wrought
Europe, on the other hand, it is used extensively These alloys also contain significant levels cobalt-base high-temperature alloys (which
for furnace parts and fixtures. Additional infor- of both nickel and tungsten. The addition of typically contain tungsten rather than molybde-
mation on UMCo-50 can be found in the article nickel helps to stabilize the desired fcc matrix, num) are even more resistant to aqueous corro-
“Properties of Cobalt Alloys” in this Handbook. while tungsten provides solid-solution strength- sion, but still fall well short of the Ni-Cr-Mo al-
Alloy S-816 originally was used extensively ening and promotes carbide formation. Other loys in corrosion performance.
in turbochargers, as well as gas turbine wheels,
blades, and vanes, but has been largely replaced
by higher-strength, lower-density nickel-base Temperature, °C
alloys with improved resistance to adverse en- 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
vironments. 80
Cast heat resistant alloys, such as alloys
MAR-509, FSX-414, and the others listed in S-816 500
Table 4, are designed around a cobalt-chro- 70
mium matrix with chromium contents ranging Haynes 151
from approximately 18 to 30%. The high chro-
mium content contributes to oxidation resis- 60
400
Haynes 25
Attack, mm per side
0 0.04 0.08 0.12
50
AiResist 13

FSX-414 Stress, MPa

Stress, ksi

300
Surface loss 40 X-40
FSX-418 Maximum
penetration MAR-M 509
S-816 MAR-M 302
30 Stellite 21 200
MAR-M 509 MAR-M 322
20 MAR-M 302
MAR-M 302
NASA Co-W-Re
100
X-45
10
AiResist 215 WI-52
AiResist 13
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Haynes 25
Attack, mils per side 0 0
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Fig. 7 Relative hot corrosion resistance of cobalt-base
alloys obtained from burner rig tests using 3% S Temperature, °F
residual oil and 325 ppm NaCl in fuel (equivalent to 5
ppm NaCl in air) at 870 °C (1600 °F) for 600 h Fig. 8 Stress-rupture curves for 1000 h life of cast cobalt-base superalloys
368 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

2758
(400)

2413 As-drawn
(350) Drawn & aged 4 h at 538 °C (1000 °F)

2068 0.2% yield

(300)
Strength, MPa (ksi)

1724
(250) Ultimate 0.2% yield
tensile
1379 80
(200)

1034
60

Ductility, %
(150)
Reduction
690 of area 40
(100)

345
20
(50) Elongation

0 0
15 25 35 45 55 65 75
Fig. 10 Microstructure of cold-worked and aged
Cold reduction by drawing, % MP35N. Electrolytic etch: 80 mL HC2H3O2
and 20 mL HCl at 6 V for 5–60 s
Fig. 9 Tensile properties of cold-drawn and aged MP35N alloy

To satisfy the industrial need for alloys that cations, and applications related to Ultimet al- ing resistance to stress-corrosion cracking in
exhibit outstanding resistance to aqueous corro- loy are described in the article “Properties of the high-strength condition. The prime strength-
sion, yet share the attributes of cobalt as an al- Cobalt Alloys.” ening mechanism in these alloys is the
loy base (resistance to various forms of wear Multiphase (MP) Alloys. Alloys MP35N solid-state phase transformation of part of the
and high strength over a wide range of tempera- and MP159 are high-performance aerospace matrix from an fcc crystal structure to an hcp
tures), several low-carbon, wrought Co-Ni-Cr- fastener alloys that combine ultrahigh strength, structure by cold working. This transformation
Mo alloys are produced. Molybdenum addi- high ductility, and corrosion resistance, includ- occurs because of the high cobalt content in the
tions in these alloys (in preference to tungsten)
impart a greater degree of resistance to a vari-
ety of wet corrosive media. In addition, carbon 2500
(363) Ultimate tensile
contents in these alloys are held within the sol-
uble range to improve resistance to heat-af- As-drawn
2250 Drawn plus aged
fected-zone sensitization during welding. (326)
0.2% yield

2000
(290) Ultimate tensile
Alloy Compositions and
Product Forms 1750
(254)

Ultimet alloy (Fig. 6e) is typical of the 1500 0.2% yield

Strength, MPa (ksi)

low-carbon corrosion resistant alloys in that it (218)

exhibits no intragranular or grain boundary car-
bide precipitation, although a sparse dispersion 1250
of nitrides is evident in the structure. Available (181)
HV El, %
in a variety of wrought forms, castings, and
1000 800 80
weld overlays, this alloy was designed to solve
(145)
some of the chronic problems related to prema-
ture materials degradation due to the combined 600 60
750
effects of corrosion and wear. Ultimet is resis- (109) Hardness, HV
tant to localized corrosion (pitting and crevice
corrosion), offers resistance to many aggressive 500 400 40
environments, and exhibits excellent wear (73)
properties, particularly with regard to slurry
erosion, cavitation erosion, and galling. Com- 250 200 20
parative wear and corrosion data on Ultimet (36) Elongation
and other high-performance alloys can be
0 0 0
found in the articles “Wear Behavior of Cobalt 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Alloys” and “Corrosion Behavior of Cobalt Al- Degree of cold work, %
loys” in this Handbook. Properties (including
resistance to specific corrosive media), specifi- Fig. 11 Tensile properties of cold-drawn and aged Duratherm 600 alloy
 Cobalt-Base Alloys / 369

Table 5 Compositions of cobalt-base surgical implant alloys MP159 was developed in response to the
need for a fastener alloy that could perform un-
ASTM Composition, wt% der the higher operating temperatures devel-
specification Co Cr Ni Mo Fe C Mn Si Other oped by turbine engines. The maximum operat-
F75 bal 27.0–30.0 1.0 5.0–7.0 0.75 0.35 1.0 1.0 … ing temperature for MP159 is 595 °C (1100 °F).
F90 bal 19.0–21.0 9.0–11.0 … 3 (max) 0.05–0.15 1.0–2.0 0.4 14.0–16.0 W This alloy is work strengthened and aged for 4
F562 bal 19.0–21.0 33.0–37.0 9.0–10.5 1 (max) 0.025 (max) 0.15 (max) 0.15 (max) 1.0 Ti (max)
h at approximately 660 °C (1225 °F) to obtain
strength levels in excess of 1825 MPa (265
ksi). In addition to undergoing the multiphase
Table 6 Mechanical properties of cobalt-base surgical implant alloys reaction, MP159 also benefits from a second
strengthening mechanism. Titanium, alumi-
Yield strength Tensile strength Elastic modulus
ASTM num, and niobium have also been added to the
specification Alloy system Condition MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % GPa 106 psi composition to cause precipitation of the
F75 Co-Cr-Mo Cast 450 65 655 95 8 248 36 gamma prime phase during age hardening. Ad-
F799 Co-Cr-Mo Thermomechanically 827 120 1172 170 12 … … ditional information on MP159 can be found in
processed
F90 Co-Cr-W-Ni Wrought 379 55 896 130 … 242 35 the article “Properties of Cobalt Alloys” in this
F562 Co-Ni-Cr-Mo Annealed 241–448 35–65 793–1000 115–145 50 228 33 Handbook.
Cold-worked 1586 230 1793 260 8 … … Other age-hardenable cobalt alloys that
and aged offer high strength combined with good corro-
sion resistance include the spring alloys
Duratherm 600, Elgiloy, and Havar (see Table
alloys, and has been termed the “multiphase re- (260–300 ksi). Figure 9 shows the effects of 1). Through various combinations of cold work
action.” The presence of two distinct crystal cold work and cold work plus aging on the ten- and aging, these alloys obtain hardness levels
structures poses a barrier to the motion of dislo- sile properties of the alloy. The microstructure ranging from 45 to 60 HRC (500–600 HV), ten-
cations and leads to pronounced strengthening. of MP35N in the hardened (by cold working) sile strengths ranging from approximately 1700
Subsequent age hardening acts to stabilize and aged condition is shown in Fig. 10. The to 2400 MPa (250–350 ksi), and yield strengths
these two phases through the process of solute maximum operating temperature for MP35N is ranging from approximately 1400 to 2100 MPa
partitioning, which contributes to further 400 °C (750 °F). Since its development, MP35N (200–300 ksi). Figure 11 shows the effects of
strengthening. Both MP35N and MP159 are has been used successfully in applications out- cold work and aging on the tensile properties of
produced by vacuum induction melting fol- side the aerospace industry. For example, it is Duratherm 600. Additional information on
lowed by vacuum arc remelting (VIM/VAR) to the highest strength material approved for Duratherm 600 and Elgiloy can be found in the
provide optimum control of chemistry and pre- structural components in aggressive, sour well article “Properties of Cobalt Alloys” in this
ferred ingot solidification. Table 1 lists the environments (NACE specification MR0175, Handbook.
compositions of both alloys, which are avail- “Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Materials Cobalt Alloys for Surgical Implants. Cobalt-
able in a variety of wrought product forms. for Oil Equipment”). Additional information on base alloys are widely used for the fabrication
MP35N is work strengthened and aged for 4 MP35N can be found in the articles “Properties of various devices that are surgically implanted
h in the 425 to 650 °C (800–1200 °F) range to of Cobalt Alloys” and “Corrosion Behavior of in the body. Applications include hip replace-
obtain strength levels of 1795 to 2070 MPa Cobalt Alloys” in this Handbook. ments, knee replacements, and implants that fix

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12 Effect of processing on the microstructure of Co-Cr-Mo surgical implant alloys. (a) Investment-cast, carbide-strengthened Co-Cr-Mo alloy. Note that the grains in this
microstructure are quite coarse (ASTM macrograin size 7.5), and the carbides are large. (b) Higher-strength, fine-grained Co-Cr-Mo alloy made by forging of nitro-
gen-strengthened bar stock. (c) Higher-strength fine-grained Co-Cr-Mo alloy made by hot isostatic pressing of carbide-strengthened powders
370 / Introduction to Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

bone fractures (bone screws, staples, and sion resistance, wear resistance, and such me- Superalloys, Cobalt Development Institute,
plates). The support structures for heart valves chanical properties as strength, ductility, and 1985
are often fabricated from cobalt alloys. A vari- high-cycle fatigue behavior. As shown in Table • R.B. Herchenroeder and W.T. Ebihara,
ety of dental implants have also been produced 6, the properties of cobalt-base implant alloys In-Process Metallurgy of Wrought Co-
from cobalt alloys. are highly sensitive to processing history. Fig- balt-Base Alloys, Met. Eng. Q., May, 1969,
Most of the cobalt-base alloys currently in ure 12 shows the influence of processing on the p 313–324
use as implants meet the requirements of microstructures of both cast and wrought Co-Cr- • Multiphase Alloys, Timkin Latrobe Steel,
ASTM F 75, F 799, F 90, and F 562. Standards Mo alloys. Latrobe, PA, 1994
F 75 and F 799 describe requirements for cast • C.P. Sullivan, J.D. Varin, and M.J.
and thermomechanically processed Co-Cr-Mo, Donachie, Jr., Relationship of Properties to
respectively, F 90 describes wrought Co-Cr- SELECTED REFERENCES Microstructure in Cobalt-Base Superalloys,
W-Ni, and F 562 describes wrought Co-Ni- Met. Eng. Q., May, 1969, p 299–312
Cr-Mo. Compositions of these alloys are given • W. Betteridge, Cobalt and Its Alloys, Ellis • H.J. Wagner and A.M. Hall, “The Physical
in Table 5. The properties of interest for ortho- Horwood Ltd., 1982 Metallurgy of Cobalt-Base Superalloys,”
pedic implants include biocompatibility, corro- • J.D. Donaldson and S.J. Clark, Cobalt in DMIC Report 171, 6 July 1962
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®
J.R. Davis, editor, p 373-386 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p373 www.asminternational.org

Properties of Cobalt Alloys

THE 18 DATA SHEETS included in this article describe the specifications, applications, and properties of the following alloys in alphabetical order.

AiResist 13 (AR-13)

Chemical Composition Physical Properties

Table 1 Typical mechanical properties of
Typical composition. 58 Co; 21 Cr; 11.0 W; Density. 8.43 g/cm3 (0.305 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 AR-13
3.5 Al; 2.5 Fe; 2.0 Ta; 1.0 Ni; 0.50 Mn; 0.45 C; °F) Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation,
0.1 Y
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi %
21 70 600 87 530 77 1.5
Mechanical Properties 650 1200 475 69 385 56 4.5
760 1400 420 61 330 48 4.5
Tensile properties. See Table 1. 870 1600 290 42 275 40 21.0

AiResist 213 (AR-213)

Chemical Composition Physical Properties

Typical composition. 66.0 Co; 19.0 Cr; 6.5 Ta; Density. 8.51 g/cm3 (0.307 lb/in.3) at 20 °C
4.7 W; 3.5 Al; 0.18 C; 0.15 Zr; 0.1 Y (68 °F) Table 2 Typical mechanical properties of
AR-213
Applications Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation,
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi %
Typical uses. For gas turbine components Chemical Properties 21 70 1120 162 625 91 14
650 1200 960 139 455 66 28
Resistance to specific corroding agents. 760 1400 485 70 385 56 47
Mechanical Properties Sulfidation and oxidation resistant 870 1600 315 46 220 32 55

Tensile properties. See Table 2.

Hardness. Age-hardened: 47 HRC

AiResist 215 (AR-215)

Chemical Composition
Table 3 Typical mechanical properties of
Typical composition. 64.0 Co; 19.0 Cr; 7.5 Ta; AR-215
4.5 W; 4.3 Al; 0.35 C; 0.13 Zr; 0.17 Y
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation,
Physical Properties °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi %
Mechanical Properties
21 70 690 100 485 70 4
Density. 8.47 g/cm 3 (0.306 lb/in. 3 ) at 20 °C 650 1200 570 83 315 46 12
Tensile properties. See Table 3. (68 °F) 870 1600 275 40 215 31 59
374 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 4 Typical mechanical properties of Duratherm 600 prior to age hardening

Duratherm 600
Yield strength, Bending fatigue
Specifications Product Degree of Tensile strength offset 0.2% Hardness, strength(b)
form/condition cold work, % MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation(a), % HV MPa ksi

UNS number. R30600 Strip/soft 0 850 ± 100 123 ± 14.5 380 ± 100 55 ± 14.5 >35 210 ± 30 330 48
Wire/soft 0 940 ± 100 136 ± 14.5 420 ± 100 61 ± 14.5 >35 220 ± 30 … …
Strip/1 2 hard 20 1100 ± 200 160 ± 29 970 ± 200 141 ± 29 >5 350 ± 40 470 68
Chemical Composition Wire/1 2 hard 20 1250 ± 200 181 ± 29 1140 ± 200 165 ± 29 >4 380 ± 40 … …
Strip/hard 60 1550 ± 150 225 ± 22 1450 ± 150 210 ± 22 >1 460 ± 30 580 84
Wire/hard 60 1750 ± 200 254 ± 29 1500 ± 250 218 ± 36 >1 470±30 … …
Nominal composition. 41.5 Co; 12 Cr; 4 Mo;
3.9 W; 8.7 Fe; 2 Ti; 0.7 Al; bal Ni (a) Gage length: 50 mm (2 in.) for strip; 100 mm (4 in.) for wire. (b) 107 stress cycles, values refer to specimens 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) thick with a frac-
ture probability of 1%

Applications
Typical uses. Springs in electric irons, deep Table 5 Typical mechanical properties for Duratherm 600 after age hardening
fryers, and hot plates; corrosion resistant mem-
Tensile Yield strength, Bending fatigue
branes in pressure gages; spring elements ex- Product form/ Age strength +0.2% offset Elongation(a), Hardness, strength(b)
posed to cyclic stress; temperature-resistant
condition hardening cycle MPa ksi MPa ksi % HV MPa ksi
and corrosion resistant plate springs for the
chemical industry; nonmagnetic wear-resistant Strip/soft 4 h 750 °C (1380 °F) 1100 ± 150 160 ± 22 650 ± 150 94 ± 22 >20 310 ± 40 380 55
Wire/soft 4 h 750 °C (1380 °F) 1200 ± 150 174 ± 22 700 ± 150 102 ± 22 >20 320 ± 40 … …
magnetic head distance foils with low eddy Strip/1 2 hard 4 h 650 °C (1200 °F) 1350 ± 200 196 ± 29 1150 ± 200 167 ± 29 >3 420 ± 50 520 75
current losses (low electrical conductivity) Wire/1 2 hard 4 h 650 °C (1200 °F) 1500 ± 200 218 ± 29 1400 ± 250 203 ± 36 >3 460 ± 50 … …
Strip/hard 2 h 650 °C (1200 °F) 1880 ± 200 273 ± 29 1850 ± 200 268 ± 29 >1 580 ± 40 680 99
Wire/hard 2 h 650 °C (1200 °F) 2200 ± 200 319 ± 29 2150 ± 200 312 ± 29 >1 600 ± 40 … …
Mechanical Properties
(a) Gage length: 50 mm (2 in.) for strip; 100 mm (4 in.) for wire. (b) 107 stress cycles, values refer to specimens 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) thick with a frac-
ture probability of 1%
Tensile properties. See Tables 4 and 5.
Hardness. See Tables 4 and 5.
Elastic modulus (tension). Hard, 205 GPa (29.7
× 106 psi); hard + age hardened, 225 GPa (32.6 Table 6 Corrosion rates of Duratherm 600 and type 316L in various corrosive media
× 106 psi)
Shear modulus. Hard, 85 GPa (12.3 × 106 psi); Temperature Duratherm Type 316L stainless
hard + age hardened, 93 GPa (13.5 × 106 psi) Medium °C °F 600, μm/yr steel, μm/yr
Acetic acid, 10% RT RT 0.1 0.1
80 175 0.1 0.2
Physical Properties Hydrochloric acid, 10% Boiling Boiling 40,000 375,000
Nitric acid, 10% RT RT 0.3 0.1
80 175 16 0.1
Density. Hard, 8.45 g/cm3 (0.305 lb/in.3) at 20 Nitric acid, 65% RT RT 0.6 0.3
°C (68 °F); hard + age hardened, 8.50 g/cm3 80 175 70 13
(0.307 lb/in.3) at 20 ° C (68 °F) Sulfuric acid, 10% RT RT 0.7 0.1
Liquidus temperature. 1350 °C (2462 °F) 80 175 80 120
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 13.5 Sulfuric acid, 20% RT RT 2 0.1
80 175 170 14,000
μm/m · K (7.5 μin./in./°F) Lactic acid, 10% 80 175 2.6 0.01
Thermal conductivity. 10 W/m · K (5.78 Btu/ft · Ferric chloride, 10% RT RT 0.1 4
h · °F) 80 175 1,500(a) 10,000(a)
Curie temperature. Hard, –30 °C (–22 °F); Streicher test, 50% H2SO4 + Boiling Boiling 770 106
42 g/L Fe2 (SO4)3
hard + age hardened, –40 °C (–40 °F)
Magnetic permeability. 1.015 at 300 A/cm in RT, room temperature. (a) Pitting resulted
the age-hardened condition

Chemical Properties
Resistance to specific corroding agents. Resis-
tant to both freshwater and salt water and a
number of aggressive environments (see Table 6)

Elgiloy
Chemical Composition
Specifications
ASME. SFA5.21 (ERCoCr-F)
AWS. A.521 (ERCoCr-F) Composition limits. 39.0 to 41.0 Co; 19.0 to
AMS. 5833, 5834, 5875, 5876 NACE International. MR0175-94 21.0 Cr; 14.0 to 16.0 Ni; 6.0 to 8.0 Mo; 1.5 to
ASTM. F 1058 UNS number. R30003 2.5 Mn; 0.15 max C; 0.10 max Be; bal iron
 Properties of Cobalt Alloys / 375

Applications Thermal conductivity. 12.5 W/m · K (7.23 most organic acids, sodium chloride, sodium
Btu/ft · h · °F) sulfate, sodium cyanide, ammonium chloride,
Typical uses. Main springs, power springs, coil Magnetic permeability. 1.0004 at room tem- ammonium sulfate, and many other salts. See
springs, torsion bars, ball bearings, textile perature Table 11 for a comparison of Elgiloy with
thread guides, valve parts, textile cutting wire, Hastelloy C-276 and type 316 stainless steel.
pivot points, high-temperature aircraft cable,
oceanographic cable, artificial heart springs,
Chemical Properties
helical springs, corrosion resistant springs, and
pressure transducers and diaphragms Resistance to specific corroding agents. Resis-
tant to attack by the atmosphere, salt spray,

Mechanical Properties

Tensile properties. See Tables 7 and 8. Table 7 Tensile properties of heat-treated Elgiloy strip
Hardness. 45 to 60 HRC
Yield strength, Elongation,
Elastic modulus. See Table 9. Strip thickness Tensile strength 0.2% offset 50 mm (2 in.),
Modulus of rigidity. See Table 9. mm in. Cold reduction, % MPa ksi MPa ksi %
Poisson’s ratio. See Table 9.
0.51 0.020 85 2344 340 1965 285 1.0
Fatigue strength. See Table 10. 0.63 0.025 69 2255 327 1917 278 1.0
1.20 0.047 62 2082 302 1862 270 1.0
1.91 0.075 40 1682 244 1517 220 3.0
Physical Properties 2.54 0.100 20 1165 169 965 140 10.0

Note: Heat treated at 525 °C (980 °F) for 5 h

Density. 8.30 g/cm3 (0.30 lb/in.3)
Melting temperature. 1427 °C (2600 °F)
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. 12.7
μm/m · K (7.05 μin./in. · °F) Table 11 Performance of Elgiloy in various corrosive media
Corrosive Temperature Hastelloy Type 316
media Concentration,% °C °F Elgiloy C-276 stainless steel

Table 8 Tensile properties of heat treated Acetic acid 50% 106 223 E G S
Acetic acid 10% 99–104 210–220 E … E
Elgiloy wire Ammonium chloride 50% 113 235 E S …
Ammonium chloride 10%–15% 104 220 E E E
Yield strength,
Ammonium sulfate 10% 99–104 210–220 E E …
Cold Tensile strength 0.2% offset
Calcium chloride 10% 103 218 E E E
reduction,% MPa ksi MPa ksi Chromic acid 10% 107 224 U U …
0 1020 148 690 100 Citric acid 10% 106 222 E E E
20 1379 200 1241 180 Cupric chloride 10% 102 215 U … U
40 2000 290 1862 270 Deionized water … 27 80 E E …
60 2551 370 2241 325 Ferric chloride 10% 102 216 U … U
Ferric chloride 10% 24 75 E E E
Note: Heat treated at 525 °C (980 °F) for 5 h Ferric sulfate acid 50% Boiling temperature S S …
Hydrochloric acid Concentrated 24 75 F … …
Hydrochloric acid 50% 24 75 G … …
Hydrochloric acid 10% 24 75 G G U
Hydrochloric acid Concentrated 66 150 U … …
Hydrochloric acid 50% 66 150 U … …
Hydrochloric acid 10% 66 150 U … U
Table 9 Effect of temperature on modulus Hydrochloric acid Concentrated 110 230 U … U
of elasticity of Elgiloy Hydrochloric acid 50% 110 230 U … U
Hydrochloric acid 10% 102 216 U U U
Modulus Modulus of Poisson’s Lactic acid 10% 104 219 E G …
Temperature of elasticity, rigidity, ratio, Mercuric acid 10% 101 214 E … U
°C °F E GPa (106 psi) G GPa (106 psi) μ=(E/2G)–1 Nitric acid Concentrated 110 230 F … S
Nitric acid 50% 110 230 G … G
24 75 190 (27.500) 77 (11.219) 0.226 Nitric acid 10% 102 216 E G …
–18 0 194 (28.125) 79 (11.415) 0.232 Oxalic acid 10% 102 216 G G U
–73 –100 198 (28.750) 80 (11.669) 0.232 Phenol 10% 104 219 E … E
–129 –200 203 (29.375) 82 (11.900) 0.234 Phosphoric acid Concentrated 166 330 U … U
–184 –300 206 (29.844) 83 (12.106) 0.233 Phosphoric acid 50%–55% 116–121 240–250 S G U
Phosphoric acid 10% 107 225 E … G
Seawater … RT–BP RT–BP E E …
Sodium chloride 10% 103 218 E E E
Sodium cynanide 10% 103 218 E … E
Sodium hydroxide Any concentration RT–BP RT–BP E F …
Sodium sulfide 10% 104 220 E … E
Sodium sulfite 10% 104 220 E … E
Table 10 Fatigue strength of heat treated Stannous chloride 10% 102 216 E … E
Elgiloy strip and wire Sulfuric acid Concentrated 259 498 U … U
Sulfuric acid 50% 150 302 U … U
Fatigue strength, MPa (ksi), in: Sulfuric acid 10% 105 221 U S U
Form Type of test 105 cycles 106 cycles
Tartanic acid 10% 104 219 E … E
Zinc chloride 10% 103 217 E E E
Strip(a) Reverse bending 1241 (180) 862 (125)
Wire(b) Torsion 724 (105) 483 (70) RT, room temperature; BP, boiling point. E, excellent (<0.05 mm/yr, or 2 mils/yr); G, good (0.05–0.25 mm/yr, or 2–10 mils/yr); S, satisfactory
(0.25–0.51 mm/yr, or 10–20 mils/yr); F, fair (0.51–1.27 mm/yr, or 20–50 mils/yr); U, unsatisfactory (>1.27 mm/yr, or 50 mils/yr)
(a) 85% cold reduced, heat treated. (b) 45–48% cold reduced, heat treated
376 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

FSX-414
Chemical Composition Stress-rupture characteristics (typical): Physical Properties

Typical composition. 52 Co; 29 Cr; 10 Ni; 7.5 Density. 8.30 g/cm3 (0.300 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68
W; 1.0 Fe; 0.25 C; 0.010 B °F)

Temperature Rupture strength

Applications
°C °F MPa ksi
At 100 h
Typical uses. Gas turbine vanes
815 1500 160 23
870 1600 110 16
925 1700 83 12 Table 12 Typical mechanical properties of
Mechanical Properties 980 1800 55 8 FSX-414
1040 1900 34 5
Tensile properties. See Table 12. 1090 2000 24 3.5 Tensile Yield
Temperature strength strength Elongation,
At 1000 h
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi %
760 1400 165 24
815 1500 115 16.5 21 70 740 107 440 64 11
870 1600 83 12 540 1000 540 78 240 35 15
925 1700 55 8 650 1200 485 70 215 31 15
980 1800 34 5 760 1400 400 58 195 28 18
1040 1900 21 3 870 1600 310 45 165 24 23

Haynes 25 (L-605)
Specifications Hardness. HRC 22 for solution-treated sheet Fatigue strength. Solution heat treated sheet.
up to 48 HRC for 25% cold-worked sheet at 20 At 816 °C (1500 °F): 275 MPa (40 ksi) at 107
°C (70 °F) cycles; 215 MPa (31 ksi) at 108 cycles. At 980
AMS. 5537 (sheet, strip, and plate), 5759 (bar, Elastic modulus (average in tension for solu- °C (1800 °F): 145 MPa (21 ksi) at 106 cycles;
rings, and forgings), 5796 (welding wire), 5797 tion heat treated sheet): 105 MPa (15 ksi) at 107 cycles; 90 MPa (13 ksi)
(coated welding electrodes) at 108 cycles
UNS number. R30605
Temperature Elastic modulus
°C °F GPa 106 psi Physical Properties
Chemical Composition 25 77 225 32.6
100 212 222 32.2 Density. 9.130 g/cm3 (0.330 lb/in.3) at 22 °C
200 392 214 31.0 (72 °F)
Composition limits. 19.00 to 21.00 Cr; 14.00 to 300 572 204 29.6 Liquidus temperature. 1410 °C (2570 °F)
16.00 W; 9.00 to 11.00 Ni; 3.00 max Fe; 1.00 to 400 752 197 28.6
Solidus temperature. 1329 °C (2425 °F)
2.00 Mn; 0.4 max Si; 0.05 to 0.15 C; 0.030 P; 500 932 188 27.3
600 1112 181 26.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear):
0.030 max S; bal Co 700 1292 174 25.2
800 1472 163 23.7
900 1652 154 22.4 Temperature Average coefficient
1000 1832 146 21.2 °C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
Applications
21–935 70–200 12.3 6.8
Creep-rupture characteristics. See Table 15. 21–205 70–400 12.9 7.2
Typical uses. Suitable for a number of compo- Impact strength. Typical Charpy V-notch for 21–315 70–600 13.5 7.6
nent applications in the aerospace industry, in- solution heat treated plate 21–425 70–800 13.9 7.8
21–540 70–1000 14.4 8.0
cluding parts in established military and com- 21–650 70–1200 14.8 8.2
mercial gas turbines. In modern engines, Temperature Mean Charpy, V-notch strength, 21–760 70–1400 15.4 8.6
Haynes 25 has largely been replaced by Haynes °C °F J ft · lbf 21–870 70–1600 16.2 9.1
188, described in the next data sheet, and by 21–980 70–1800 16.9 9.4
–195 –321 148 109
nickel-base heat resistant alloys. Alloy 25 is 21–1090 70–2000 17.7(a) 9.8(a)
–138 –216 182 134
also used as a bearing material, both for balls –78 –108 212 156 (a) Extrapolated data
and races. –29 –20 243 179
20 68 262 193
260 500 297 219
540 1000 273 201 Specific heat. 384 J/kg · K (0.092 Btu/lb · °F) at
Mechanical Properties 650 1200 230 170
28 to 100 °C (80 to 212 °F)
760 1400 194 143
870 1600 163 120
Tensile properties. See Tables 13 and 14. 980 1800 144 106
 Properties of Cobalt Alloys / 377

Table 13 Typical tensile properties of Table 14 Effect of cold working on the tensile properties of 1.3 mm (0.050 in.) thick Haynes
cold-rolled and solution-annealed Haynes 25 sheet
25 sheet
Test Ultimate 0.2% yield
Test Ultimate 0.2% yield Elongation Cold temperature tensile strength strength Elongation
temperature tensile strength strength in 50 mm reduction, % °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi in 50 mm (2 in.), %
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), % 10 20 70 1070 155 725 105 41
Room Room 1005 146 475 69 51 540 1000 785 114 540 78 48
540 1000 770 112 330 48 60 650 1200 795 115 550 80 37
650 1200 745 108 330 48 60 760 1400 600 87 460 67 8
760 1400 640 93 285 41 42 870 1600 425 62 325 47 13
870 1600 415 60 250 36 45 980 1800 270 39 185 27 15
980 1800 235 34 125 18 36 15 20 70 1145 166 855 124 30
1095 2000 160 23 76 11 48 540 1000 925 134 740 107 29
650 1200 890 129 765 111 15
760 1400 715 104 595 86 5
870 1600 485 70 360 52 9
Thermal conductivity: 980 1800 275 40 205 30 5
20 20 70 1260 183 970 141 19
540 1000 1075 156 915 133 18
Temperature Conductivity 650 1200 945 137 825 120 2
°C °F W/m · K Btu/ft · h · °F 760 1400 740 107 660 96 3
980 1800 285 41 205 30 4
20 70 9.8(a) 5.6(a)
100 100 11.2(a) 6.5(a)
200 300 13.0 7.5
300 500 14.7 8.5 Table 15 Typical creep and stress-rupture properties of cold-rolled and solution-annealed
400 700 16.6 9.6
Haynes 25 sheet
500 900 18.5 10.7
600 1100 20.4 11.8
Approximate initial stress in MPa (ksi)
700 1300 22.4 12.9
Test to produce specified creep in:
800 1500 24.4 14.1
900 1700 26.5 15.3 temperature 10 h 100 h 1000 h
°C °F Creep, % MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
(a) Extrapolated data
650 1200 0.5 425 62.0 330 47.5 230 33.5
1.0 490 71.0 370 54.0 270 39.0
Rupture 565 82.0 475 69.0 395 57.0
705 1300 0.5 295 43.0 205 30.0 145 21.0
Electrical resistivity: 1.0 340 49.5 210 35.0 160 23.2
Rupture 440 64.0 345 50.0 260 38.0
Temperature
760 1400 0.5 195 28.0 135 19.5 100 14.8
Resistivity,
1.0 220 32.0 150 21.5 110 16.2
°C °F nΩ · m
Rupture 325 47.0 250 36.0 180 26.0
24 75 890 815 1500 0.5 130 18.5 97 14.0 70 10.2
240 460 970 1.0 140 20.2 105 15.5 85 12.3
450 840 990 Rupture 235 34.0 170 24.7 125 18.1
650 1200 1060 870 1600 0.5 94 13.7 68 9.9 48 6.9
740 1360 1070 1.0 105 15.2 83 12.0 61 8.9
815 1500 1080 Rupture 165 24.0 120 17.5 83 12.0
950 1740 970 925 1700 0.5 67 9.7 47 6.8 31 4.5
1000 1830 950 1.0 83 12.0 61 8.8 39 5.6
1080 1980 1000 Rupture 120 17.3 81 11.8 50 7.2
980 1800 0.5 47 6.8 31 4.5 18 2.6
1.0 61 8.8 39 5.6 21 3.0
Magnetic permeability. <1.0 at 9 kA/m (116 Rupture 81 11.8 50 7.2 28 4.0
oersteds)

tance to corrosive aqueous media. It does, how-

Chemical Properties ever, exhibit good resistance to oxidizing envi-
ronments up to 980 °C (1800 °F) for prolonged
Resistance to specific corroding agents. exposures and excellent resistance to
Haynes alloy 25 was not designed for resis- sulfidation.

Haynes 188
Specifications Chemical Composition Applications

Composition limits. 20.0 to 24.0 Ni; 21.0 to Typical uses. Widely used in established mili-
AMS. 5608 (sheet, strip, and plate), 5772 (bar, 23.0 Cr; 13.0 to 15.0 W; 3.0 max Fe; 1.25 max tary and commercial gas turbine engines for
rings, and forgings), 5801 (welding wire) Mn; 0.20 to 0.50 Si; 0.05 to 0.15 C; 0.02 to 0.12 combustion cans, transition ducts, and after-
UNS number. R30188 La; 0.015 max B; bal Co burner components
378 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Mechanical Properties Specific heat: Magnetic permeability. 1.01 at 16 kA/m (200

oersteds) and 20 °C (68 °F)
Temperature Specific heat
Tensile properties. See Table 16. °C °F J/kg · K Btu/lb · °F
Hardness: Chemical Properties
Room Room 403 0.096
100 200 423 0.101
Average hardness, HRA, 200 400 444 0.106 Resistance to specific corroding agents.
after indicated time at 300 600 465 0.112
Temperature temperature 400 800 486 0.117 Haynes alloy 188 was not designed for resis-
°C °F 200 h 500 h 500 1000 502 0.122 tance to corrosive aqueous media. It does, how-
980 1800 62 61
600 1200 523 0.127 ever, combine excellent high-temperature
700 1400 540 0.131 strength with very good resistance to oxidizing
925 1700 63 63
800 1600 557 0.136
870 1600 63 64 environments up to 1095 °C (2000 °F) for pro-
900 1800 573 0.140
815 1500 64 63
1000 2000 590 0.145 longed exposures and excellent resistance to
760 1400 64 63 sulfate deposit hot corrosion. It is also highly
705 1300 64 64
650 1200 62 62
resistant to molten chloride salts and has good
590 1100 62 61
Thermal conductivity: resistance to gaseous sulfidation.
540 1000 61 61 Temperature Conductivity
480 900 62 61
°C °F W/m · K Btu · in./ft2 · h · °F
Room Room 10.4 72
Creep-rupture characteristics. See Table 17. 100 200 12.2 84
200 400 14.3 100
300 600 15.9 112
400 800 17.5 125
Physical Properties 500 1000 19.3 138
600 1200 21.1 152
Density. 8.98 g/cm3 (0.324 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (70 700 1400 23.0 167
°F) 800 1600 24.8 174
900 1800 25.5 189
Melting range. 1315 to 1410 °C (2400 to 2570 1000 2000 27.6 204
°F)
Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear):
Electrical resistivity:
Temperature Restitivity
Temperature Average coefficient
°C °F μΩ · cm μΩ · in.
°C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
25–100 70–200 11.9 6.6 Room Room 101.0 39.6
25–200 70–400 12.6 7.0 100 200 103.0 40.3
25–300 70–600 13.2 7.4 200 400 105.0 41.5
25–400 70–800 13.8 7.8 300 600 107.7 42.7
25–500 70–1000 14.5 8.2 400 800 110.5 43.8
25–600 70–1200 15.2 8.6 500 1000 112.7 44.7
25–700 70–1400 15.8 9.0 600 1200 114.8 45.6
25–800 70–1600 16.5 9.4 700 1400 116.4 46.1
25–900 70–1800 17.1 9.9 800 1600 117.5 46.5
25–1000 70–2000 17.9 10.3 900 1800 118.3 46.7
1000 2000 119.1 46.8

Table 16 Typical tensile properties for cold-rolled and

solution-annealed Haynes 188 sheet and plate
Ultimate
Test tensile 0.2% yield Elongation
temperature strength strength in 50 mm
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 in.), %
Table 17 Typical creep and stress-rupture properties of cold-rolled
and solution-annealed Haynes 188 sheet
Sheet
RT RT 945 137.2 465 67.3 53 Approximate initial stress in MPa (ksi)
540 1000 750 108.5 290 42.0 61 Test to produce specified creep in:
650 1200 710 103.3 275 39.7 59 temperature Creep, 10 h 100 h 1000 h
760 1400 620 89.9 270 38.9 63 °C °F % MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
870 1600 415 60.0 250 35.9 64
980 1800 245 35.2 130 19.0 59 760 1400 0.5 155 22.5 115 16.4 81 11.7
1095 2000 130 18.7 64 9.3 32 1.0 175 25.5 130 18.5 92 13.3
Rupture 295 43.0 220 32.0 160 23.0
Plate 815 1500 0.5 105 15.5 77 11.1 54 7.8
RT RT 985 142.6 470 68.5 56 1.0 120 17.6 87 12.6 61 8.8
540 1000 775 112.6 275 39.9 69 Rupture 215 31.0 150 21.7 105 15.0
650 1200 755 109.8 265 38.3 73 870 1600 0.5 74 10.7 52 7.5 34 5.0
760 1400 650 94.0 270 38.9 70 1.0 84 12.2 58 8.4 39 5.7
870 1600 450 65.3 250 36.1 77 Rupture 145 21.0 99 14.4 65 9.4
980 1800 265 38.7 185 27.1 84 925 1700 0.5 50 7.3 34 4.9 21 3.1
1095 2000 145 21.0 88 12.8 89 1.0 57 8.2 39 5.6 25 3.6
1150 2100 96 13.9 48 6.9 60 Rupture 99 14.3 63 9.1 38 5.5
1205 2200 83 12.0 28 4.0 71 980 1800 0.5 34 4.9 21 3.1 12 1.8
1.0 39 5.6 25 3.6 14 2.1
RT, room temperature Rupture 63 9.1 37 5.4 17 2.4
 Properties of Cobalt Alloys / 379

MAR-M 302
Specifications Mechanical Properties Physical Properties

Tensile properties. See Table 18. Density. 9.21 g/cm3 (0.333 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68
AMS. 5384 (investment castings)
Stress-rupture characteristics (typical at 100 h): °F)
Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear):
Chemical Composition Temperature Rupture strength
Temperature Mean coefficient
°C °F MPa ksi
°C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
815 1500 250 36
Composition limits. Typical. 58.0 Co; 21.5 Cr; 205 400 12.4 6.9
870 1600 185 27
315 600 13.0 7.2
10.0 W; 9.0 Ta; 0.85 C; 0.005 B; 0.20 Zr. 925 1700 140 20
425 800 13.3 7.4
Range. 20 to 23 Cr; 9 to 11 W; 8 to 10 Ta; 0.78 980 1800 97 14
540 1000 13.7 7.6
1040 1900 69 10
to 0.93 C; 0.75 to 1.5 Fe; 0.10 to 0.40 Si; 0.10 to 1090 2000 41 6
650 1200 14.0 7.8
0.30 Zr; 0.10 max Mn; 0.010 max B; bal Co 760 1400 14.4 8.0
870 1600 14.9 8.3
980 1800 15.7 8.7
1090 2000 16.6 9.2
Applications
Thermal conductivity:
Typical uses. For turbine vanes, nozzle guide Table 18 Typical mechanical properties of
vanes, and buckets in gas turbines. For service MAR-M 302
Temperature Conductivity
to 1150 °C (2100 °F) °C °F W/m · K Btu/ft · h · °F

Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation, 21 70 18.7 10.8

°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi % 93 200 19.2 11.1
205 400 20.2 11.7
21 70 930 135 690 100 2 315 600 21.2 12.2
540 1000 795 115 505 73 … 425 800 21.7 12.5
650 1200 785 114 450 65 … 540 1000 22.2 12.8
760 1400 705 102 385 56 8 650 1200 22.3 12.9
870 1600 450 65 310 45 11 760 1400 22.6 13.1
980 1800 275 40 215 31 15 870 1600 23.2 13.4
1090 2000 150 22 150 22 21 980 1800 24.2 14.0

MAR-M 322
Chemical Composition Mechanical Properties

Tensile properties. See Table 19.

Composition limits. Typical. 61.0 Co; 21.5 Cr;
Table 19 Typical mechanical properties of
9.0 W; 4.5 Ta; 0.75 Ti; 1.0 C; 2.25 Zr. Range.
Physical Properties MAR-M 322
20 to 23 Cr; 8 to 10 W; 4 to 5 Ta; 2 to 2.5 Zr;
0.90 to 1.1 C; 0.65 to 0.85 Ti; 1.5 max Fe; 0.20 Tensile Yield
max Mn; 0.20 max Si; bal Co Density. 8.91 g/cm3 (0.322 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 Temperature strength strength Elongation,
°F) °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi %
21 70 825 120 625 91 3.2
Applications 540 1000 655 95 415 60 6
Chemical Properties 650 1200 655 95 415 60 6
760 1400 625 91 380 55 6.5
870 1600 550 80 345 50 12
Typical uses. For turbine vanes and blades, jet General corrosion behavior. Oxidation resis-
engine components tant to 1090 °C (2000 °F)

MAR-M 509

Chemical Composition
0.50 Zr. Range. 21.0 to 24.0 Cr; 9.0 to 11.0 Ni; Applications
Composition limits. Typical. 55.0 Co; 23.5 Cr; 6.5 to 7.5 W; 3.0 to 4.0 Ta; 0.55 to 0.65 C; 0.4
10.0 Ni; 7.0 W; 3.5 Ta; 0.20 Ti; 0.60 C; to 0.6 Zr; 0.15 to 0.25 Ti; 1.50 max Fe; 0.4 max
Si; 0.1 max Mn; 0.01 max B; 0.015 max S; bal Co Typical uses. For aircraft and industrial turbines
380 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Mechanical Properties Physical Properties

Tensile properties. See Table 20. Density. 8.85 g/cm3 (0.320 lb/in.3) at 20 °C (68 Thermal conductivity:
Hardness. 24 to 34 HRC °F)
Elastic modulus: Incipient melting temperature. 1290 °C (2350 Temperature Conductivity
°F) °C °F W/m · K Btu/ft · h · °F
Temperature Modulus of elasticity
Liquidus temperature. 1400 °C (2550 °F) 425 800 25.2 14.6
°C °F GPa 106 psi Softening temperature. 1340 °C (2450 °F) 540 1000 27.9 16.1
21 70 225 32.7 Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear): 650 1200 31.1 18.0
205 400 215 30.9 760 1400 34.3 19.8
425 800 195 28.4 Temperature Mean coefficient 870 1600 37.6 21.7
650 1200 180 25.8 °C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F 980 1800 41.2 23.8
760 1400 165 23.9 1090 2000 44.6 25.8
870 1600 155 22.5 315 600 14.6 8.1
980 1800 135 19.8 425 800 15.3 8.5
540 1000 15.9 8.85
650 1200 16.2 9.0
Stress-rupture characteristics (typical): 760 1400 16.7 9.3
870 1600 17.2 9.55
980 1800 17.6 9.8
Temperature Rupture strength 1090 2000 18.2 10.1
°C °F MPa ksi

At 100 h
760 1400 345 50
815 1500 250 36.5
870 1600 180 26
925 1700 135 19.5
980 1800 105 15
1040 1900 79 11.5 Table 20 Typical mechanical properties of MAR-M 509
1090 2000 52 7.5
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation,
At 1000 h
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi %
760 1400 260 38
815 1500 195 28 21 70 785 114 570 83 4
870 1600 140 20 540 1000 570 83 400 58 6
925 1700 105 15 650 1200 560 81 370 54 7
980 1800 79 11.5 760 1400 570 83 365 53 10
1040 1900 55 8 870 1600 350 51 290 42 20
1090 2000 34 5 980 1800 215 31 180 26 26

MP35N
Specifications used in a wide variety of applications. Exam- Mean coefficient of thermal expansion (linear):
ples include fasteners used for aerospace,
ASTM. F 562 (surgical implants) marine, medical, and petroleum industry appli- Temperature range Average coefficient
cations, drive shafts for down hole oil pumps, °C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
AMS. 5758 (centerless ground bars), 5844
(cold drawn bars), 5845 (cold drawn and aged surgical implants, springs, nonmagnetic elec- 21–93 70–200 12.8 7.1
bars), 7468 (bolts and screws) trical components, and oil industry tubular goods. 21–204 70–400 13.7 7.6
21–316 70–600 14.8 8.2
NACE International. MR0175-94 21–427 70–800 14.9 8.3
UNS number. R30035 21–538 70–1000 15.7 8.7
Mechanical Properties

Chemical Composition Tensile properties. See Table 21.

Hardness. See Table 21.
Elastic modulus. See Table 22. Thermal conductivity:
Composition limits. 35.0 Co; 35.0 Ni; 20.0 Cr;
Shear modulus. See Table 23.
9.75 Mo; 1.0 max Fe; 1.0 max Ti; 0.025 max C;
Stress-rupture properties. See Table 24. Temperature
0.15 max Mn; 0.15 max Si °F Btu · in./ft2 · h · °F
Impact strength. See Table 25. °C W/m · K
Fatigue strength. See Table 26. –184 –300 6.5 45
–73 –100 9.1 63
Applications 21 70 11.2 78
Physical Properties 93 200 12.7 88
204 400 15.0 104
Typical uses. Because of its combination of 316 600 17.0 118
ultrahigh tensile strength (up to 2070 MPa, or Density. 8.43 g/cm3 (0.304 lb/in.3) 427 800 19.2 133
300 ksi), good ductility and toughness, and ex- Melting range. 1315 to 1440 °C (2400 to 2625 538 1000 21.3 148
649 1200 23.4 162
cellent corrosion resistance, MP35N has been °F)
 Properties of Cobalt Alloys / 381

Electrical resistivity: Magnetic permeability. 1.0009 at 25 °C (77 °F) tional resistance to stress-corrosion cracking
(SCC) and hydrogen embrittlement at very
Temperature Resistivity Chemical Properties high strength levels under severe environmen-
tal conditions that can crack most conventional
°C °F μΩ/mm μΩ/in.
corrosion resistant alloys. It is also highly re-
–184 –300 986 38.82 Resistance to specific corroding agents.
–73 –100 1011 39.79
sistant to other forms of localized attack, such
21 70 1033 40.67
MP35N possesses excellent resistance to most as pitting and crevice corrosion. In seawater,
93 200 1051 41.37 mineral acids (including nitric, hydrochloric, MP35N is virtually immune to general, crev-
204 400 1078 42.43 and sulfuric acids), hydrogen sulfide, seawater, ice, and stress corrosion, regardless of strength
316 600 1104 43.45 and salt spray environments. It features excep- level or process condition.
427 800 1129 44.45
538 1000 1154 45.44
649 1200 1179 46.43

Table 21 Typical room-temperature tensile properties of MP35N

Ultimate 0.2% yield
Cold tensile strength strength Reduction
reduction,% MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % of area, % Hardness, HRC
Work strengthened Table 22 Elastic modulus of MP35N at
0 931 135 414 60 70 70 8 various temperatures
15 1069 155 814 118 41 70 29
25 1172 170 1034 150 28 65 34 Temperature Annealed Cold worked and aged
35 1336 194 1062 154 22 67 42
°C °F GPa 106 psi GPa 106 psi
45 1572 228 1303 189 17 62 47
55 1827 265 1413 205 12 50 47 26 78 232.8 33.76 234.8 34.05
65 1931 280 1620 235 11 49 50 232 450 216.0 31.33 219.0 31.76
482 900 201.0 29.15 201.3 29.19
Work strengthened + aged 538 °C (1000 °F) 4 h, air cooled
0 931 135 414 60 68 77 7
15 1089 158 862 125 39 70 33
25 1282 186 1207 175 24 65 39
35 1400 203 1344 195 21 62 43
45 1772 257 1731 251 12 52 46
53 2068 300 1999 290 10 48 50

Table 24 Stress-rupture properties of MP35N

Test Stress for rupture in:

Table 23 Shear modulus of MP35N at temperature 10 h 200 h 1000 h
various temperatures Condition °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi

Temperature Annealed Cold worked and aged 1517 MPa (220 ksi) 538 1000 1288 187 1151 167 951 138
°C °F GPa 106 psi GPa 106 psi
strength level 593 1100 1137 165 916 133 661 96
649 1200 916 133 641 93 … …
26 78 83.36 12.09 80.95 11.74 1827 MPa (265 ksi) 538 1000 1440 209 1233 179 985 143
232 450 77.84 11.29 74.74 10.84 strength level 593 1100 1219 177 951 138 661 96
482 900 70.60 10.24 67.78 9.83 649 1200 944 137 641 93 … …

Table 25 Charpy V-notch impact strength of MP35N at a Table 26 Room-temperature R.R. Moore bending fatigue strength of
strength level of 1930 MPa (280 ksi) MP35N

Test temperature Impact strength Stress for cycles to failure

Condition °C °F J ft · lbf 106 107 108

Condition MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
Cold drawn 49% and aged 24 75 25.6 18.9
1200 °F (649 °C) 4 h; –73 –100 23.2 17.1 Cold drawn and aged to 1517 MPa 689 100 620 90 606 88
air cool –129 –200 20.7 15.3 (220 ksi) strength level
–196 –320 21.8 16.1 Cold drawn and aged to 1827 MPa 744 108 682 99 668 97
–253 –423 18.3 13.5 (265 ksi) strength level
382 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

MP159
Table 27 Typical room-temperature tensile properties of MP159
Specifications Tensile Yield strength
strength (0.2% Offset) Reduction
AMS. 5842 (bars), 7475 (bolts) Condition MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation,% of area,%
UNS number. R30159 Annealed(a) 850 123 400 58 60 69
Cold worked 48% 1585 230 1415 205 12 46
Cold worked 48% + aged(b) 1895 275 1825 265 8 35
Chemical Composition
(a) Annealed at 1050 °C (1925 °F) for 4 h, water quenched. (b) Aged at 660 °C (1225 °F) for 4 h, air cooled

Nominal composition. 35.7 Co; 25.5 Ni; 19.0

Cr; 9.0 Fe; 7.0 Mo; 3.0 Ti; 0.6 Nb; 0.2 Al
Melting range. 1260 to 1385 °C (2300 to 2525 °F) Chemical Properties
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion:
Applications General corrosion behavior. Although not as
Temperature range Average coefficient corrosion resistant as MP35N, alloy MP159 is
Typical uses. Fasteners used in gas turbine en- °C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
extremely resistant to SCC and hydrogen
gines, airframes, the Space Shuttle propulsion embrittlement at high strength levels. It is also
25–100 77–212 14.3 7.95
system, aircraft landing gear, chemical pro- 25–200 77–392 14.2 7.90 resistant to crevice and pitting corrosion in
cessing apparatus, petrochemical refineries, 25–300 77–572 14.2 7.88 chloride-containing environments (e.g., 10%
pulp and paper processing plants, and power 25–400 77–752 14.6 8.09 ferric chloride test solutions). Cold worked and
generation equipment 25–500 77–932 14.9 8.29 aged MP159 exhibits no cracking or evidence
25–600 77–1112 15.1 8.39
25–700 77–1292 16.0 8.90
of corrosion on U-bend specimens after 30
25–800 77–1472 18.2 10.13 days exposure in 0.5% acetic acid + 0.5 M NaCl
Mechanical Properties saturated with H2S.
Tensile properties. See Table 27.
Elastic modulus. See Table 28. Table 28 Elastic modulus of MP159 at Table 29 Shear modulus of MP159 at
Shear modulus. See Table 29. various temperatures various temperatures

Temperature Annealed Cold worked and aged Temperature Annealed Cold worked and aged

Physical Properties °C °F GPa 106 psi GPa 106 psi °C °F GPa 106 psi GPa 106 psi

26 78 222 32.2 243 35.3 26 78 81 11.7 78 11.3

232 450 211 30.2 226 32.8 232 450 76 11.0 72 10.5
Density. 8.37 g/cm3 (0.302 lb/in.3) 482 900 68 9.9 65 9.4
482 900 187 27.1 206 29.9

Stellite 6B (Haynes 6B)

Specifications
Hot hardness: Creep and stress-rupture properties. See Table
AMS. 5894 (all product forms) 31.
Temperature Hardness(a)
UNS number. R30016
°C °F HB
Physical Properties
Chemical Composition 540 1000 226
650 1200 203
760 1400 167 Density. 8.380 g/cm3 (0.303 lb/in.3) at 22 °C
Composition limits. 28.00 to 32.00 Cr; 3.50 to 870 1600 102 (72 °F)
5.50 W; 3.00 max Fe; 3.00 max Ni; 2.00 max Liquidus temperature. 1355 °C (2470 °F)
(a) Mutual indentation method
Si; 1.50 max Mo; 0.90 to 1.40 C; bal Co Solidus temperature. 1265 °C (2310 °F)
Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear):
Applications Impact strength (Charpy):
Temperature Mean coefficient
°C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
Typical uses. Wear plates and bars, bushings,
Temperature Type of Longitudinal 0–100 32–212 13.9 7.7
and sleeves for shafts operating in hot or possi-
°C °F test J ft · lbf 0–200 32–392 14.1 7.8
bly corrosive atmospheres where lubrication is 0–300 32–572 14.5 8.0
difficult or impossible 3 mm (1 2 in.) plate(a)
0–400 32–752 14.7 8.2
RT RT Unnotched 97.6 72 0–500 32–932 15.0 8.3
Notched 8.1 6 0–600 32–1112 15.3 8.5
Mechanical Properties 540 1000 Unnotched 110 81 0–700 32–1292 15.8 8.8
Notched 20.3 15 0–800 32–1472 16.3 9.1
675 1250 Unnotched 160 116 0–900 32–1652 16.9 9.4
Tensile properties. See Table 30. Notched 20.3 15 0–1000 32–1832 17.4 9.7
Compressive properties. Compressive 815 1500 Unnotched 170 126
strength, 2399 MPa (348 ksi) Notched 20.3 15
Hardness. 2 mm (0.063 in.) sheet, 39 HRC; 13 (a) Solution heat treated at 1230 °C (2250 °F), rapid air cooled
mm (0.5 in.) plate, 38 HRC Specific heat. 421 J/kg · K (0.101 Btu/lb · °F)
 Properties of Cobalt Alloys / 383

Thermal conductivity. 14.7 W/m · K (8.5 Chemical Properties a variety of aqueous corrosive media. Combi-
Btu/ft · h · °F) at 22 °C (72 °F) nation of wear and corrosion resistance makes
Electrical resistivity. 910 nΩ · m at 22 °C General corrosion behavior. Highly resistant Stellite 6B useful in such applications as food
(72 °F) to atmospheric oxidation at ordinary tempera- handling machinery and chemical equipment.
Magnetic permeability. <1.2 at 16 kA/m (200 tures with good resistance to oxidation at ele- Resistance to specific corroding agents. See
oersteds) at 22 °C (72 °F) vated temperatures. Also has good resistance to Table 32.

Table 30 Typical tensile properties for Stellite 6B Table 32 Average corrosion data for Stellite 6B
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation, Average
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi % Concentration, Test temperature penetration rate(a)(b)

1.6 mm (0.063 in.) sheet Media wt% °C °F mm/yr mils/yr

20 68 1010 146 635 92 11 Acetic acid 10 BP 0.002 0.08

815 1500 510 74 310 45 17 Acetic acid 30 BP 0.001 0.04
870 1600 385 56 270 39 18 Acetic acid 50 BP <0.001 0.02
980 1800 230 33 140 20 36 Acetic acid 70 BP <0.002 0.06
1090 2000 140 20 76 11 44 Acetic acid 99 BP <0.001 0.03
1150 2100 90 13 55 8 22 Chromic acid 10 66 150 2.41 95
Formic acid 10 BP 0.51 20
13 mm (1 2 in.) plate
Formic acid 30 BP 0.66 26
20 68 1020 148 605 88 7 Formic acid 50 BP 1.19 47
540 1000 915 133 405 59 9 Formic acid 70 BP 1.27 50
675 1250 795 115 420 61 9 Formic acid 88 BP 0.58 23
16 mm ( 5 8 in.) bar Hydrochloric acid 2 RT <0.003 0.1
20 68 1060 154 640 93 17(a) Hydrochloric acid 5 RT 1.60 63
315 600 1020 148 515 75 30(a) Hydrochloric acid 10 RT 2.74 108
540 1000 890 129 460 67 28(a) Hydrochloric acid 20 RT 2.36 93
815 1500 515 75 325 47 38(a) Hydrochloric acid 2 66 150 <0.003 0.1
870 1600 400 58 260 38 34(a) Hydrochloric acid 5 66 150 >25.4 >1000
Hydrochloric acid 10 66 150 >25.4 >1000
Note: All specimens solution heat treated at 1232 °C (2250 °F) and rapid air cooled; limited number of tests. Hydrochloric acid 20 66 150 >25.4 >1000
(a) Elongation in 25 mm or 1 in. Nitric acid 10 BP <0.004 0.15
Nitric acid 30 BP 0.15 6
Nitric acid 50 BP >25.4 >1000
Nitric acid 70 BP >25.4 >1000
Phosphoric acid 10 BP Nil Nil
Phosphoric acid 30 BP 0.05 2
Table 31 Typical creep-rupture characteristics for Stellite 6B Phosphoric acid 50 BP 0.48 19
Phosphoric acid 70 BP 0.58 23
Initial Time (h) for total Elongation Phosphoric acid 85 BP 15.5 611
Stress elongation, elongation of: of rupture, Sodium hydroxide 30 BP 0.33 13
Temperature, °C MPa ksi % Life, h 0.5% 1.0% 2.0% % Sulfuric acid 10 RT <0.001 0.02
Sulfuric acid 30 RT Nil Nil
1.6 mm (0.063 in.) sheet Sulfuric acid 50 RT 0.01 0.4
Sulfuric acid 77 RT 0.02 0.7
540 415 60 0.70 192.8(a) … … … 0.8
Sulfuric acid 10 66 150 <0.001 0.02
650 345 50 0.45 361.4 0.5 113.8 … 3.0
760 240 35 0.35 59.3 0.4 3.8 16.3 5.1 Sulfuric acid 30 66 150 <0.003 0.09
815 170 25 0.35 70.6 0.2 4.3 16.9 4.7 Sulfuric acid 50 66 150 >25.4 >1000
870 130 19 0.10 57.9 0.5 2.2 11.1 4.3 Sulfuric acid 77 66 150 4.5 176
925 83 12 0.19 104.0 1.8 20.9 89.9 2.6 Sulfuric acid 2 BP 0.79 31
980 55 8 0.05 113.4 5.1 22.7 57.6 5.5 Sulfuric acid 5 BP 2.31 91
1090 18 2.6 0.004 116.7 5.4 … … 13.3 Sulfuric acid 10 BP 3.99 157
Sulfuric acid 20 BP 9.14 360
16 mm ( 5 8 in.) bar Sulfuric acid 50 BP >25.4 >1000
540 310 45 0.79 330.8(a) … … … 0.83 Sulfuric acid 30 BP >25.4 >1000
450 65 1.03 329.9 … … … … Sulfuric acid 77 BP >25.4 >1000
650 275 40 0.06 164.6(a) … … … 0.44 Ferric chloride (10 days without 10 RT 0.33(c) 13
310 45 0.70 367.1 … 15.9 117.5 11.6 crevice)
345 50 0.54 282.3(a) … 163.6 … 1.73 Ferric chloride (10 days with 10 RT 0.23(c) 9(b)
730 240 35 0.37 137.7(a) 1.57 11.3 55.7 3.22 crevice bolt)
275 40 0.17 13.6 … … … 16.0 5% ferric chloride + 10% … RT 0.46(c) 18
310 45 0.27 62.7 1.03 4.75 9.8 16.9 sodium chloride (10 days)
870 105 15 0.40 130.9 0.03 1.77 7.6 13.3 2% potassium permanganate + … 90 194 0.20 8
125 18 0.42 52.7 0.05 0.68 2.9 11.0 2% sodium chloride (120 h)
130 19 0.22 55.9 0.20 0.70 2.4 20.0
BP, boiling point; RT, room temperature. (a) Determined in laboratory tests. It is recommended that samples be
Note: Specimens solution heat treated 1232 °C (2250 °F), rapid air cooled prior to testing. (a) Test discontin- tested under actual plant conditions. (b) Corrosion rates for all duplicate samples based on an average of 4-24
ued before rupture hour test periods. (c) Samples pitted during test
384 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Stellite 6K
Chemical Composition Mechanical Properties Liquidus temperature. 1317 °C (2403 °F)
Solidus temperature. 1257 °C (2295 °F)
Composition limits. 28.00 to 32.00 Cr; 3.50 to Tensile properties. See Table 33. Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear):
5.50 W; 3.00 max Fe; 3.00 max Ni; 2.00 max Si; Compressive properties. Compressive strength,
2.00 max Mn; 1.40 to 1.90 C; 1.50 max Mo; bal Co sheet: 2240 MPa (325 ksi) Temperature Mean coefficient

Hardness. 2 mm (0.063 in.) sheet, 46 HRC; 13 °C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F

mm (0.5 in.) and 23 mm (7/8 in.) plate 45 HRC 0–100 32–212 13.8 7.7
Applications 0–200 32–392 13.8 7.7
0–300 32–572 13.8 7.7
Physical Properties 0–400 32–752 13.8 7.7
Typical uses. Machine knives for cutting rub- 0–500 32–932 13.8 7.7
ber, plastics, wood, leather, food products, syn- Density. 8.38 g/cm3 (0.303 lb/in.3) at 22 °C 0–600 32–1112 14.0 7.8
thetic fibers, and paper (72 °F) 0–700 32–1292 14.2 7.9
0–800 32–1472 14.5 8.1
0–900 32–1652 14.9 8.3
0–1000 32–1832 15.5 8.6
Table 33 Typical tensile properties for Stellite 6K
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation,
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi %

1.6 mm (0.063 in.) sheet Magnetic permeability. <1.2 at 16 kA/m (200

20 68 1220 177 710 103 4 oersteds) at 22 °C (72 °F)
650 1200 1010 146 … … 8
815 1500 485 70 310 45 17
980 1800 235 34 130 19 28
1090 2000 115 17 59 8.6 53
13 mm (1 2 in.) and 23 mm (7 8 in.) plate
20 68 1010 146 745 108 1
316 600 785 114 560 81 2
540 1000 730 106 515 75 3

Note: All specimens solution heat treated at 1232 °C (2250 °F) and rapid air cooled; limited number of tests

Ultimet
Specifications Hardness: Thermal conductivity:

ASTM. B 815 (rod) and B 818 (sheet, strip, Condition Form Hardness Temperature Conductivity
plate) Mill annealed Sheet HRC 30 °C °F W/m · K Btu · in./h · ft2 · °F
ASME. Section VIII, Division 1, Code Case 2121 10% cold worked Sheet HRC 40 23 73 12.3 85
NACE International. MR0175-94 20% cold worked Sheet HRC 43 100 212 13.8 96
DIN specification. CoCr26Ni9Mo5W, No. 40% cold worked Sheet HRC 49 200 392 15.6 108
As-cast Investment HB 96 300 572 17.5 121
2.4681
400 752 19.4 134
UNS number. R31233 500 932 21.5 149
Elastic modulus. See Table 35. 600 1112 23.9 166
Impact strength. See Table 36.
Chemical Composition
Physical Properties Electrical resistivity:
Nominal composition. 54 Co; 26 Cr; 9 Ni; 5
Mo; 3 Fe; 2 W; 0.3 Si; 0.08 N; 0.06% C
Density. 8.47 g/cm3 (0.306 lb/in.3) Temperature Resitivity
Melting range. 1332 to 1354 °C (2430 to °C °F μΩ/m μΩ/in.
Applications 2470 °F) 23 75 0.87 34.2
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion: 100 212 0.89 35.4
Typical uses. Agitators, blenders, bolts, dies, 200 392 0.93 36.6
300 572 0.96 38.1
extruders, fan blades, filters, glass plungers, Temperature range Average coefficient
400 752 1.00 39.3
nozzles, pumps, rolls, screw conveyors, and °C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
500 932 1.03 40.5
valve parts requiring a combination of high 26–93 78–200 13.0 7.2 600 1112 1.05 41.3
wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and high 26–204 78–400 13.5 7.5
tensile strength 26–316 78–600 14.0 7.8
26–427 78–800 14.5 8.0
26–538 78–1000 14.8 8.2 Chemical Properties
26–649 78–1200 15.1 8.4
Mechanical Properties 26–760 78–1400 15.9 8.8
26–871 78–1600 16.4 9.1 General corrosion behavior. Ultimet is consid-
Tensile properties. See Table 34. 26–982 78–1800 16.9 9.4 ered a “corrosion-wear” resistant alloy that of-
 Properties of Cobalt Alloys / 385

Table 34 Typical tensile properties for solution heat treated Ultimet fers corrosion resistance to many aggressive
environments comparable to that of the molyb-
Yield strength Elongation in denum-bearing Hastelloy alloys (particularly
Test temperature Ultimate tensile strength at 0.2% offset 50 mm (2 in.), with regard to oxidizing acids and to localized
Form °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi % corrosion), while exhibiting wear resistance
Sheet 1.6 mm (0.063 in.) RT 952 138 496 72 42 comparable to that of Stellite alloys (particu-
93 200 931 135 400 58 50 larly with regard to cavitation-erosion, slurry-
204 400 924 134 310 45 62 erosion, and galling). It is also resistant to high-
316 600 896 130 296 43 75
427 800 827 120 283 41 76 temperature forms of corrosive attack, for ex-
Plate 6.3–38.1 mm (1 4 –11 2 in.) RT 1020 148 545 79 36 ample, oxidation, molten zinc, and sulfidation.
93 200 986 143 483 70 40 Resistance to specific corroding agents. See
204 400 986 143 379 55 61 Table 37.
316 600 952 138 331 48 70
427 800 917 133 310 45 70
538 1000 862 125 262 38 70
649 1200 683 99 255 37 66 Table 35 Typical dynamic modulus of
760 1400 524 76 269 39 70 elasticity for Ultimet
871 1600 352 51 193 28 77
982 1800 214 31 110 16 100 Test Average dynamic
Bar 12.7–50.8 mm (1 2–2 in.) RT 1014 147 524 76 38 temperature modulus of elasticity
93 200 965 140 483 70 49
Form Condition °C °F GPa 106 psi
204 400 965 140 359 52 66
316 600 910 132 303 44 77 Plate Heat-treated at 204 400 215 31.2
427 800 903 131 296 43 84 1120 °C 316 600 206 29.9
538 1000 793 115 276 40 79 (2050 °F), 427 800 197 28.6
water quenched 538 1000 189 27.4
RT, room temperature 649 1200 180 26.1

Table 36 Typical room-temperature

impact strength for Ultimet plate
Aging
temperature Aging time, V-notch strength
°C °F h J ft · lbf
Mill annealed … 176 130
204 400 100 191 141 Table 37 Comparative corrosion data for Ultimet and other alloys
1000 203 150
316 600 100 203 150 Average corrosion rate, mm/yr (mils/yr)
1000 217 160 Test temperature
Concentration, Ultimet 6B C-276 Alloy
538 1000 100 217 160
wt% °C °F alloy alloy alloy 20Cb-3
1000 206 152
649 1200 100 159 117 Hydrochloric acid 1 BP 0.0075 (0.3) 4.25 (170) 0.33 (13) 2.03 (81)
1000 26 19 Nitric acid 65 BP 0.15 (6) 135.8 (5434) 21.2 (848) 0.2 (8)
761 1400 100 26 19 P2O5 (commercial grade) 54 116 240 0.2 (8) 0.38 (15) 0.7 (28) 0.9 (36)
1000 9 7 Sulfuric acid 10 BP 2.48 (99) 5.8 (232) 0.45 (18) 0.55 (22)
871 1600 100 31 23 Sulfuric acid + 1.2% HCl + 1% FeCl3 11.5 BP 0.05 (2) 72.2 (2888) 1.38 (55) 68.0 (2720)
1000 23 17 + 1% CuCl2 (ASTM G 28B)
982 1800 100 76 56 Sulfuric acid + 42 g/L Fe2(SO4)3 50 BP 0.2 (8) 0.35 (14) 6.25 (250) 0.25 (10)
1000 60 44 (ASTM G 28A)

UMCo-50 (Haynes 150)

Chemical Composition Mechanical Properties Solidus temperature. 1380 °C (2515 °F)
Coefficient of thermal expansion. Linear, 16.8
Tensile properties. See Table 38. μm/m · K (9.33 μin./in. · °F) at 20 to 1000 °C
Composition limits. 48 to 52 Co; 27 to 29 Cr; (68 to 1830 °F)
Hardness. See Table 38.
0.5 to 1.0 Mn; 0.5 to 1.0 Si; 0.05 to 0.12 C; 0.02 Thermal conductivity. 8.9 W/m · K (5.1 Btu/ft ·
Elastic modulus. Tension, 215 GPa (31.5 × 106 psi)
max P; 0.02 max S; bal Fe h · °F) at 20 °C (68 °F)
Impact strength. Charpy, 95 J (70 ft · lb) at 20
°C (68 °F) Electrical resistivity. 825 nΩ · m at 25 °C (77 °F)
Applications Creep-rupture characteristics. See Table 39.
Chemical Properties
Physical Properties
Typical uses. Furnace grates, trays, and rolls; General corrosion behavior. Resistant to at-
skids and rails in heat treating furnaces; Density. 8.050 g/cm3 (0.29 lb/in.3) tack by dilute sulfuric acid and by boiling nitric
slag-notch rings and tundishes Liquidus temperature. 1395 °C (2540 °F) acid; rapidly attacked by hydrochloric acid.
386 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

High degree of oxidation resistance, for exam- sion resistance to oxidizing-sulfidizing envi- sulfur-bearing fuel oils. Resistant to molten cop-
ple, comparable to 25Cr-20Ni steel in air up to ronments as well as in combustion products from per but rapidly attacked by molten aluminum.
1200 °C (2190 °F). High degree of hot corro-

Table 38 Typical tensile properties and hardness for UMCo-50 Table 39 Typical creep resistance of wrought UMCo-50
alloy
Stress to cause creep elongation of:
Tensile 0.2% offset Temperature 1% 0.5%
Temperature strength yield strength Elongation, Hardness, °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi % HV
In 10 h
UMCo-50, as-cast
850 1560 61 8.9 55 8.0
25 70 550 80.0 315 45.6 8 250 900 1650 35 5.1 30 4.3
700 1290 195 28.6 150 21.4 19 163 950 1740 23 3.3 19 2.7
900 1650 130 18.6 110 15.7 9 72 1000 1830 16 2.3 14 2.0
1000 1830 79 11.4 69 10.0 18 …
In 100 h
UMCo-50, wrought
800 1470 61 8.9 53 7.7
25 70 925 134 610 88.5 10 350 850 1560 34 5.0 30 4.3
500 930 885 128 570 83.0 23 … 900 1650 21 3.1 18 2.6
700 1290 325 47 225 32.8 21 210 950 1740 14 2.1 12 1.8
900 1650 155 22.8 150 21.4 12 …
1000 1830 79 11.4 59 8.6 18 … In 1000 h
750 1380 64 9.3 58 8.4
800 1470 34 5.0 30 4.3
850 1560 21 3.1 18 2.6
900 1650 14 2.1 12 1.7
In 10,000 h
700 1290 72 10.4 63 9.2
750 1380 37 5.3 32 4.6
800 1470 21 3.1 19 2.7
850 1560 14 2.1 12 1.8

X-40/X-45
Specifications Stress-rupture characteristics (typical):
Temperature Rupture strength
°C °F MPa ksi
AMS. 5382 (investment castings)
At 100 h
650 1200 385 56
Chemical Composition 760 1400 260 38
Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear):
870 1600 140 20
980 1800 76 11
Temperature Coefficient
Typical composition. 54.0 Co; 25.5 Cr; 10.5 At 1000 h
°C °F μm/m · K μin./in. · °F
Ni; 7.5 W; 0.75 Mn; 0.75 Si; 0.50 C; 0.25 C for 650 1200 350 51
X-45 760 1400 230 33 315 600 14.0 7.8
870 1600 110 16 425 800 14.6 8.1
980 1800 68 9.8 540 1000 15.1 8.4
650 1200 15.8 8.75
Mechanical Properties 760 1400 16.6 9.2
Physical Properties

Tensile properties. See Table 40. Density. 8.60 g/cm3 (0.311 lb/in.3) at 20 °C
(68 °F) Thermal conductivity:

Temperature Conductivity
Table 40 Typical mechanical properties of X-40 °C °F W/m · K Btu/ft · h · °F
21 70 11.8(a) 6.8(a)
Temperature Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation,
93 200 13.5 7.8
°C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi % 205 400 15.1 8.7
21 70 745 108 525 76 9 315 600 17.9 10.3
540 1000 550 80 275 40 17 425 800 19.1 11.0
650 1200 515 75 260 38 12 540 1000 21.6 12.5
760 1400 485 70 … … 10 650 1200 22.8(a) 13.2(a)
870 1600 325 47 … … 16
(a) Extrapolated values
980 1800 200 29 … … 31
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®
J.R. Davis, editor, p 387-394 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p387 www.asminternational.org

Wear Behavior of Cobalt Alloys

THE SINGLE LARGEST APPLICATION faces (in relative motion), while low-stress faces are metallic in nature, and if there is little
for cobalt alloys is for wear resistance. As abrasion is encountered when moving surfaces or no lubrication present.
shown in Table 1, weld overlay (hardfacing) al- come into contact with packed abrasives, such Mechanisms. Sliding wear generally occurs
loys, wrought alloy 6B (UNS R30016) and its as soil and sand. by one or more of three mechanisms. In the
higher carbon version 6K, and Ultimet Materials Performance. In alloys such as first mechanism, oxide control of the sliding
(R31233) are the alloys most frequently em- the cobalt-base wear alloys, which contain a wear process, along with low wear rates, are
ployed for wear resistant applications. It should hard phase, the abrasion resistance generally experienced when surface temperatures are
be noted, however, that some cobalt alloys de- increases as the volume fraction of the hard high, by virtue of either a high ambient temper-
veloped for heat resistant applications (e.g., al- phase increases. Abrasion resistance is, how- ature or frictional heating. This is because ox-
loy 25) or corrosion resistant applications (e.g., ever, strongly influenced by the size and shape ide growth rates increase dramatically with
MP35N) also exhibit very good wear resistance of the hard phase precipitates within the micro- temperature. In some cases, so-called “oxide
when compared to other ferrous or nonferrous structure, and the size and shape of the abrad- glazes” are formed on the surfaces. These “ox-
alloys. ing species. ide glazes” are very smooth, highly reflective
In this article, emphasis has been placed on regions, caused by the shearing of oxide aspe-
wear data generated on wrought and hardfacing rities (peaks) and redistribution of the oxide
alloys. Chemical composition, mechanical and Sliding Wear debris in the surface valleys. There are times
physical properties, and the metallurgy associ- when the oxide debris, if trapped as discrete
ated with these alloys can be found in the arti- Of the three major types of wear, sliding is particles or flakes between the sliding sur-
cle “Cobalt-Base Alloys” in this Volume. In perhaps the most complex, not in concept, but faces, can become abrasive. This is an impor-
addition, that article also describes some cobalt in the way different materials respond to sliding tant consideration when the surfaces oscillate
alloys processed by powder metallurgy meth- conditions. Sliding wear is a possibility when- with respect to one another over small ampli-
ods that are used for wear components. ever two surfaces are forced together and tudes. The combined sliding-abrasive wear
moved relative to one another. The chances of mechanism set up under these conditions is
damage are increased markedly if the two sur- known as fretting.
Types of Wear
Table 1 Typical applications of various cobalt-base wear resistant alloys
There are several distinct types of wear,
which generally fall into three main categories: Applications Alloy Forms Mode of degradation

• Abrasive wear Automotive industry

• Sliding wear Engine valve seating surfaces 6, F Weld overlay Solid-particle erosion, hot corrosion
• Erosive wear Power industry
Control valve seating surfaces 6, 21 Weld overlay Sliding wear, cavitation erosion
The type of wear encountered in a particular Steam turbine erosion shields Alloy 6B Wrought sheet Liquid-droplet erosion, particulate erosion
application is an important factor that influences Marine industry
the selection of a wear resistant material. Rudder bearings 306 Weld overlay Sliding wear
Steel industry
Hot shear edges 6 Weld overlay Sliding wear, impact, abrasion
Abrasive Wear Bar mill guide rolls 12 Weld overlay Sliding wear, impact, abrasion
Electrogalvanizing rolls Ultimet Wrought sheet Erosion-corrosion
Mechanisms. Abrasive wear is encountered Chemical processing industry
when hard particles, or hard projections (on a Control valve seating surfaces 6 Weld overlay Sliding wear, cavitation erosion
counterface) are forced against, and moved rel- Plastic extrusion screw flights 1, 6, 12 Weld overlay Sliding wear, abrasion
Pump seal rings 6, 12 Weld overlay Sliding wear
ative to, a surface. The terms high-stress and Dry battery molds 4 Casting Abrasion
low-stress abrasion relate to the condition of
Pulp and paper industry
the abrasive medium (be it hard particles or
Chain saw guide bars 6, alloy 6B Weld overlay, Sliding wear, abrasion
projections) after interaction with the surface. wrought sheet
If the abrasive medium is crushed, then the
Textile industry
high-stress condition is said to prevail. If the
Carpet knives 6K, 12 Wrought sheet, Abrasion
abrasive medium remains intact, the process is weld overlay
described as low-stress abrasion. Typically,
Oil and gas industry
high-stress abrasion results from the entrap-
Rotary drill bearings 190 Weld overlay Abrasion, sliding wear
ment of hard particles between metallic sur-
388 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

The second mechanism of sliding wear is

normally associated with high contact stresses
and assumes breakdown of the oxide films to
the point where true metal-to-metal contact is
established. Under these conditions, there is an
opportunity for cold welding of the surfaces to
occur, and for subsequent movement to result
in fracture of small pieces away from the origi-
nal interface (normally in the weaker of the two
mating materials). Damage caused by this
mechanism is termed galling. Substantial metal
transfer from one surface to the other and gross
deformation of surface materials are typical of
this condition.
The third mechanism of sliding wear, which
can also produce substantial metallic damage,
is one of subsurface fatigue. This mechanism is
associated with cyclic stress conditions caused
by materials periodically pressing on one an- Room-temperature abrasion test results of wrought cobalt-base alloys compared with other alloys. (a) Low-stress
other. Material is lost through fatigue crack nu- Fig. 1 data per ASTM G 65 dry sand and rubber wheel test (procedure B). (b) High-stress data per ASTM B 611 slurry
cleation and growth at a specific depth. and steel wheel test. See Fig. 2 for the test apparatus and test parameters.
Materials Performance. The metallic mate-
rials that perform well under sliding conditions
Sand hopper
do so either by virtue of their oxidation behav-
ior or their ability to resist deformation and Weight
fracture. Little is known of the influence of Steel
Rubber
metal-to-metal bond strength during cold weld- wheel wheel
ing. For materials such as the cobalt-base wear
alloys with a hard phase dispersed throughout a
Load Specimen
softer matrix, the sliding-wear properties are
controlled predominantly by the matrix. In- Mixing
deed, within the cobalt alloy family, resistance vanes Sand
to galling is generally independent of hard-par- slurry
ticle volume fraction and overall hardness.
(a) (b)

Erosive Wear Fig. 2 Standard tests used to obtain abrasive-wear data. (a) ASTM G 65 dry sand and rubber wheel test (procedure B)
for obtaining low-stress abrasion data. Test parameters: load, 13.6 kg (30 lb); flow rate, 390 g/min (0.86 lb/min);
wheel speed, 200 rev/min; test revolutions, 2000. (b) ASTM B 611 slurry and steel wheel test for obtaining high-stress
Four distinct forms of erosive wear have abrasion data. Test parameters: load, 22.7 kg (50 lb); slurry, 1500 g (3.3 lb) sand plus 940 g (2.1 lb) water; wheel speed,
240 rev/min; test revolutions, 250. Both tests use quartz sand of 212 –300 µm diam as abrasive.
been identified:

• Solid-particle erosion Liquid-Droplet and Cavitation Erosion. solid-particle erosion, for example, ductility
• Liquid-droplet erosion Although quite different mechanistically, liq- can also be a factor (see the discussion on
• Cavitation erosion uid-droplet erosion and cavitation erosion have solid-particle impingement erosion in the fol-
• Slurry erosion a similar effect on a surface. They both result in lowing section of this article “Wrought Alloy
a succession of shock (or stress) waves into the Wear Data”).
Solid-particle erosion is caused by the im- surface. For this reason, those materials that re- As for liquid-droplet or cavitation erosion,
pingement of small, solid particles against a sist liquid-droplet erosion also perform well un- the performance of a material largely de-
surface. The solid particles themselves are typi- der cavitation conditions and vice versa. pends on its ability to absorb the shock
cally airborne or entrained in some other gas- Liquid-droplet erosion is easily envisaged, (stress) waves without, essentially, microscopic
eous environment. Particle sizes typically range fracture. In cobalt-base wear alloys, it has been
whereas cavitation erosion is a more complex
from 5 to 500 µm. Typical velocities associated found that carbide volume fraction (hence, bulk
phenomenon. For cavitation erosion to occur,
with solid-particle erosion range from 2 m/s (6 hardness) has very little effect on resistance to
the surface must be in contact with a liquid un-
ft/s) in fluid bed combustors to 500 m/s (1650 liquid-droplet and cavitation erosion (Ref 1).
ft/s). The rate of solid-particle erosion depends dergoing pressure changes. Surface damage re-
sults from the collapse of near-surface bubbles Much more important are the properties of the
on the velocity of the particles, their impinge- matrix.
ment angle (the angle dependency generally is in the liquid, or, more precisely, from the action
different for ductile materials than it is for brit- of liquid jets that arise during bubble implo-
tle materials), and the nature of the erodent sion. The bubbles themselves are created when
(shape, size, strength). the pressure in the liquid falls below its vapor Wrought Alloy Wear Data
Slurry erosion, or liquid-solid particle ero- pressure. Collapse is induced by subsequent
sion, is similar to solid-particle erosion, except pressure increases.
that there are differences in the viscosity of the Materials Performance. The abrasion resis- Abrasive Wear Data
carrier fluid (gas in solid-particle erosion, liq- tance of cobalt-base alloys, like other wear re-
uid carrier in slurry erosion). Slurry erosion oc- sistant alloys, generally depends on the hard- The low-stress and high-stress abrasive wear
curs at the surfaces impinged by the solid parti- ness of the carbide phases and/or the metal characteristics for three wrought cobalt alloys,
cles in the liquid stream. The similarity to matrix. With the complex mechanisms of relative to other common alloys, are shown in
abrasion arises from the fact that the particles solid-particle and slurry erosion, however, such Fig. 1. The test apparatus and/or parameters
are hydrodynamically forced against the surface. generalizations may not be warranted. In used to obtain these data are shown in Fig. 2.
 Wear Behavior of Cobalt Alloys / 389

(a) (b) (c)

40 µm

(d) (e) (f)

40 µm

Fig. 3 Microstructures of various cobalt-base wear resistant alloys. (a) Stellite 1, two-layer GTA deposit. (b) Stellite 6, two-layer GTA deposit. (c) Stellite 12, two-layer GTA deposit. (d)
Stellite 21, two-layer GTA deposit. (e) Haynes alloy 6B, 13 mm (0.5 in.) plate. (f) Tribaloy alloy (T-800) showing the Laves precipitates (the largest continuous precipitates, some
of which are indicated with arrows). All 500×

Review of these room-temperature data reveals: temperature hardness and performance is evi- deformation under such conditions. It is note
dent (Table 2). In fact, all the alloys, including worthy that the duplex (austenitic-ferritic)
• The importance of hard phases (carbides) alloy 6B and D2 tool steel, fall within a narrow microstructure of alloy 255 is beneficial under
within the microstructure, under conditions performance band, suggesting that resistance to low-stress conditions, but detrimental in the
conducive to low-stress abrasion fracture is at least as important as resistance to high-stress case.
• Their lack of importance under high-stress
conditions. (The performance of the carbide-
containing alloy 6B is similar to that of the
carbide-free Ultimet alloy.)

Low-Stress Abrasive Wear. The impor-

tance of the carbide precipitates, in particular
their size and shape, under low-stress condi-
tions can be appreciated by comparing the
microstructures and volume losses for alloy 6B
and alloy 6 in Fig. 3 and 4, respectively. Large
blocky carbides have been found to be of most
benefit under such conditions (Ref 2). Table 2
compares the low-stress volume losses of vari-
ous alloys, including Ultimet, alloy 6B, and
hardfacing alloys Stellite 1, 6 and 21.
The low-stress abrasion results for alloy 25,
Ultimet, stainless steels, and the high-nickel al-
loys correlate well with the annealed
hardnesses of the samples (Table 3) with the
exception of alloy 25.
High-Stress Abrasive Wear. For the high- Low-stress abrasion data for various cobalt-base alloys tested per ASTM G 65 (procedure B). The benefits of
stress test, no relationship between room-
Fig. 4 wrought processing (refer to alloy 6B) and the effectiveness of the Laves phase are evident.
390 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 2 Comparative resistance to Gas and

particle stream Shaft
abrasion for various alloys
Volume loss, mm3 (in.3 × 10 –3)
Material Low stress (a) High stress (b) Power supply
Baffle
Ultimet alloy 90.4 (5.5) 56.1 (3.4)
Haynes 6B alloy 15.3 (0.9) 57.0 (3.5) Transducer
Haynes 625 alloy 119.3 (7.3) 63.4 (3.9)
Hastelloy C-22 alloy 114.0 (7.0) 64.9 (4.0) Sample
Hastelloy C-276 alloy 123.5 (7.5) 49.8 (3.0) Horn Sample
Ferralium alloy 255 97.5 (5.9) 75.0 (4.6)
Type 316L stainless steel 140.4 (8.6) 64.8 (3.9)
Type D-2 tool steel 15.2 (0.9) 56.9 (3.5)
(HRC 60) Test liquid Propeller
Carpenter 20Cb-3 alloy 127.9 (7.8) 56.4 (3.4)
Nitronic 60 145.8 (8.9) …
Exhaust
Type 1020 carbon steel 130.0 (7.9) …
Stellite 1 (c) 29.4 (1.8) …
Stellite 6 (c) 63.8 (3.9) … (a) (b) (c)
Stellite 21 (c) 80.3 (4.9) …
Fig. 5 Tests used to obtain erosive wear data. (a) ASTM G 76 solid-particle test. See Fig. 6–9 for test parameters. (b)
(a) Data per ASTM G 65. (b) Data per ASTM B 611 (c) Two-layer ASTM G 32 cavitation test. Test parameters: frequency, 20 kHz; amplitude, 0.05 mm (0.002 in.); test liquid, dis-
gas-tungsten arc weld deposit. Source: Haynes International data sheet tilled water; test duration, 24 h; test temperature, 16 °C (61 °F). (c) Slurry test. Test parameters: medium, 80 µm alumina in
on Ultimet alloy tap water; velocity, 5 m/s (16.4 ft/s); particle loading, 0.12 kg/L; test duration, 40 h; test temperature, 20 °C (70 °F)

Table 3 Annealed hardnesses of low-stress

studies (using the ASTM G 76 test apparatus • Neither cold working nor precipitation hard-
shown in Fig. 5a) are presented in graphical ening has a strong effect on solid-particle
abrasion samples of wrought cobalt-base
form in Fig. 6 to 9. In the first study by Ninham erosion resistance.
alloys relative to other alloys
(Ref 3), alloy 6B and alloy 188 were com- • For silicon carbide, erosion rate decreases as
Alloy Hardness, HRC pared with alloy C-276, alloy 255, and alloy impact angle increases, in the range 30 to
Alloy 6B 38.1 718 at three impact angles (30, 60, and 90°) 90°; this is consistent with other erosion
Alloy 25 24.7 and for two types of erodent (silicon carbide studies of ductile materials (Ref 4).
Ultimet 35.6 particles of 250 to 300 µm, or 0.010 to 0.012 • For quartz, this relationship does not apply
D2 tool steel 59.5 in., diameter and angular quartz particles of 70 because the materials tested have exhibited a
316L stainless steel 81.6(a)
Alloy 20Cb-3 86.8(a) to 200 µm, or 0.003 to 0.008 in., diameter). To maximum erosion rate at an impact angle of
Alloy 255 27.2 assess the influence of alloy condition, alloy 60°; alloy 6B is one of the two exceptions in
Alloy 625 20.2 188 and alloy C-276 were tested in both the this regard, having exhibited a maximum
Alloy C-276 89.8(a) solution-annealed and 30% cold-worked con- erosion rate at 90°.
(a) HRB ditions, and alloy 718 was tested in both the
solution-annealed and aged (precipitation-hard- In the second solid-particle erosion study in-
ened) condition. Alloy 6B was tested in the solu- volving the cobalt-base wrought alloys, alloy
tion-annealed condition, and alloy 255 was cold 6B, alloy 25, and Ultimet alloy were com-
worked by 30% prior to being tested. pared with alloy C-276, type 316L stainless
Erosive Wear Data Review of the data from Ref 3 (Fig. 6 and 7), steel, alloy 625, and 20Cb-3 alloy at both room
which were generated at room temperature, re- temperature and elevated temperature. In this
Solid-Particle Impingement Erosion. To veals the following: case, all samples were in the solution-an-
define the behavior of the cobalt-base wrought nealed condition, and the tests were run at a
alloys under solid-particle impingement ero- • For a given erodent and impact angle, there particle velocity of 20 m/s (70 ft/s), as opposed
sion conditions, the results of two independent is little to differentiate the alloys tested. to 60 m/s (200 ft/s) for the previous work. The

Fig. 6 Solid-particle impingement erosion test (ASTM G 76) results to compare co- Solid-particle impingement erosion test (ASTM G 76) results to compare cobalt-
balt-base alloys with selected alloys using a 250–300 µm (0.010–0.012 in.)
Fig. 7
base alloys with selected alloys using a 75 to 200 µm (0.003 to 0.008 in.)
diam silicon carbide erodent at impact angles of 30, 60, and 90°. Tests conducted at diam quartz erodent at impact angles of 30, 60 and 90°. Tests conducted at room tem-
room temperature with 60 m/s (200 ft/s) particle velocity. AN, annealed; CR, cold re- perature with 60 m/s (200 ft/s) particle velocity. AN, annealed; CR, cold reduced; AG,
duced; AG, aged. Source: Ref 3 aged. Source: Ref 3
 Wear Behavior of Cobalt Alloys / 391

Fig. 8 Solid-particle impingement erosion test (ASTM G 76) results to compare co- Solid-particle impingement erosion test (ASTM G 76) results to compare co-
balt-base alloys with selected alloys using a 400 µm (0.016 in.) mean diam sili-
Fig. 9
balt-base alloys with selected alloys using an 80 µm (0.003 in.) mean diam
con carbide erodent at an impact angle of 60°. Test parameters: test temperature, 20 °C alumina erodent at an impact angle of 30°. Test parameters: test temperature, 850 °C
(70 °F); particle velocity, 20 m/s (65 ft/s); particle feed rate, 0.02 g/s (4 × 10–5 lb/s) (1560 °F); particle velocity, 20 m/s (65 ft/s); particle feed rate, 0.02 g/s (4 × 10 –5 lb/s)

room-temperature tests (the results of which were run with 80 µm (0.003 in.) diameter exhibited the lowest erosion rates. Alloy 25, in
are shown in Fig. 8) were performed with sili- alumina particles at an impact angle of 30°; the particular, was significantly more resistant to
con carbide particles of 400 µm (0.016 in.) di- results are shown in Fig. 9. erosion than the other test alloys. At elevated
ameter, at an impact angle of 60°. The ele- Under the conditions of the room- temperature, however, 316L was by far the
vated-temperature (850 °C, or 1560 °F) tests temperature test, the three cobalt-base alloys most erosion-resistant material, presumably
due to the characteristics of the oxide scale dur-
ing impingement.
Cavitation Erosion. Comparison of the cav-
itation erosion resistance of several cobalt-,
nickel-, and iron-base alloys (Fig. 10) using the
ASTM G 32 test apparatus shown in Fig. 5(b)
indicates that cobalt is extremely beneficial in
this type of wear. In Ref 5, the outstanding cav-
itation properties of the cobalt-base alloys are
attributed to the low stacking fault energies of
their face-centered cubic (fcc) structures. These
energies, it is believed, lead to planar slip,
which in turn delays crack nucleation (assum-
ing the cavitation process is similar to high-cy-
cle fatigue on a fine scale). References 1 and 6,
on the other hand, suggest that the fcc to hexag-
onal close-packed (hcp) transformation is im-
portant (in the latter case because it enhances
fatigue life by reducing internal strain).
The effect of carbon content (hence carbide
Fig. 10 Vibratory cavitation erosion test (ASTM G 32) results to relate cobalt-base wrought alloys with comparable al- volume fraction, and, indirectly, hardness) on
loys. All samples were solution annealed with the exception of MP35N alloy, which was tested in the cavitation erosion resistance was studied in Ref
work-hardened condition. See Fig. 5(b) for test parameters.
1. In the range studied (0.12–1.35 wt%), carbon
content was found to have little effect above
about 0.3 wt%. Below this level, cavitation ero-
sion resistance was found to decrease with de-
creasing carbon content, although these experi-
ments addressed neither the issue of solubility
limit nor the effect of carbon within the soluble
range. It is interesting to note that the cavitation
erosion resistance of Ultimet alloy (the carbon
content of which is within the soluble range) is
similar to that of alloy 6B (at 1.0 wt% C).
Slurry Erosion. The slurry erosion proper-
ties of alloy 6B, alloy 25, and Ultimet alloy are
presented in Fig. 11, together with data for
commonly used stainless steels and nickel-base
alloys. From these data, it is evident that cobalt
as an alloy base can be beneficial, although the
performance of alloy 25 in this test (the details
Slurry erosion pot test data to relate cobalt-base wrought alloys with comparable alloys. See Fig. 5(c) for test of which are described in Ref 7) was poor rela-
Fig. 11 parameters tive to most of the other alloys tested. It is also
392 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Fig. 12 Comparison of galling test data for cobalt-base wrought alloys with other Fig. 13 Effect of nickel content on the antigalling properties of Ultimet alloy.
selected alloys. Pin-on-block test parameters: test temperature, 20 °C (70 Pin-on-block test parameters: test temperature, 20 °C (70 °F); number of
°F); number of strokes, 10 strokes through 120° arc; load, 2722 kg (6000 lb) strokes, 10 strokes through 120° arc; load, 2722 kg (6000 lb)

evident that carbide precipitates within the tween carbide volume fraction and slurry ero- mately 250 °C (480 °F) under a variety of slid-
microstructure can be beneficial (comparing the sion resistance is far from linear for the cobalt- ing conditions and that above this temperature,
erosion depths for alloy 6B and Ultimet alloy). base alloys. oxide control of the sliding-wear process is
These results are somewhat consistent with prevalent. Both Ref 9 and 10 discuss the advan-
previous slurry erosion test data (Ref 8) on co- Sliding Wear Data tages of cobalt as an alloy base over nickel (rel-
balt-base hardfacing alloys, albeit in a ative to sliding wear at low temperatures).
sand-water slurry, as opposed to the alu- The unlubricated dynamic coefficient of fric-
Galling. The outstanding resistance of the
mina-water medium used to generate the values tion was found to vary with time in both of
cobalt-base wrought alloys to galling, under
in Fig. 11. In the previous work, a wide spec- these studies. In Ref 9, the coefficient was
self-mated conditions, is apparent from the
trum of engineering materials was tested, and, found to vary between 0.4 and 1.4 for alloy 31
pin-on-block test data presented in Fig. 12.
of these, alloy 6 (the cast counterpart of alloy (self-mated) at room temperature (the value in-
Unfortunately, the test conditions (ten strokes
6B) was among the most resistant, wearing at creasing with test time). At high temperatures,
through an arc of 120°) were too severe for
only 5.5% of the rate of carbon steel. The re- friction coefficient values appear to be more
the standard (austenitic and ferritic-austenitic)
sults in Ref 8 indicated that the cast cobalt-base stable, after a short, running-in period. At
stainless steels. Even Nitronic 60, a type 200
alloys of higher carbon content (and higher 800 °C (1470 °F), for example, alloy 31
stainless steel known for its resistance to gall-
hardness) were much less resistant to slurry (self-mated) exhibited a value of between 0.3
ing, exhibited considerable damage (change
erosion, suggesting that the relationship be- and 0.4 after 15 min, up to completion of the
in surface roughness) at the test load em-
test at 67 h.
ployed.
As may be deduced from Fig. 12, the cou-
100 4 pling of dissimilar materials in a sliding system
Versus itself
complicates the issue of wear performance, Hot Hardness Values for
Degree of damage, µm

Degree of damage, mil

Versus 304 stainless steel

80
Versus 410 stainless steel 3 possibly because the interfacial bonding char- Wrought Alloys
Versus alloy C-276 acteristics are difficult to predict. Nickel in
60
2 Ultimet alloy, for example, is detrimental under
40 self-mated conditions, but beneficial when slid- Because they may be of some relevance to
1 ing against alloy C-276 (Fig. 13). Additional low-stress hot abrasion resistance, hot hardness
20
galling data on Ultimet, as well as cobalt-base values are presented in Table 4 for wear resis-
0 0 hardfacing alloys, are provided in Fig. 14. tant alloy 6B, heat resistant alloys 25 and 188,
Stellite 1 Stellite 21 Stellite 6 Ultimet Oxide Control. Although elevated-temperature and corrosion resistant Ultimet alloy. It is sig-
Comparison of galling test data for wrought
sliding-wear data for the cobalt-base wrought nificant that despite the considerable spread in
Fig. 14 Multimet alloy with cobalt-base hardfacing de- alloys are not available, work with cobalt-base their room-temperature hardness values, these
posits (two-layer gas-tungsten arc deposits). See Fig. 12 castings and weld overlays (Ref 9, 10) indicates alloys possess nearly equal resistance to defor-
and 13 for test parameters. that maximum wear rates occur at approxi- mation at 871 and 982 °C (1600 and 1800 °F).

Table 5 Chemical compositions of cobalt-base hardfacing alloys

Table 4 Hot hardnesses of cobalt-base Alloy AWS Composition(a), wt%
wrought alloys UNS No. tradename designation C Cr Fe Mn Mo Ni Si W Others

Temperature Hardness for indicated alloy, DPH(a) Carbide-containing alloys

°C °F Alloy 6B Alloy 25 Alloy 188 Ultimet R30006 Stellite No. 6 ERCoCr-A 0.9–1.4 27.0–31.0 3.0 max 1.0 max 1.5 max 3.0 max 1.5 max 2.60–3.00 …
R30012 Stellite No. 12 ERCoCr-B 1.4 nom 30.0 nom 3.0 max 2.5 nom … 1.5 nom 0.7 nom 8.3 nom …
RT(b) RT(b) 374 285 248 296 R30001 Stellite No. 1 ERCoCr-C 2.5 nom 30.0 nom 3.0 min 0.5 nom 0.5 nom 1.5 nom 1.3 nom 13.0 nom …
427 800 269 171 170 173 R30021 Stellite No. 21 ERCoCr-E 0.20–0.30 25.0–29.0 3.0 max 1.0 max 5.0–6.0 1.75–3.75 1.0 max … 0.07 max B
538 1000 247 160 159 162 R30002 Stellite F ERCoCr-F 1.5–2.0 23.0–27.0 6.0 max 1.0 nom 1.0 max 20.5–23.5 0.8–1.5 10.5–13.5 …
649 1200 225 150 147 158
760 1400 153 134 129 134 Laves-phase alloys
871 1600 91 93 89 89 R30400 Tribaloy T-400 … 0.8 max 7.5–8.5 … … 27.0–29.0 … 2.2–2.6 … Fe + Ni 3.0
982 1800 55 52 49 50 max
… Tribaloy T-800 … … 18.0 nom … … 29.0 nom … 3.5 nom … …
(a) DPH, diamond pyramid hardness. (b) RT, room temperature.
Source: Haynes International (a) Max, maximum; nom, nominal; min, minimum
 Wear Behavior of Cobalt Alloys / 393

Fig. 15 Comparison of hardfaced cobalt- and nickel-base alloys to tool steel and carbon steel reference materials using ASTM G 65 low-stress abrasion test. (a) Schematic of G 65 dry
sand and rubber wheel test apparatus. (b) Low-stress abrasion test data. G 65 test parameters: procedure B; room temperature; 13.6 kg (30 lb) load; quartz grain sand diameter
of 212 to 300 µm (8.48 to 12 mil); 2000 rev at 200 rev/min; 390 g/min (0.86 lb/min) feed rate

Wear-Related (largely for steam control). Furthermore, alloy food processing industries) and knives for the
Applications for Wrought Alloys 25 is used as a bearing material, and alloy 6B is textile industries.
widely used to protect the nose sections of in-
dustrial chain saws. Ultimet alloy has been
As may be deduced from the wear data pre- used for electrogalvanizing rolls, where both
sented in this article, the cobalt-base alloys pro- corrosion and sliding-wear resistance are re- Wear Behavior of Cobalt-Base
vide high resistance to sliding wear, slurry ero- quired. Hardfacing Alloys
sion, and cavitation erosion (relative to the The erosion properties of the cobalt-base al-
stainless steels, nickel-base superalloys, and loys have led to their use in nozzles, valves
The two types of commercially available
high-nickel corrosion alloys). Alloy 6B and al- (subjected to cavitation damage or slurries),
cobalt-base hardfacing alloys are carbide-
loy 6K also possess outstanding resistance to pumps, and mixing blades. Alloy 6B is also
containing alloys and alloys containing Laves
low-stress abrasion. Industrial applications of used to protect steam turbine blades from liq-
phase. Compositions of these alloys are given in
the alloys tend to reflect these general proper- uid-droplet erosion (it appears that the advan-
Table 5.
ties and their resistance to corrosion and tages of cobalt as an alloy base extend to this
Carbide-containing cobalt-base alloys
high-temperature strength. form of erosion also).
have been widely used since the early 1900s,
The alloys are used for sliding-wear applica- From an abrasion standpoint, notable appli-
when a cobalt-base alloy with the nominal com-
tions such as valves, both in the chemical pro- cations of alloy 6B and alloy 6K include
position of Co-28Cr-4W-1.1C (alloy 6) was
cessing industries and in the power industries scraper knives and blades (for the chemical and
first developed. The chief difference between
the various carbide-containing cobalt-base al-
loys is in carbon content (hence, carbide vol-
ume fraction, room-temperature hardness, and
level of abrasion resistance). Chromium-rich
M7C3 is the predominant carbide in these al-
loys, although tungsten-rich M6C is evident in
those alloys having a high tungsten content, and
chromium-rich M23C6 is common in the
low-carbon alloys.
Low-stress abrasion, galling, and cavitation
erosion data are presented for cobalt and
nickel-base hardfacing alloys in Fig. 15 to 17.
Figure 15 relates the carbon content and the re-
sistance to low-stress abrasion for the car-
bide-containing cobalt-base alloys (ERCoCr-A,
-B, -C, and -E). From Fig. 16 and 17, it is evi-
dent that the cobalt-base matrix (solid solution)
is responsible for the excellent self-mated slid-
ing properties and cavitation erosion resistance
Galling property evaluation of cobalt- and nickel-base hardfacing alloys versus selected alloys (itself, stainless
of these alloys.
Fig. 16 steels, and a Ni-Mo-Cr alloy). Data obtained using pin-on-block test with following parameters: 2722 kg Figure 4 shows that within the Stellite fam-
(6000 lb) load; 10 strokes through 120° arc. GTA, gas tungsten arc ily (Table 5), the abrasion resistance is a func-
394 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Fig. 17 Comparison of two cobalt-base hardfacing alloys to a stainless steel and a Ni-Mo-Cr alloy using ASTM G 32 vibratory cavitation test. (a) Schematic showing G 32 test appara-
tus. (b) Cavitation erosion test data. G 32 test parameters: medium, distilled water; test temperature, 16 °C (61 °F); vibration, 20 kHz frequency at 0.05 mm (0.002 in.) ampli-
tude. A, type 410 stainless steel (hardness, 23 HRC); B, Hastelloy alloy C-276; C, ERCoCr-E (two-layer GTA deposit); D, ERCoCr-A (two-layer GTA deposit)

tion of carbon and tungsten content. As the car- Applications. A list of typical applications 2. W.L. Silence, Effect of Structure on Wear
bon content increases in Co-Cr-W Stellite of cobalt-base hardfacing alloys is given in Ta- Resistance of Co-, Fe-, and Ni-Base Al-
alloys, so does the tungsten content. This re- ble 1. Generally, these alloys are used in mod- loys, Wear of Materials, American Society
sults in an increase in carbide content and, thus, erately corrosive and/or elevated-temperature of Mechanical Engineers, 1977, p 77
hardness. environments. 3. A. Ninham, The Effect of Mechanical Prop-
Photomicrographs of gas-tungsten arc two- erties on Erosion, Wear, Vol 121, 1987, p 307
layer deposits are shown in Fig. 3. The differ- 4. I.M. Hutchings, The Erosion of Materials
ences in carbide volume fractions and geometry ACKNOWLEDGMENTS by Solid Particle Impact, No. 10, Materials
are evident from these micrographs. Technology Institute of the Chemical Pro-
Laves-Type Alloy Compositions. Two co- This article was adapted from: cessing Industry, 1983
balt-base Laves-type alloy compositions are 5. D.A. Woodford, Cavitation-Erosion-Induced
presented in Table 5. In these materials, molyb- • P. Crook, Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys, Prop- Phase Transformation in Alloys, Metall.
denum and silicon are added at levels in excess erties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and Trans. A, Vol 3, 1972, p 1137
of their solubility limit with the objective of in- High-Performance Alloys, Vol 1, ASM 6. C.J. Heathcock, B.E. Protheroe, and A.
ducing the precipitation of the hard (and corro- Handbook, 1990, p 446–454 Ball, The Influence of External Variables
sion resistant) Laves phase (an intermetallic • P. Crook, Friction and Wear of Cobalt-Base and Microstructure on the Cavitation Ero-
compound). Carbon is held as low as possible Wrought Alloys, Friction, Lubrication, and sion of Materials, Proc. of the 5th Int. Conf.
in these alloys to discourage carbide formation. Wear Technology, Vol 18, ASM Handbook, on Erosion by Solid and Liquid Impact,
The microstructure of an alloy T-800 hard- 1992, p 766–771 Cambridge University Press, 1979, p 631
facing deposit is shown in Fig. 3(f). • P. Crook and H.N. Farmer, Friction and 7. A.V. Levy and S. MacAdam, “Ero-
Because the Laves intermetallic phase is so Wear of Hardfacing Alloys, Friction, Lubri- sion-Corrosion of Materials in Coal-Water
abundant in these alloys, its presence governs cation, and Wear Technology, Vol 18, ASM Slurries,” Report AP-5628, Electric Power
all the material properties. Accordingly, the ef- Handbook, 1992, p 758–765 Research Institute, 1988
fects of the matrix composition in these alloys 8. W.A. Stauffer, Wear of Metals by Sand
are less pronounced than is the case for the car- Erosion, Met. Prog., Jan 1956, p 102
bide-containing cobalt alloys. The Laves phase 9. F.H. Stott, C.W. Stevenson, and G.C.
is specifically responsible for outstanding abra- REFERENCES Wood, Friction and Wear Properties of
sion resistance (Fig. 4), but it severely limit the Stellite 31 at Temperatures from 293 to
material ductility (< 1% elongation) and the im- 1. K.C. Antony and W.L. Silence, The Effect 1073 K, Met. Technol. Q., Feb 1977, p 66
pact strength. In fact, it is difficult to attain of Composition and Microstructure on 10. P. Crook and C.C. Li, The Elevated Tem-
crack-free overlays on all but the smallest com- Cavitation Erosion Resistance, Proc. of the perature Metal-to-Metal Wear Behavior of
ponents given adequate preheat. For this rea- 5th Int. Conf. on Erosion by Solid and Liq- Selected Hardfacing Alloys, Wear of Mate-
son, these alloys have been more successful as uid Impact, Cambridge University Press, rials, American Society of Mechanical En-
thermal spray materials. 1979, p 671 gineers, 1983, p 272
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®
J.R. Davis, editor, p 395-400 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p395 www.asminternational.org

Corrosion Behavior of Cobalt Alloys

FROM A CORROSION STANDPOINT, co- and high strength over a wide range of tem- Behavior of Cobalt Alloys in
balt alloys can be broadly classified into two peratures), several low-carbon, wrought Corrosive Aqueous Environments
categories. Alloys in the first category contain Co-Ni-Cr-Mo alloys are produced. These in-
low levels of carbon (0.025–0.15%) and are in- clude the “multiphase” alloys MP35N (R30035)
tended for use in severely corrosive environ- and MP159 (R30159), which possess the unique A variety of cobalt-containing alloys, rang-
ments, at high temperatures, or where ductility combination of ultrahigh strength, toughness, ing in cobalt content from 19 to 60%, will be
is an important consideration (Ref 1). Alloys in ductility, and corrosion resistance, and Ultimet discussed in this section (see Table 1). Because
the second category have high carbon contents (R31233), which combines excellent corrosion the corrosion properties of these alloys have thus
(1 to >3%), exhibit high hardnesses, and pro- resistance to pitting (especially in oxidizing ac- far not been examined systematically with re-
vide resistance to low-stress abrasion (in addi- ids) with very high wear resistance (cavitation spect to such variables as alloying elements, the
tion to other forms of wear), but they exhibit erosion, galling, and abrasion). aim in this discussion is to describe the corro-
low ductilities. sion resistance of commercially available cobalt-
Although the higher-carbon content co- base alloys in various environments. Emphasis
balt-base wear resistant alloys possess some re- has been placed on wrought alloys. Additional
The Effect of Alloying Elements corrosion data can be found in the article “Prop-
sistance to aqueous corrosion, they are limited
by grain boundary carbide precipitation, the erties of Cobalt Alloys” in this Handbook.
lack of vital alloying elements in the matrix (af- The roles of various alloying elements in the General Corrosion. The corrosion behavior
ter formation of carbides or Laves precipitates), cobalt-base alloys parallel those seen in the of pure cobalt has not been documented as ex-
and in the case of cast and weld overlay nickel-base alloys (Ref 1). Chromium, molyb- tensively as that of nickel. The behavior of co-
(hardfacing) materials, by chemical segregation denum, and tungsten, for example, are highly balt is similar to that of nickel, although cobalt
in the microstructure. Examples of wear resis- soluble in both the face-centered cubic (fcc) possesses lower overall corrosion resistance
tant alloys include the Stellite family of alloys and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) atomic (Ref 2). For example, the passive behavior of
(e.g., alloys No., 1, 6, 12, and 21) and wrought forms of cobalt. Chromium is added to most of cobalt in 1 N sulfuric acid (H2SO4) has been
alloy 6B (UNS R30016). the commercially important alloys and provides shown to be similar to that of nickel, but the
By virtue of their homogenous microstruc- passivity over a wide range of potentials and re- critical current density necessary to achieve
tures and lower carbon contents, the wrought sistance to oxidation. Molybdenum and tung- passivity is 14 times higher for nickel (Ref 3).
cobalt high-temperature alloys (which typically sten enhance resistance to corrosion within the Several investigations have been carried out on
contain tungsten rather than molybdenum) are active regime. Nickel serves to stabilize the fcc binary cobalt-chromium alloys. In cobalt-base
even more resistant to aqueous corrosion, but structure with a view toward improved ductility alloys, it has been found that as little as 10% Cr
still fall quite short of the Ni-Cr-Mo alloys in during service. Nickel also improves resistance is sufficient to reduce the anodic current den-
corrosion performance. Example of wrought to mineral acids and stress-corrosion cracking sity necessary for passivation from 500 to 1
heat resistant cobalt alloys include alloys (SCC). The quaternary alloy MP35N (35Co- mA/cm2 (3225 to 6.5 mA/in.2) (Ref 3). For
25/L-605 (R30605) and 188 (R30188). 35Ni-20Cr-10Mo) resists corrosion in hydrogen nickel, approximately 14% Cr is needed to re-
To satisfy the industrial need for alloys that sulfide, salt water, and other chloride solutions, duce the passivating anodic current density to
exhibit outstanding resistance to aqueous corro- as well as the mineral acids (nitric, hydrochloric, the same level. The corrosion rates of a variety
sion, yet share the attributes of cobalt as an al- and sulfuric). In addition, it has exceptional re- of cobalt-chromium alloys in several oxidizing
loy base (resistance to various forms of wear sistance to crevice corrosion and SCC. and reducing media are shown in Table 2. In
another study, researchers measured the
open-circuit potentials in a dilute salt solution
(Ringers solution) of a number of cast binary
Table 1 Compositions of the corrosion resistant wrought cobalt alloys described in this cobalt-chromium alloys having 10 to 40% Cr
article (Ref 5). They found that the behavior of the
alloy was controlled not only by chromium
UNS Composition, %
Alloy designation C Co Cr Fe Mo Ni Si W Other
Elgiloy R30003 0.15(a) 40 20 16 7 15.5 … … … Table 2 Corrosion of cobalt- and
Havar R30004 0.20 42.5 20 19 2.5 13.0 … 3 … nickel-base alloys in aqueous solutions
Alloy 6B R30016 1.2 57 30 3(a) 1.5(a) 3 1.5(a) 4.5 …
Alloy 21 R30021 0.25 60 27 3(a) 5.5 3 1.0(a) … … Corrosion rate
MP35N R30035 0.025(a) 35 20 1(a) 10 35 0.15(a) … …
Alloy Solution and temperature mm/yr mils/yr Ref
Ultimet R31233 0.06 54 26 3 5 9 0.3 2 0.08N
Alloy 188 R30188 0.15(a) 39 22 3(a) … 22 0.5(a) 14 0.15La(a) Cobalt 1 N HNO3, 25 °C (75 °F) 223 8,900 3
Alloy 25 R30605 0.1 42 20 3 … 10 … 15 … Nickel 1 N HNO3, 25 °C (75 °F) 19 770 3
Alloy 556 R30556 0.1 19 22 29 3.5 21 0.8(a) 3 1.25Ta(a), Ni-20Cr 11% HNO3, hot Nil Nil 4
0.2N Co-20Cr 11% HNO3, boiling Nil Nil 4
Co-20Cr 11% H2SO4, boiling 110 4,400 4
(a) Maximum Co-20Cr 10% HCl, boiling 250 10,000 4
396 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 3 Effect of alloying additions on the Table 4 Corrosion of various wrought cobalt-base alloys in H2SO4 solutions
corrosion of cobalt-base alloys in acid media
Corrosion rate
Weight loss, mg/cm2 2% boiling 10% 66 °C (150 °F) 10% boiling 20% 66 °C (150 °F) 20% boiling 80% boiling
28% P2O5 + 13% Alloy mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr
Alloy composition 10% H2SO4 H2SO4 + 2% HF
Alloy 6B 0.8 31 0.0005 0.02 3.99 157 … … 9.2 361 250 10,000
Co-2.1C-31Cr-12W 0.03 0.09
Alloy 25 0.86 34 0.2 8 4.4 174 0.5 20 10 395 >250 10,000
Co-2.1C-32Cr-12.5W-19.5Ni 0.02 0.03
Alloy 188 0.89 35 Nil Nil 3.02 119 0.25 10(a) 5.6 220 … …
Co-2.2C-32Cr-18.8Ni-14W 0.04 0.06
Alloy 556 0.76 30 Nil Nil 3.45 136 0.33 13 8 316 … …
Co-2.3C-32Cr-14W-9.4Mo 0.06 0.06
Alloy 21 … … … … 1.83 72 … … … … … …
Co-2.1C-32Cr-17.6Ni-13W Nil Nil
Havar … … … … 3 120 … … … … … …
Co-2.2C-31Cr-18Ni-15W- 1.8 1.0
9Mo-4Cu MP35N … … … … 1.3 51 … … … … … …
Co-2.1C-32Cr-13.6W-4.2Cu Not determined Not determined Tests were conducted in four 24 h periods. (a) Corrosion rate varied within test period.
Data obtained in 192 h tests at 25 °C (75 °F). Source: Ref 6

loys contained 2% C for abrasive wear resis- hydrochloric acid (HCl) is given in Tables 4
content but also by microstructural changes tance. The data are given in Table 3. It can be and 5. It should be noted that all of these alloys,
produced by the addition of chromium to co- seen that addition of nickel and copper lowered regardless of their chromium and molybdenum
balt. Addition of up to 25% Cr made the alloys the corrosion rates significantly. Addition of contents, exhibit similar corrosion resistance in
more noble. However, above 25% Cr, precipi- molybdenum or nickel plus molybdenum did dilute H2SO4 (Table 4). Thus, the high-chro-
tation of chromium-rich σ-phase made the al- not have a great effect, possibly because of mium alloys 6B and 21 show approximately the
loys more active because of local chromium de- intermetallic precipitation. These researchers same corrosion rates as the lower-chromium al-
pletion around the σ-phase precipitates. also conducted tests in an H3PO4 solution un- loys 188 and 556. Similar behavior has been
Unfortunately, they did not measure corrosion der abrasive conditions and found molybde- observed in the Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo alloys (Ref 7). In
rates of these alloys. num, nickel, and copper to be highly beneficial H2SO4 and HCl, the nickel and cobalt contents
Another study examined the effect of alloy- (Ref 6). govern the behavior of the alloy as long as min-
ing elements in cobalt-base alloys in H2SO4 The corrosion resistance of a number of imum amounts of chromium and molybdenum
and phosphoric acid (H3PO4) (Ref 6). These al- commercial cobalt-base alloys in H2SO4 and or tungsten are present. The corrosion resis-
tance of wrought cobalt-base alloys in HCl so-
lutions is given in Table 5. Again, as with the
Table 5 Corrosion of various wrought cobalt-base alloys in HCl solutions Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo alloys, the corrosion resistance of
cobalt-base alloys is not good except in very di-
Corrosion rate
lute HCl.
1% boiling 2.5% boiling 5% boiling 10% room temperature
Because many of the commercial alloys con-
Alloy mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr
tain appreciable amounts of chromium, their
Alloy 6B … … 96.5 3800 >250 10,000 … …
Alloy 25 0.56 22 57.4 2260 188 7,400 Nil Nil
corrosion resistance to dilute nitric acid
Alloy 188 Nil(a) Nil(a) 61 2400 140 5,500 0.008–0.8 0.3–31(b) (HNO3) is quite good (Table 6). However, in
Alloy 556 Nil(a) Nil(a) 63.5 2500 167.6 6,600 0.6 23 concentrated HNO3, alloy 6B exhibited high
Tests were conducted in four 24 h periods except for the 5% HCl test, which was for one 24 h period. (a) Corrosion decreased from a high value. (b)
corrosion rates, while alloys 188 and 25, which
Corrosion rate oscillated during the test period. have lower chromium, showed lower corrosion
rates. This could have been a consequence of
the high carbon content of alloy 6B. High car-
bon and chromium are present intentionally in
Table 6 Corrosion resistance of various wrought cobalt-base alloys in HNO3 solutions
this alloy to provide chromium carbides for
Average corrosion rate abrasion resistance. However, concentrated
10% boiling 65% boiling 70% boiling HNO3 is known to attack high-chromium phases
Alloy mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr such as σ-phase and chromium-rich carbides.
Alloy 188 0.02 0.8(a) 0.56 22(b) … …
The corrosion resistance of some cobalt-base
Alloy 25 0.02 0.8(a) 0.99 39(b) 0.94 37(b) alloys in a variety of reducing and oxidizing en-
Alloy 6B 0.023 0.9(a) … … 96.5 3800(a) vironments is given in Table 7. In highly oxi-
Alloy 21 0.025 1.0(a) … … … … dizing chromic acid (H2CrO4), the chromium-
Alloy 556 … … 0.28 11(b) … …
Havar 0.066 2.6 … … … …
containing alloys, whether cobalt- or nickel-
MP35N 0.056 2.2 … … … … base, do not show good resistance because the
passive chromium oxide film is unstable in this
(a) One 24 h test period. (b) Five 24 h test periods
acid. However, high amounts of tungsten seem
to decrease the corrosion rates of alloys 188
and 25. In H3PO4, the corrosion rates of the co-
Table 7 Corrosion of cobalt-base alloys in a variety of environments at boiling temperature balt-base alloys are very high. Although there
Corrosion rate
are no compositionally equivalent nickel-base
99% acetic acid 85% phosphoric acid 60% formic acid 10% chromic acid 50% sodium hydroxide
alloys, the corrosion rates of many of the com-
Alloy mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr
mercial Ni-Cr-Mo-Fe alloys in H3PO4 are
lower (Ref 8). In acetic acid, the corrosion rates
Alloy 6B 0.0008 0.03 15.5 610 1.22 48 … … 2.74 108
Alloy 21 0.017 0.67 17.3 680 … … … … … …
of all of the alloys are quite low. Nickel is
Alloy 25 0.0056 0.22 19.2 754 0.61 24 1.0 40 0.53 21 widely used in caustic service. The Ni-Cr-Mo
Alloy 188 0.005 0.20 13.5 530 … … 1.37 54 0.43 17 alloys offer lower corrosion resistance than
Alloy 556 0.005 0.20 0.84 33 … … 2.8 110 … … nickel. In comparison, the cobalt-base alloys do
MP35N 0.015 0.6 12.7 500 … … … … … …
Havar 0.078 3.1 >100 4000 … … … … … … not offer very high resistance to corrosion in
caustic environments. Indeed, the data in Table
 Corrosion Behavior of Cobalt Alloys / 397

Table 8 Corrosion of cobalt-base alloys in a 125 200

Boiling point curve
400
250
boiling oxidizing mixture of 50% H2SO4 and Boiling point curve
2.5% Fe2(SO4)3
100
150
300

Temperature, °C
200

Temperature, °C
Temperature, °F

Temperature, °F
Corrosion rate
Alloy mm/yr mils/yr
Havar 0.72 28.5 75
100
MP35N 0.41 16.2 N06022-0.51 mm/y 150 N06022-0.51 mm/y 200
Alloy 21 0.36 14.0
R31233-
Alloy 25 0.66 26.0
50 N06022-0.13 mm/y 0.51 mm/y R31233-
Alloy 188 0.43 17.0 50 0.13 mm/y
Alloy 556 0.36 14.0 R31233- 100 R31233-
Ultimet 0.20 8.0 0.13 mm/y N06022-0.13 mm/y N06022-0.13 mm/y
0.51 mm/y 100
0 0
Alloy 6B 0.36 14.0 0 10 20 30 40 0 20 40 60 80 100
Concentration, wt% Concentration, wt%
(a) (c)
7 seem to indicate that the corrosion rates of the
three cobalt-base alloys tested in caustic de- 200 125
creased with increasing nickel content (alloy R31233-0.13 mm/y
250
6B < 25 < 188). 350 Boiling point curve
Addition of oxidizing agents to H2SO4 re- N06022-0.51 mm/y
sults in lower corrosion rates for the Co-Cr- 150 100 N06022-0.51 mm/y
Temperature, °C

Temperature, °C
Temperature, °F

Temperature, °F
300
Mo-W alloys, just as in the case of the R31233- 200
0.51 mm/y
nickel-base alloys. This is shown in Table 8 for 250
N06022-0.51 mm/y
N06022-0.13
the 50% H2SO4 + 2.5% ferric sulfate [Fe2 Boiling point curve

(SO4)3] mixture recommended by ASTM as an 100 75

R31233-0.13 mm/y
200 150
intergranular corrosion test solution.
N06022-0.51 mm/y
N06022-0.13
Comparative isocorrosion curves for Ultimet 150
and nickel-base alloy C-22 (UNS N06022),
50 50
which has a nominal composition of Ni-21.5Cr- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
13.5Mo-4Fe-2.5 max Co, are shown in Fig. 1. Concentration, wt% Concentration, wt%
These curves represent the concentrations and (b) (d)
temperatures at which corrosion rates of 0.13 Isocorrosion curves for Ultimet (UNS R31233) and alloy C-22 (UNS N06022). (a) Hydrochloric acid. (b) Phos-
mm/yr (5 mils/yr) and 0.51 mm/yr (20 mils/yr) Fig. 1 phoric acid. (c) Sulfuric acid. (d) Nitric acid. Source: Ref 1
were encountered in various mineral acids.
Given the chromium (26%) and molybdenum
(5%) levels that exist in Ultimet, these curves summarized in Table 9. Tables 10 and 11 com- sion) of the cobalt-base alloys is generally de-
suggest that the two elements are at least as ef- pare the corrosion resistance of MP35N with termined by the chromium, molybdenum, and
fective in cobalt as they are in the iron- and other high-nickel alloys. As shown in Table 10, tungsten contents. Generally, localized corro-
nickel-base alloys, provided they remain in so- higher strength levels developed by work hard- sion resistance is measured by immersion tests
lution (i.e., do not partition to primary or sec- ening or work hardening plus aging do not ap- in oxidizing chloride solutions or by electro-
ondary carbides) (Ref 1). preciably increase corrosion rates in various chemical tests in chloride solutions. Crevice
The general corrosion properties of Ultimet, mineral acids. corrosion resistance is usually measured by at-
relative to a number of well known nickel-base Localized Corrosion. The resistance to lo- taching blocks to the sample in order to create a
and iron-base corrosion resistant alloys, are calized corrosion (pitting and crevice corro- crevice between the sample and the block. The
test methods are outlined in Ref 8 to 11.
Table 9 Comparison of corrosion rates for selected cobalt-base, iron-base, and nickel-base An example of the localized corrosion re-
alloys in various solutions sistance of several cobalt-base alloys in an
oxidizing chloride-containing test solution
Corrosion rate, mm/year is given in Table 12. This is an extremely
Boiling 99% Boiling 65% Boiling 1% Boiling 2% 54% P2O5 at Boiling 10% Boiling ASTM Boiling ASTM acidic chloride solution containing ferric and
Alloy acetic acid nitric acid hydrochloric acid hydrochloric acid 116 °C (240 °F) sulfuric acid G28A solution G28B solution
cupric salts to increase the oxidizing potential
Ultimet <0.01 0.15 0.01 13.49 0.19 2.52 0.20 0.02 of the solution. As the results indicate, there is a
C-276 <0.01 21.51 0.52 1.90 0.58 0.51 8.05 0.86
625 0.01 0.51 0.03 14.15 0.30 0.64 0.43 71.08
wide variation in alloy performance. Havar alloy
20Cb-3 0.11 0.19 1.80 5.77 0.92 0.40 0.25 69.08 and alloy 556 start to corrode at a rapid rate at
316L 0.19 0.24 13.31 25.15 5.11 47.46 0.94 80.51

Table 11 Comparison of corrosion rates of

Table 10 Comparison of corrosion rates of MP35N (various conditions) and nickel-base MP35N and various nickel- and iron-base
alloy C-276 in various solutions alloys in sulfuric acid solutions
Corrosion rate Corrosion rate
Boiling 10% 10% hydrochloric Boiling 10% Boiling 16.4% 10% sulfuric acid 30% sulfuric acid
nitric acid acid at 65 °C (150 °F) sulfuric acid sulfuric acid at 80 °C (175 °F) at 80 °C (175 °F)
Alloy Condition mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr Alloy mm/yr mils/yr mm/yr mils/yr

MP35N Annealed 0.0325 1.3 1.19 47.5 0.573 22.9 3.87 154.7 MP35N 0.193 7.7 1.65 65.9
Work-hardenened 50% 0.018 0.7 1.11 44.2 0.553 22.1 4.14 165.7 C-276 0.083 3.3 0.08 3.2
Work-hardened 50% plus aged 0.01 0.4 1.46 58.4 0.85 34.0 4.24 169.7 625 0.018 0.7 0.773 30.9
4 h at 565 °C (1050 °F) 20Cb-3 0.323 12.9 0.455 18.2
C-276 Annealed 0.243 9.7 0.665 26.6 4.24 169.7 0.45 18.0
All specimens were tested in the annealed condition. Tests were con-
ducted in five 24 h periods.
Tests were conducted in five 24 h periods.
398 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 12 Results of pitting corrosion tests loys is presented in Tables 14 and 15, respec- hanced by the presence of hydrogen recombi-
in an aqueous mixture of 11.5% tively. Even the higher-carbon wear resistant nation poisons, such as sulfides, cyanides, or
H2SO4 + 1.2% HCl + 1% CuCl2 + 1% FeCl3 alloy 6B has improved localized corrosion re- other substances commonly found to be effec-
at various temperatures sistance when compared with conventional tive hydrogen recombination poisons on steels.
austenitic stainless steels like type 316L. Under such conditions, cobalt-base alloys with
Corrosion rate, mm/yr (mils/yr)
yield strengths over 1380 MPa (200 ksi), and
Alloy Room 70 °C (160 °F) Boiling
especially greater than 1724 MPa (250 ksi), can
Havar Nil 15 (600) 56 (2200) exhibit hydrogen embrittlement. The time to
MP35N Nil Nil–0.015 (0.6)0.076–50 Environmental Embrittlement of
failure (usually by an intergranular mode) is
(3–2000) Cobalt Alloys strongly dependent on the charging current
Alloy 21 Nil Nil 0.76 (30)
Alloy 188 Nil–0.01 (0.4) 0.005–0.2 (0.2–8) 2.5–24.1 (Ref 15).
(100–950)
Hydrogen Embrittlement Effect of Thermal Treatments. The aging
Alloy 25 0.0076–0.025 Nil–0.01 (0.4) Nil–0.05 (2) of cobalt alloys has two opposite effects on hy-
(0.3–1.0)
Alloy 556 0.0025–0.023 1.3–19.3 (50–760) 14.2–53 drogen embrittlement, depending on the tem-
Cobalt-base alloys can be used to combat hy-
(0.1–0.9) (560–2100) perature range. At temperatures ranging from
drogen embrittlement where steels have failed
Multimet … … Nil–0.05 (2) 205 to approximately 650 °C (400–1200 °F),
Alloy 6B … … 73.4 (2888) by this mechanism. The literature on the hydro-
aging is highly detrimental to hydrogen
gen embrittlement of cobalt-base alloys is not
Test duration: 24 h embrittlement resistance (Ref 16, 17). Aging
very extensive. Most of the experimental work
above approximately 760 °C (1400 °F) is
has been performed on alloys 188, 25, and
highly beneficial (Ref 18). The most suscepti-
approximately 70 °C (160 °F). Alloys MP35N, MP35N. The performance of these alloys is in
ble microstructures are produced by a combina-
188, and 21 begin to corrode rapidly near the many ways similar to that of many nickel-base
tion of cold work and aging near 540 to 650 °C
boiling point of the solution. Alloy 25 exhibits alloys (Ref 12, 13).
(1000–1200 °F). Aging at temperatures above
the highest resistance of these cobalt-base al- Effects of Strength Level. The cobalt-base
790 °C (1450 °F) produces microstructures that
loys. Alloy 6B is not listed in Table 12 because alloys can be processed to achieve much higher
are extremely resistant to embrittlement.
it exhibits a high corrosion rate even in less se- yield and/or tensile strengths than most of the
Long-term aging treatments that take place
vere solutions, such as 10% ferric chloride nickel-base alloys. Susceptibility to hydrogen
for periods of years at temperatures as low as
(FeCl3). The corrosion rates of the alloys tested embrittlement is closely related to yield
205 °C (400 °F) can have a noticeable detri-
are given in Table 12. In the 20 to 22% Cr al- strength; therefore, the potential for hydrogen
mental effect (Ref 19, 20). Very high strength
loys, the alloys containing the lowest amounts embrittlement in cobalt-base alloys may be
levels and hydrogen charging are both required
of molybdenum and tungsten (alloys Havar and higher than in nickel-base alloys, not because
to produce this effect.
556) show the highest corrosion rates. The al- of a higher inherent susceptibility to embrittle-
Effect of Other Factors. Anisotropy in me-
loy with the intermediate molybdenum level ment, but because of the higher strength levels
chanical properties can play an important role
(alloy MP35N) shows lower corrosion rates, achievable in cobalt-base alloys.
in hydrogen embrittlement (Ref 17). Crack path
while the alloys with high levels of tungsten Annealed cobalt-base alloys do not show sig-
sensitivity is greater in directions transverse to
(alloy 25) and high chromium plus molybde- nificant susceptibility to hydrogen embrittle-
the direction of mechanical working. Other fac-
num (alloy 21) show even lower rates. The ex- ment, even in the most severe hydrogen-charg-
tors, such as stress level, environmental tem-
ception to this case is alloy 188, which shows ing conditions. When cold worked to levels ex-
perature, and environment corrosivity, have ef-
higher corrosion rates than alloy 25 in spite of ceeding 1380 MPa (200 ksi) yield strength, the
fects similar to those seen in steels and
similar composition. Unfortunately, no data are cobalt-base alloys may not exhibit embrittle-
nickel-base alloys.
available at intermediate temperatures, so a ment (Ref 14). Two factors—impressed hydro-
more accurate comparison of alloys cannot be gen charging and low-temperature aging (as is
made. the case for nickel-base alloys)—are often re- Stress-Corrosion Cracking
Results of corrosion tests conducted in a quired to produce hydrogen embrittlement.
milder localized test environment of FeCl3 are External Hydrogen Charging. Because of Only a limited number of environments have
given in Table 13. Again, the trend is similar to the high corrosion resistance of many co- been reported to cause SCC of cobalt-base al-
that shown in Table 12 in that alloys 188 and 25 balt-base alloys, the alloys may not corrode at a loys. These include two general classes of envi-
are superior in pitting resistance to alloy 556. In sufficient rate even in acid systems to charge ronments: acid chlorides and strong alkalies.
summary, it is believed that the effects of alloy- hydrogen into the alloys. Hydrogen charging Both of these environments produce SCC only
ing elements (chromium, molybdenum, and will often be achieved through the cathodic at temperatures exceeding approximately 150
tungsten) on pitting resistance are qualitatively protection systems used to protect other com- to 175 °C (300–350 °F) (Ref 21), although use-
similar in cobalt-base alloys to those observed ponents in a system or through the galvanic ful lives can be expected even above 205 °C
in nickel-base alloys. Their effects in co- coupling of cobalt-base alloys to more actively (400 °F) (Ref 22). The fracture mode in sodium
balt-base alloys cannot be predicted precisely, corroding metals. Hydrogen entry can be en- hydroxide (NaOH) was intergranular on alloy
however, because of the lack of extensive data.
The outstanding resistance to pitting and
crevice corrosion of low-carbon cobalt-base al- Table 14 Comparative critical pitting
temperatures of various cobalt-, nickel-, and Table 15 Comparative critical crevice
iron-base alloys tested in 11.5% corrosion temperatures of various cobalt-,
H2SO4 + 1.2% HCl + 1% FeCl3 + 1% CuCl2 nickel-, and iron-base alloys tested in
Table 13 Corrosion of cobalt-base alloys in for 24 h oxidizing 6% FeCl3 solution for 72 h
3.8% FeCl3 solutions
Critical pitting temperature Critical crevice corrosion temperature
Corrosion rate, mm/yr (mils/yr)
Alloy °C °F Alloy °C °F
Alloy Room 70 °C (160 °F) Boiling
C-22 120 248 C-22 70 158
Alloy 188 Nil Nil Nil Ultimet 120 248 Ultimet 65 149
Alloy 25 0.013 (0.5) Nil Nil C-276 110 230 C-276 65 149
Alloy 556 0.033 (1.3) 14 (550) 36 (1419) 625 75 167 625 30 86
6B 45 113 6B 25 77
24 h test; all alloys in the mill-annealed condition
Type 316L stainless steel 25 77 Type 316L stainless steel <0 <32
 Corrosion Behavior of Cobalt Alloys / 399

Table 16 Results of stress-corrosion Table 17 Stress-corrosion cracking tests carried out on MP35N in NACE solution 5%
cracking tests carried out on MP35N and NaCl + 0.5% acetic acid saturated in H2S at room temperature
several iron-base alloys
Source Material test condition(a) Results
Results in boiling INCO Cold-drawn bar aged to 0.2% YS of 1937–1972 MPa No visible corrosion after 30 days exposure
Alloy Condition 42% MgCl2, 192 h(a) (281–286 ksi). Tested at 1931 MPa (280 ksi)
MP35N Solution annealed + No cracks Cameron Iron Works As cold worked to 1372 MPa (199 ksi) 0.2% YS and No failure in 30 days
60% cold work cold worked + aged to 1937 MPa (281 ksi) 0.2% YS.
Type 316 Annealed Stress-corrosion Tested at 100% of 0.2% YS
stainless steel cracks within 4 h The Timken Company Cold-drawn bar aged to 0.2% YS levels of 1510 MPa No cracking or corrosion observed for entire
20Cb-3 Annealed Etched and pitted, (219 ksi) and 1786 MPa (259 ksi). Tested at 107–137% duration of test, 1 month
no cracks of the 0.2% YS
Alloy 800 Annealed Etched and pitted, Exxon Production Research Sheet and bar cold worked and aged to 1896–2006 MPa No cracking or corrosion in the 30 day
no cracks (275–291 ksi) 0.2% YS. Tested at 1965 MPa (285 ksi) duration of test
Alloy 825 Annealed Etched and pitted, Otis Engineering Helical compression spring compressed to the No failure in 28 day duration of test
no cracks torsional elastic limit, 703 MPa (102 ksi) at a
deflection of 71.1 mm (2.80 in.)
(a) Per ASTM G 36, “Practice for Performing Stress-Corrosion The Timken Company Cold-drawn bar aged to 0.2% YS level of 1903–2117 MPa No failure in 40 day duration of test
Cracking Tests in a Boiling Magnesium Chloride Solution” (276–307 ksi). Tested at 95–127% of 0.2% YS. Material
contains up to 5% Fe and 0.045% C.

All of the tests were conducted on longitudinal samples taken from MP35N bar. YS, yield strength. (a) All aging treatments, 593 °C (1100 °F) for 4 h.
6B (Ref 23). In acid chlorides containing hy- Air cooled
drogen sulfide (H2S), the SCC of alloy 188 was
intergranular; cracking of alloy MP35N was re-
ported to be transgranular (Ref 21). studies on the high-temperature corrosion be- sulfur partial pressure of 0.4 Pa (4 × 10–6 atm)
Minor surface SCC has been reported for havior of cobalt-base alloys. Additional and an oxygen partial pressure of 3 × 10–12 Pa
MP35N in hypersaline geothermal brine at 200 information can be found in the article “High- (3 × 10–17 atm), show the outstanding sulfidation
to 230 °C (390–445 °F) (Ref 24). In some con- Temperature Corrosion Behavior of Nickel Al- resistance of the cobalt-base high-temperature
ditions, cobalt-base alloys have been shown to loys” in this Handbook and in the ASM Spe- alloys relative to both γ ′ -strengthened and solid-
be susceptible to SCC in boiling magnesium cialty Handbook: Heat-Resistant Materials. solution-strengthened high-temperature nickel
chloride (MgCl2) at 155 °C (310 °F) (Ref 25), Oxidation Resistance. Dynamic oxidation alloys. Of the alloys tested under these condi-
although other alloys are resistant at this tem- data for alloys 25 and 188 relative to the tions, only alloy 6B and alloy HR-160 (a
perature (Ref 26). Table 16 compares the resis- nickel-base alloys X and 601 are presented in high-silicon, cobalt-containing alloy) exhibit
tance of MP35N to boiling 42% MgCl2 with Fig. 2. The values represent the total depth of superior properties.
other iron-base alloys. metal affected (that is, the depth of metal Carburization Resistance. Lai (Ref 27)
Alloy MP35N is also very resistant to SCC turned to oxide plus the depth subjected to in- studied the carburization resistance of more than
in hydrogen sulfide environments and is being ternal oxidation). The 100 h test involved cool- 20 commercial wrought alloys, ranging from
used increasingly for sour gas oil field equip- ing the samples every half hour to 540 °C (1000 stainless steels to iron-, nickel-, and cobalt-base
ment (e.g., tubing and springs). Table 17 lists °F). The test atmosphere contained the combus- alloys. The relative performance rankings for
the results from six companies that tested tion products of A-640 aviation kerosene, using alloys tested at 870, 930, and 980 °C (1600,
MP35N in the NACE International solution an air-to-fuel ratio of 40 to 1. The test gas ve- 1700, and 1899 °F) are shown in Fig. 4. Al-
(5% NaCl + 0.5% acetic acid saturated in H2S). locity was approximately 390 km/h (355 ft/s). though some nickel alloys, most notably alloy
The NACE standard MR-01-75 approves the The improved performance of alloy 188 in this 214, generally outperformed the cobalt alloys,
use of MP35N in sour gas environments. test is attributable to effects of lanthanum on alloys 6B, 25, and 188 exhibited very good to
oxide scale adherence. excellent carburization resistance (particularly
Sulfidation Resistance. Cobalt-base alloys at 930 °C, or 1700 °F, for 215 h).
High-Temperature as well as cobalt-containing alloys (e.g., Fe-Ni-
Co-Cr) generally have better sulfidation resis-
Corrosion of Cobalt Alloys tance than nickel-base alloys and Fe-Cr-Ni al- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
loys. Sulfidation test results at 980 °C (1800
Cobalt alloys exhibit excellent resistance to °F) for alloys 25 and 188, relative to the This article was adapted from:
various forms of high-temperature corrosive at- nickel-base alloys—X, 601, and Waspaloy al- • A.I. Asphahani et al., Corrosion of Co-
tack including oxidation, sulfidation, and car- loy—are presented in Fig. 3. These results, balt-Base Alloys, Corrosion, Vol 13, ASM
burization. This section briefly reviews several which were generated in an environment with a Handbook, 1987, p 658–668

100 4.0 0.6 0.024

100 h data at 1095 °C 215 h data at 980 °C >0.5 mm
80 3.2 0.5 0.020
Depth affected, μm

Depth affected, mil

Depth affected, mm

Depth affected, in.

0.4 0.016
60 2.4

0.3 0.012
40 1.6
0.2 0.008
20 0.8
0.1 0.004
0 0
Haynes Nickel-base Haynes Nickel-base 0 0
alloy 188 alloy X alloy 25 alloy 601 25 188 Waspaloy 601 X

Fig. 2 Dynamic oxidation data for selected high-temperature cobalt alloys and Fig. 3 Sulfidation data of Haynes alloys 25 and 188 relative to selected nickel-base al-
nickel-base alloys at 1095 °C (2000 °F) loys at 980 °C (1800 °F)
400 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

800H 980 °C (1800 °F)/55 h

Multimet

base
Fe-
800H 556
Multimet 870 °C (1600 °F)/215 h Multimet 930 °C (1700 °F)/215 h 310

base
Fe-
556 556 214
base
Fe-

800H 310 333

310SS 214 Waspaloy
263 263 G-30
N 333 S

Ni-base
214 625 R-41
Waspaloy Waspaloy 230

Ni-base
617 600 X
625 R-41
Ni-base

600
S S 263
600 X 601
230 601 617
333 230 625
X G-30 N
R-41 617 6B

base
25 6B 188

Co-
base

base
Co-

6B Co- 25 25
188 188 150

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 2.2 2.4 0 1 2 3 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mass of carbon pickup per unit area, mg/cm2 Mass of carbon pickup per unit area, mg/cm2 Mass of carbon pickup per unit area, mg/cm2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4 Carburization resistance of various iron-, nickel-, and cobalt-base alloys tested in Ar-5H2-5CO-5CH4 at (a) 870 °C (1600 °F)/215 h, (b) 930 °C (1700 °F)/215 h, and (c) 980 °C
(1800 °F)/55 h. Source: Ref 27

• P. Crook, Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys, Prop- Crevice Corrosion Resistance of Stainless 19. R.D. Kane and J.B. Greer, Paper SPE 6798,
erties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Steels and Related Alloys by the Use of presented at Society of Petroleum Engi-
Special-Purpose Materials, Vol 2, ASM Ferric Chloride Solution,” G 48, Annual neers, 1977
Handbook, 1990, p 446–454 Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM 20. K. Kolts, Paper 323, presented at Corro-
10. “Standard Practice for Conducting Cyclic sion/86, National Association of Corrosion
Potentiodynamic Polarization Measure- Engineers, 1986
REFERENCES ments for Localized Corrosion,” G 61, An- 21. R.D. Kane et al., Paper 174, presented at
nual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM Corrosion/79, National Association of Cor-
1. P. Crook, Cobalt-Base Alloys, Corrosion 11. “Standard Test Method for Pitting at Crev- rosion Engineers, 1979
Tests and Standards: Application and In- ice Corrosion of Metallic Surgical Implant 22. G.A. Vaughn and H.-E. Chaung, Paper
terpretation, R. Baboian, Ed., ASTM, Materials,” F 746, Annual Book of ASTM 182, presented at Corrosion/81, National
1995, p 486–492 Standards, ASTM Association of Corrosion Engineers,
2. H.H. Uhlig and A.I. Asphahani, Mater. 12. E.P. Whelan, Hydrogen Effect in Metals, 1981
Perform., Vol 18 (No. 11), 1979, p 9 I.M. Bernstein and A.W. Thompson, Ed., 23. A.I. Asphahani, in Stress Corrosion
3. A.P. Bond and H.H. Uhlig, J. Electrochem. The Metallurgical Society, 1981, p 979 Cracking: The Slow Strain Rate Technique,
Soc., Vol 107, 1960, p 488 13. A.I. Asphahani, paper presented at the Sec- STP 665, American Society for Testing and
4. F. Wever and V. Hashimoto, Die Korros. ond International Congress on Hydrogen Materials, 1979, p 279
Metall. Werkst., Vol 2, 1938, p 745 in Metals, Paris, 1977 24. A. Goldberg and R.P. Kershaw, “Evalua-
5. A. Acharya, E. Freise, and E.H. Greener, 14. J.P. Stroup, A.H. Bauman, and A. tion of Materials Exposed to Scale Con-
Cobalt, Vol 47, June 1970, p 75 Simkovich, Mater. Perform., Vol 15, June trol/Nozzle-Exhaust Experiments at the
6. A. Davin and D. Coutsouradis, Cobalt, Vol 1976, p 43 Salton Sea Geothermal Field,” Report
52, Sept 1971, p 160 15. R.D. Kane, Corrosion, Vol 34 (No. 12), UCRL 52664, Lawrence Livermore Labo-
7. N. Sridhar, Paper 19, presented at Corro- 1978, p 442 ratory, Feb 1979
sion/87, San Francisco, CA, National Asso- 16. R.D. Kane and B.J. Berkowitz, Corrosion, 25. A.I. Asphahani, Paper 42, presented at
ciation of Corrosion Engineers, March Vol 36 (No. 1), 1980, p 29 Corrosion/78, National Association of Cor-
1987 17. R.D. Kane, M. Watkins, N.F. Jacobs, and rosion Engineers, 1978
8. “Standard Recommended Practice for Lab- G.L. Hancock, Corrosion, Vol 33 (No. 9), 26. E. Taylor, Mater. Prot., March 1970, p 29
oratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of 1977, p 309 27. G.Y. Lai, High Temperature Corrosion in
Metals,” G 31, Annual Book of ASTM Stan- 18. J. Kolts, Paper 407, presented at Corro- Energy Systems, Proc. TMS-AIME Sympo-
dards, ASTM sion/86, National Association of Corrosion sium, M.F. Rothman, Ed., The Metallurgi-
9. “Standard Test Methods for Pitting and Engineers, 1986 cal Society of AIME, 1985, p 551
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys Copyright © 2000 ASM International®
J.R. Davis, editor, p 401-406 All rights reserved.
DOI:10.1361/ncta2000p401 www.asminternational.org

Fabrication and Metallography

of Cobalt Alloys

THE FABRICATION CHARACTERIS- proximately 1895 MPa (275 ksi) by a γ ′ precip- Heat Resistant Alloys
TICS of cobalt alloys vary widely due to their itation mechanism.
carbon contents, carbide volume fractions, and Age-Hardening Alloys Elgiloy, Duratherm Forging. Both alloys 25 and 188 are
work-hardening properties. In general, the 600, and Havar. The mechanical properties of forgeable. Forging temperatures for these al-
high-carbon wear resistant alloys, such as these alloys are derived from a combination of loys are:
Stellite 6B, exhibit the poorest fabrication char- cold work and subsequent heat treatment. Vari-
acteristics while the high-nickel corrosion re- ations in either or both of these can be made to • Alloy 25: upset and breakdown temperature,
sistant grades, such as MP35N, are much more meet the requirements for specific applications 1230 °C (2250 °F); finish forging tempera-
readily formed and machined. or properties, for example, strength, fatigue, ture, 1230 °C (2250 °F)
and hardness. Heat treatment cycles for these • Alloy 188: upset and breakdown tempera-
alloys are: ture, 1205 °C (2200 °F); finish forging tem-
Heat Treatment perature, 1175 °C (2150 °F)
• Elgiloy wire/spring: cold work 45 to 48%
(the normal coil spring range), heat treat at The strength of these alloys at elevated tem-
Wear resistant alloys 6B and 6K are sup- 525 ± 5.5 °C (980 ± 10 °F) for 5 h, air cool. peratures, including the temperatures at which
plied in the solution heat-treated condition un- • Elgiloy flat strip: cold work to desired prop- they are forged, is considerably higher than that
less otherwise specified. The standard heat erty level (85% cold work is the maximum for iron-base alloys; consequently, the pres-
treatment is at 1230 °C (2250 °F) followed by hardness), heat treat at 480 ± 5.5 °C (900 ± sures required in forging them are several times
air cooling. 10 °F) for 5 h, air cool. greater than those for the iron-base alloys.
Heat resistant alloys 25 and 188 are nor- • Duratherm 600 soft strip/wire: cold work to Even when forged at its maximum forging
mally solution heat treated at 1175 ± 14 °C desired property level, heat treat at 750 °C temperature, alloy 25 work hardens; therefore,
(1380 °F) for 4 h, air cool. forging pressure must he increased with greater
(2150 ± 25 °F) and rapidly cooled or water
quenched for optimal properties.
• Duratherm 600 1 2 hard strip/wire: cold reductions. Accordingly, this alloy generally
work to desired property level, heat treat at requires frequent reheating during forging to
MP35N alloy should be annealed at 1040 to
650 °C (1200 °F) for 4 h, air cool. promote recrystallization and to lower the forg-
1095 °C (1900–2000 °F) for 1 to 4 h, followed
by air cooling. After work hardening, MP35N
• Duratherm 600 full hard strip/wire: cold ing pressure for subsequent steps.
work to desired property level, heat treat at Forging conditions (temperature and reduc-
can be aged in the temperature range of 425 to 650 °C (1200 °F) for 2 h, air cool.
650 (800–1200 °F) for increased strength. The tion) have a significant effect on the grain size
• Havar strip: cold roll, heat treat in vacuum of cobalt-base alloys. Because low ductility,
alloy will respond to aging only if first work between 455 and 540 °C (850–1000 °F) for 3 notch brittleness, and low fatigue strength are
hardened. No increase in strength will result to 5 h, air cool. When heated in air the strip associated with coarse grains, close control of
from aging annealed material. For optimum must be pickled in a solution of 4% hydroflu- forging and of final heat treatment is important.
mechanical properties, cold-worked MP35N al- oric acid and 12% nitric acid (balance water) Cobalt-base alloys are susceptible to grain
loy should be aged at 540 to 595 °C to remove oxide surface layer. growth when heated above approximately 1175
(1000–1100 °F) for 4 h, then air cooled. Rele- °C (2150 °F). They heat slowly and require a
vant specification requirements should be con- long soaking time for temperature uniformity.
sulted prior to any heat-treating operation. See Forging temperatures and reductions, therefore,
the article “Properties of Cobalt Alloys” in this Workability
depend on the forging operation and the part
Handbook for the combined effects of cold design.
work and aging on properties. The alloys are usually forged with small re-
MP159 Alloy. The atmosphere for heat Wear Resistant Alloys
ductions in initial breakdown operations. The
treating MP159 should be neutral or oxidizing reductions are selected to impart sufficient
and low in sulfur. A typical heat-treat- The hot workability of alloys 6B and 6K is strain to the metal so that recrystallization (and
ing/cold-working treatment involves solution somewhat limited because of the high car- usually grain refinement) will occur during
annealing at 1050 °C (1925 °F) for 4 h, water bon/carbide contents and high strengths. In subsequent reheating. Because the cross section
quenching, work strengthening, and aging at general these alloys cannot be successfully of a partly forged section has been reduced, less
665 °C (1225 °F) for 4 h, followed by air cool- forged, although special forming operations time is required to reach temperature unifor-
ing. A nominal cold reduction of 48% results in can be performed at temperatures above 980 °C mity in reheating. Consequently, because re-
a tensile strength of approximately 1585 MPa (1800 °F). The alloy producer should be con- heating time is shorter, the reheating tempera-
(230 ksi). Aging increases the strength to ap- sulted for forming recommendations. ture may sometimes be increased 30 to 85 °C
402 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

(50–150 °F) above the initial forging tempera- place perpendicular to the direction of rolling brazing flux prior to heating. When torch or in-
ture without harmful effects. However, if the so that it will be across the elongated grain duction brazing, as soon as the brazing filler
part receives only small reductions in subse- structure rather than parallel to it. In forming a metal melts, the source of the heat should be re-
quent forging steps, forging should be contin- 90° bend, the radius should be at least 5 times moved and the parts positioned. The assembly
ued at the lower temperatures. These small re- the thickness; in a 360° bend, a diameter of 18 should then be pressed together to squeeze out
ductions, in turn, must be in excess of about 5 to 25 times the thickness is usually acceptable. the excess flux and still air cooled. The parts
to 15% to avoid abnormal grain growth during Wire should not be formed beyond a mean di- should not be quenched.
subsequent annealing. ameter of 4 times the wire size. In addition to silver brazing filler metals,
Cold working for heat resistant alloys Duratherm 600. The forming characteris- gold, palladium, and nickel-base alloys are also
should be carried out on solution-treated mate- tics of Duratherm are similar to Elgiloy de- satisfactory for joining 6B and 6K. Brazing
rial. Because these alloys work harden very scribed above. filler metal selection depends on the service
rapidly, frequent intermediate annealing treat- Havar. Even after rolling and subsequent conditions expected. Producers of brazing filler
ments are needed for complex forming opera- work hardening, Havar can be sheared, coiled, metals should be consulted.
tions. Bending, spinning, and deep drawing are or formed into simple shapes. In the annealed A close fit of the mating surfaces is recom-
typical of the cold-working operations carried state, the alloy is remarkably ductile (40% elon- mended. The finished joints will have greater
out on alloys 25 and 188. gation in 50 mm, or 2 in.) and offers excellent strength if the filler metal is very thin, generally
workability when worked either hot or cold. It can about 0.03 to 0. 13 mm (0.001–0.005 in.) thick.
also be formed to a limited extent after aging. Brazing with high-temperature filler metals
MP35N is generally performed in a furnace. Induction,
resistance, and dip brazing have limited appli-
cation. Vacuum furnaces or controlled-atmo-
Hot Working. MP35N Alloy forges and Joinability sphere furnaces, having adequate moisture con-
rolls much like an age-hardening nickel-chro- trol at brazing temperature (less than –60 °F, or
mium steel like A-286 and is slightly more re- –50 °C, dew point), produce the most satisfac-
sistant to deformation than the 300 series of Wear Resistant Alloys tory results. Furnace atmospheres, such as hy-
stainless steels. The maximum furnace temper- drogen or dissociated ammonia, are suitable for
ature for forging or rolling is 1150 °C (2100 brazing wear resistant alloys.
°F). For the breakdown of cast structure, defor- Welding. In decreasing order of preference,
mation should not be continued below approxi- alloys 6B and 6K can be welded by gas-tung-
mately 870 °C (1600 °F) to prevent surface sten arc welding (GTAW) with an argon flow
tearing. Wrought structure may be deformed at of 12 L/min (25 ft3/h), gas-metal arc welding Heat Resistant Alloys
any temperature up to 1150 °C (2100 °F) within (GMAW), shielded-metal arc welding (SMAW)
the limits of the processing equipment. with coated electrodes, and oxyacetylene weld- Welding. The welding characteristics of al-
Cold Working. Practically any form of cold ing (OAW). The OAW method should be used loys 25 and 188 are quite similar. They can be
deformation can be applied to MP35N Alloy with caution in that these alloys will “boil” dur- joined by GTAW, GMAW, SMAW, electron
that can be used with the 300 series stainless ing welding, which may cause porosity. A 3× beam welding, and resistance welding. Sub-
steels. The excellent ductility of the alloy reducing flame is recommended to reduce oxi- merged arc welding is not recommended be-
makes possible large reductions without an- dation, penetration, and interalloying. cause this process is characterized by high heat
nealing. Work-hardening rate is similar to 304 Both alloys 6B and 6K should be preheated input to the base metal and slow cooling of the
stainless steel and less than that of 301 stainless and maintained at 540 °C (1000 °F) to prevent weld. These factors can increase weld restraint
steel. Drawing, swaging, rolling, and shear cracking during welding and then still air and promote cracking.
forming are all excellent ways of deforming for cooled. Fixturing, which could chill the weld The joint surface and adjacent area should be
work strengthening. rapidly, should not be used. Standard weld thoroughly cleaned before welding. All grease,
Forming. Operations such as brake-press joints are recommended. oil, crayon marks, sulfur compounds, and other
bending, cup drawing, punching, and spinning Recommended filler metals for joining alloy foreign matter should be removed. Contact
can be done easily in the annealed condition. 6B to softer materials, such as carbon steel or with copper or copper-bearing materials in the
Extra attention should be given to ensure that stainless steel, include Inconel filler metals 82 joint area should be avoided. It is preferable,
adequate power is available to form the alloy in (AWS ERNiCr-3), 92 (AWS ERNiCrFe-6), and but not necessary, that the alloy be in the solu-
the higher-strength condition and that the form- 625 (AWS ERNiCrMo-3). Harder cobalt-base tion-annealed condition when welded.
ing tools are harder than MP35N Alloy after it filler metals, such as Stellite 6 and 21, are rec- Matching composition filler metal is recom-
has been formed. ommended for joining 6B to itself, especially if mended for joining alloy 188. For joining sec-
Lubricants are helpful for all forming opera- wear resistance is needed in the weld area. For tion thicknesses greater than 9.5 mm (3 8 in.),
tions and necessary for some. Standard copper wear-resistance welds, filler metals 82, 92, and 230-W filler wire is suggested. For SMAW,
plating, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) solid lu- 625 can be used for the root passes and then be Haynes alloy 25 electrodes (AMS 5796) are
bricant, and soap lubricants are used for draw- weld overlayed with the harder cobalt alloy. suggested. For dissimilar metal joining of alloy
ing. High-sulfur oils or grease are recom- Gas shielding of the root side of the gas-tung- 188 to nickel-, cobalt-, or iron-base materials,
mended for swaging and spinning at room sten arc (GTA) weldments is recommended in alloy 188 itself, 230-W filler wire, 556 alloy,
temperature, and graphite-grease lubricants for order to improve weld penetration. Hastelloy alloy S (AMS 5838), or Hastelloy al-
warm operations. Brazing. Alloys 6B and 6K are readily loy W (AMS 5786, 5787) welding products are
joined to other materials by brazing. All forms suggested, depending on the particular case.
of surface contamination, such as paint, ink, Filler metal selection recommendations for al-
oil, and chemical residues, must be removed loy 25 are nearly identical.
Age-Hardening Alloys Elgiloy, from the mating parts by pickling, solvent Brazing. The brazing of both wrought and
Duratherm 600, and Havar degreasing, or other means. In addition, fluxing cast heat resistant cobalt alloys is readily ac-
will be required during torch brazing operations complished with the same techniques used for
Elgiloy. Forming should be carried out prior when using silver (BAg) brazing filler metal to nickel-base heat resistant alloys (see the article
to heat treatment because the heat-treating pro- help clean the joint and allow the filler metal to “Welding and Brazing of Nickel Alloys” in this
cess strengthens the material and makes it more flow more freely over the mating surfaces. Handbook). Because most heat resistant cobalt
difficult to form. For strip, bending should take Joint areas should be brushed generously with alloys do not contain substantial amounts of
 Fabrication and Metallography of Cobalt Alloys / 403

aluminum or titanium found in precipitation- MP35N and MP159 Elgiloy to itself or any other material. If mechani-
hardenable nickel alloys, brazing atmosphere cal fastening procedures cannot be used, spot
requirements are less stringent. Cobalt alloys In general, the welding of both MP35N and welding, laser beam welding, or electron beam
can be brazed in either a hydrogen atmosphere MP159 is similar to that of type 304 austenitic welding should be employed. Elgiloy can also
or a vacuum. Filler metals are usually nickel- stainless steel and the same preparations and be joined by soldering or brazing if a very ac-
base or cobalt-base alloys or gold-palladium precautions used to weld 304 should be em- tive flux is used, and the temperature is kept be-
compositions. Silver-base or copper-base ployed. Weld parameters for MP35N have been low 595 to 760 °C (1100–1400 °F). Because of
filler metals may not have sufficient strength developed using the GTAW method. The work the latter requirement, furnace brazing is rec-
and oxidation resistance in many high-temper- was carried out on 1.5 mm (0.060 in.) thick sheet ommended.
ature applications. An electroplate or flash of and 6.4 mm (1.250 in.) thick plate. The follow- Duratherm 600 can be welded by spot
nickel is often used to promote better wetting of ing GTAW parameters are recommended: welding, electron beam welding, or laser weld-
the brazing filler metal. ing. Welding should be carried out prior to ag-
Nickel-base brazing alloys, such as AWS • Argon gas flow rate: 9.4 to 11.8 L/min ing, and short welding times are recommended.
BNi-3, have been used successfully on alloy 25 (20–25 ft3/h) Soldering is always carried out after aging.
for honeycomb structures. After brazing, a dif- • Weld speed: 140 mm/min (5.5 in./min) Flux selection is critical and soldering experts
fusion cycle was reportedly used to raise the • Voltage: 10 V should be consulted. Where necessary, com-
braze joint remelt temperature to 1260 to 1315 °C • MP35N filler wire feed: 355 to 560 mm/min plex joints should be precoated with tin first.
(2300–2400 °F). Table 1 presents the effects of (14–22 in./min) Silver brazes with a low melting point are
a high-temperature braze (1225 °C, or 2240 °F, recommended for brazing, which can also be
for 15 min) on the mechanical properties of al- Welding current should be adjusted to ensure performed on age-hardened parts without af-
loy 25. One cobalt-base brazing filler metal that the heat input per pass is low, that is, 1 2 to fecting the mechanical behavior. Suitable joints
(AWS BCo-1, see Table 2) appears to offer a 2 of the heat input used to weld maraging steel
3
are only achieved on clean, oxide-free surfaces
good combination of strength, oxidation resis- or type 304 stainless steel. For the weld param- and with suitable fluxes. An electroplate of
tance, and remelt temperature for use on alloy eters used in this example, currents of 50 to 60 A nickel plating is sometimes used to improve
25 foil. were used for the sheet. Total heat input was filler metal wetting of the joint.
Cobalt-base alloys, much like nickel-base al- 2165 to 3740 J/cm (5500–9500 J/in.). For plate, Havar can be welded by GMAW and resis-
loys, can be subject to liquid metal embrit- the current ranged from 100 to 160 A and heat tance welding. It is also possible to solder and
tlement or stress-corrosion cracking when inputs were 4330 to 7480 J/cm (11,000–19,000 braze. The alloy producer should be consulted
brazed under residual or dynamic stresses. This J/in.). for specific joining parameters.
frequently is observed when using silver- or sil-
ver-copper-base (BAg) filler metals. Liquid
metal embrittlement of cobalt-base alloys by Age-Hardening Alloys Elgiloy, Machinability
copper-base (BCu) filler metals occurs with or Duratherm 600, and Havar
without the application of stress; therefore,
BCu filler metals should be avoided when braz- Elgiloy. Whenever possible, it is best to use Wear Resistant Alloys. Although the high-
ing cobalt-base alloys. some mechanical fastening method to join carbon alloys 6B and 6K are more difficult to
machine than the lower-carbon heat and corro-
sion resistant cobalt alloys, they can be ma-
chined using tungsten carbide tools. Carbide in-
Table 1 Effect of brazing on mechanical properties of alloy 25 serts are used with a 5° negative tool holder and
a 30° or 45° lead angle. Tools for facing or bor-
Test temperature(a) Ultimate strength 0.2% offset yield strength
ing are essentially the same except for greater
Condition °C °F MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % clearances where needed. For best results in
Tensile testing drilling, the drill web should be kept thin. Screw-
Mill anneal RT RT 1020 147.9 477 69.2 56 machine length, carbide-tipped drills should be
After braze cycle RT RT 747 108.3 477 69.2 12 used. High-speed taps are not recommended for
Mill anneal 815 1500 396 57.4 210 30.5 17
After braze cycle 815 1500 393 57.0 229 33.2 24
6B and 6K, but threads can be produced by
Mill anneal 980 1800 145 21.0 125 18.1 35 electrical-discharge machining. For better sur-
After braze cycle 980 1800 148 21.5 130 18.8 35 face finish, these alloys should be ground. Ta-
Test temperature Stress ble 3 gives some general information that can
Condition °C °F MPa ksi Time to rupture, h be used as a guide for machining 6B and 6K.
Stress-rupture testing Stellite hardfacing alloys can be machined
Mill anneal 815 1500 169 24.5 82 using polycrystalline cubic boron nitride
After braze cycle 815 1500 169 24.5 72.3 (PCBN) tools. Cutting speeds in the range of
Mill anneal 900 1650 103 15.0 56 200 to 250 mm/min (650–820 sfm) are gener-
After braze cycle 900 1650 103 15.0 36
Mill anneal 980 1800 45 6.5 110 ally recommended. Because of the work-hard-
After braze cycle 980 1800 45 6.5 120 ening nature of these alloys, feed rates should
not be less than 0.2 mm/rev (0.008 in./rev).
(a) RT, room temperature
Round, chamfered PCBN inserts should be

Table 2 AWS cobalt-base brazing alloy for elevated-temperature service

Composition, wt%

Other Solidus Liquidus Brazing range

AWS
classification Cr Ni Si W Fe B C P S Al Ti Zr Co elements total °C °F °C °F °C °F
BCo-1 18.0–20.0 16.0–18.0 7.5–8.5 3.5–4.5 1.0 0.7–0.9 0.35–0.45 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.05 bal 0.50 1120 2050 1150 2100 1150–1230 2100–2250

Source: AWS 5.8

404 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 3 Recommended guidelines for machining alloys 6B and 6K

Roughing Finishing
Speed Feed/rev Depth of cut Feed/rev Depth of cut
Operation m/s sfm mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.
Turning(a) 0.25–0.35 50–70 0.20–0.28 0.008–0.012 1.27–5.08 0.050–0.200 0.05–0.13 0.002–0.005 0.63–0.18 0.025–0.007
Facing(a) 0.25–0.35 50–70 0.20–0.28 0.008–0.012 1.27–2.54 0.050–0.100 0.15–0.25 0.006–0.010 0.63 or less 0.025 or less
Boring(a) 0.25–0.30 50–60 0.13–0.20 0.005–0.008 0.63–2.54 0.025–0.100 0.13–0.08 0.005–0.003 0.63–0.18 0.025–0.007
Depends on bar and size of tool
Drilling(b) 0.15–0.18 30–35 … … … … 0.03–0.13 0.001–0.005 … …
Depends on size of drills
Reaming(c) 0.20–0.25 40–50 0.03–0.13 0.001–0.005 0.38–0.76 0.015–0.030 0.03–0.10 0.001–0.004 0.18–0.63 0.007–0.025
per tooth per tooth per tooth per tooth (Based on dia.) (Based on dia.)
Threading Use single point C-3 tungsten carbide tools. 0.05–0.13 m/s (10–25 sfm) based on number of threads per mm (in.)

(a) Use C-3 tungsten carbide tools. Coolant—water base fluid diluted 15 parts water to one part fluid. Tools for facing and boring are basically the same as turning tools except for greater clearances where needed. (b) C-2 tung-
sten carbide twist drills with drill web kept as thin as possible. Coolant—same as (a) above. (c) C-2 tungsten carbide tools. Reamers should have a 45° (0.79 radius) side cutting edge angle. Coolant—same as (a) above.

used whenever possible, and the depth of cut chlorinated cutting oil should be used for all ma- ity to maintain a positive feed (except in drill-
should be sufficient to enable the tool to pene- chining. More detailed information on machin- ing). Because of the rapidity with which these
trate the solid underlying material, thereby ing and grinding both wrought and cast heat re- alloys work harden, the power required for ma-
avoiding the interruptions and damaging abra- sistant cobalt alloys can be found in Machining, chining is greater than for steels of the same
siveness of the weld-deposited alloy skin. Volume 16, of the ASM Handbook (see the arti- hardness. To minimize work hardening, cutting
Whenever close tolerances are required, cle “Machining of Heat-Resistant Alloys”). edges should be ground as sharp as possible. A
grinding is recommended for finishing alloys MP35N and MP159. The machinability of copious flow of cutting fluid must be used with
6B and 6K. Honing can be used to finish inside these alloys is similar to that of the Ni-Co-Cr high-speed steels and will help greatly improve
diameters. Grinding speeds should be kept be- alloy Waspaloy. Both MP35N and MP159 can tool life and surface finish with carbide tools.
tween 14 and 31 m/s (2800 and 600 sfm). Al- be machined in the work-hardened and aged Sulfurized oil or sulfochlorinated cutting fluids
loys being ground should not be quenched be- condition. For drilling use 7.6 m/min (25 sfm) are recommended. Alloy producers will pro-
cause this can cause surface checking. and 0.10 mm/rev (0.005 in./rev) feed. For turn- vide information on parameters such as speeds,
Heat resistant alloys are more difficult to ing use 9.1 m/min (30 sfm) and 0.254 mm/rev feeds, and cutting angles.
machine than austenitic stainless steels and (0.010 in./rev) feed. Both high-speed steels and
lower feeds, speeds, and depth of cut are rec- carbide tools can be used. Soluble oil (1:20),
ommended. For drilling use 4.5 m/min (15 sfm) sulfurized oil, or chlorinated oil are recom-
and 0. 025 to 0.1 mm/rev (0.001–0.004 in./rev) mended cutting fluids. Alloy producers should Metallography
feed. For turning use 6 m/min (20 sfm) and also be consulted when machining these alloys.
0.05 mm/rev (0.002 in./rev) feed. Cobalt grades Age-Hardening Alloys Elgiloy, Duratherm,
of high-speed steels or tungsten carbide tools and Havar. These alloys are difficult to ma- This section describes polishing and etching
should be used with rigid setups. Tools should chine because they work harden rapidly in front techniques specific to wear, heat, and corrosion
be maintained sharp. Tool geometries should of the cutting tool. Machining is normally car- resistant cobalt alloys. Additional information
be similar to those used for nickel-base ried out prior to heat treatment. The tooling and on procedures to prepare metallographic speci-
high-temperature alloys. The high work-hard- setup of the workpiece should be very rigid mens of cobalt alloys can be found in the article
ening rate and high shear strength of heat resis- with the machine tool in good condition, with “Metallography and Microstructures of Heat
tant alloys complicate their machining. Sulfo- minimum backlash and ample power and rigid- Resistant Alloys” in this Handbook. A review
of the metallography of cobalt and cobalt alloys
is presented in Ref 1.
Grinding and Polishing. Grinding with sili-
con carbide papers is suitable for cobalt-base
Table 4 Electrolytic polishing solutions for cobalt and cobalt alloys alloys. Polishing is generally accomplished us-
Conditions
ing diamond abrasive, generally as a paste.
Voltage, Temperature, Time,
Electrolytic polishing is frequently used for co-
Electrolyte composition Current density dc °C (°F) min Comments balt alloys, and a number of electrolytes have
1. 50 mL HCl 2.5 A/cm2 8–9 20 (68) 30–90 s Use stainless steel cathode. Bluish-green been developed for this purpose. Table 4 pro-
50 mL ethanol anode film dissolves in water. Slight vides a list of those recommended for cobalt al-
etching loys, with some indications of the conditions
2. 5 g ZnCl2 1–2 A … RT 2 Use 10 by 10 mm sample size. Grind to 600 under which they can be operated. The current
15 g AlCl3·6H2O grit. Use platinum for cathode and anode
200 mL methanol lead wires. Agitate cathode. Dissolve
density and voltage are interdependent and re-
30 mL H2SO4 salts in methanol, add H2SO4 slowly. lated to the temperature and to the electrode
3. 100 mL perchloric acid 9 A/cm2 48 RT 3s For Vitallium. Used 1 cm2 area, ground to spacing, so that conditions must be adjusted by
142 mL water 600 grit. Stainless steel or Vitallium trial and error until satisfactory polishing is
758 mL methanol cathode, vertical, 25 mm spacing. Agi-
tate and cool solution during use.
achieved. Chemical polishing solutions can
4. H3PO4, concentrated 1–2 A/dm2 1–1.5 20 (68) 5–10 Produces slight etching. Solid black anode also be employed when only a limited number
film can be wiped off with cotton. of samples are being prepared. These include a
Produces a rise in current density to solution containing 40 mL lactic acid, 30 mL
12–16 A/dm2
hydrochloric acid, and 5 mL nitric acid, and
5. 14 mL water 10–12 A/in.2 6–10 25–55 10–20 s For Co-Cr-Fe-Ni alloys
75 mL ethanol (1.55–1.85 (78–131) also a solution consisting of 1 part acetic acid
6 mL perchloric acid A/cm2) and 1 part nitric acid.
Etching. Because cobalt-rich alloys are cor-
Source: Ref 2
rosion resistant to many mild reagents, vigorous
 Fabrication and Metallography of Cobalt Alloys / 405

etching reagents are necessary to develop their As indicated in Table 6, there are a number hydrochloric, nitric, and acetic acids shown as
structures. For macroetching, strong mineral ac- of microetching reagents for cobalt alloys. For etchant composition No. 2 in Table 6. Young
ids are generally called for, and two procedures pure cobalt and cobalt-base alloys, the standard (Ref 3) has described etching methods for de-
used for cobalt alloys are given in Table 5. solution for immersion etching is the mixture of lineating oxide and sulfide phases in cobalt (see
etchant No. 12 in Table 6). Weeton and
Signorelli (Ref 4) have described different pro-
cedures for identifying sigma phase and car-
bides in wrought Stellite 21. These procedures
Table 5 Macroetchants for cobalt and cobalt alloys
are listed in Table 7. Beraha (Ref 5) has devel-
Etchant composition Comments oped a tint etch for cobalt alloys (see etchant
1. Solution A Use at room temperature. After etching dip sample in No. 18 in Table 6). Electrolytic etching is often
Saturated solution of FeCl3 in HCl 1:1 solution of HCl and H2O. more controlled than immersion or swab etch-
Solution B ing. As shown in Table 6, both heat resistant
Add 5% HNO3 to solution A prior to use. and hardfacing alloy specimens are prepared
2. Solution A Etch sample 5 min in solution A and then 5 min in solution B.
using electrolytic etchants. The structures of
21 mL H2SO4
15 mL HCl various cobalt alloys revealed by the use of the
21 mL HNO3 etchants described above are shown in the arti-
21 mL HF cle “Metallography and Microstructures of
22 mL H2O Heat Resistant Alloys” in this Handbook (see
Solution B
Fig. 120 to 150 for wrought structures and Fig.
40 mL of a solution of 1 g CuCl2·2H2O and 5 mL H2O
40 mL HCl 210 to 233 for cast structures).
20 mL HF

Table 6 Etchants for cobalt and alloys

Etchant composition Comments Etchant composition Comments

Immersion or swab etchants Immersion or swab etchants (continued)

1. 90 mL methanol For Co and Co-Fe alloys. Immerse sample for up to 30 s 14. 45 mL water Modified Fry’s reagent. For MP35N alloy. Swab
10 mL HNO3 (1–50% nital has been used). Do not store. 50 mL HCl sample for 30 s up to 2 min. Reveals hcp platelets on
2. 15 mL HNO3 For Co and alloys. Age 1 h before use. Immerse sample for 5 g CuCl2 fcc matrix.
15 mL acetic acid up to 30 s. Standard etchant. 25 mL alcohol
60 mL HCl 15. 25 mL water For Co and Co-Al alloys
15 mL water 50 mL HCl
3. 7.5 mL HF General etch for Co and alloys. Immerse sample 2–4 min. 15 g FeCl3
2.5 mL HNO3 3 g cuprous
200 mL methanol ammonium chloride
4. 100 mL HCl For Co hardfacing alloys and high-temperature alloys. Use 16. 25 mL water For Co alloys
5 mL H2O2 (30%) under a hood. Use fresh. Immerse sample a few seconds. 25 mL acetic acid
5. 5 mL HNO3 For Co high-temperature alloys. Immerse sample a few sec- 50 mL HNO3
200 mL HCl onds. Use under a hood. 17. 80 mL lactic acid For Co alloys
65 g FeCl3 10 mL H2O2 (30%)
6. 50 mL water Marbles reagent. For Co high- 10 mL HNO3
50 mL HCl temperature alloys. Immerse or swab sample for up to 1
10 g CuSO4 min. Can add a few drops of H2SO4 to increase activity. Tint etch
7. 100 mL water For Co-Fe magnetic alloys. Immerse or swab sample for 18. Solution A: HCl and water Beraha’s tint etch for Co-base alloys. Add ingredient b
100 mL HCl 10–15 s. (1:1) (stock solution) to 100 mL of stock solution A, then add ingredient c.
200 mL methanol Ingredient b: 0.6–1 g Immerse sample at 20 °C (68 °F) for 60–150 s, agitate
5 mL HNO3 potassium metabisulfite sample. Matrix is colored; carbides and nitrides are
7 g FeCl3 Ingredient c: 1–1.5 g FeCl3 unaffected.
2 g cupric chloride Electrolytic etchants
8. 100 mL water For Co-Sm alloys. Immerse
sample a few seconds. 19. 100 mL water For Co and Co high-temperature alloys. Use at 3 V dc,
1 mL acetic acid 5–10 mL HCl 2–10 s, graphite cathode. Pitting sometimes occurs.
1 mL HNO3 20. 100 mL water For Co hardfacing alloys. Use at 3 V dc for 2–10 s.
9. 100 mL water For Co-Ti alloys 2–10 g CrO3
2 mL HF 21. 100 mL water For Co and Co-Al alloys. Use at 6 V dc, few seconds,
5 mL H2O2 (30%) 5 mL HCl stainless steel cathode.
10 g FeCl3
10. 3 parts HNO3 For Co-Pt alloys (48–54 atomic % Co)
22. Solution A For Co hardfacing alloys and Co high-temperature
1 part HCl
100 mL water alloys. Use solution A at 3 V dc for 2 s. Rinse in water
11. 95 mL water For Co-40.7Cr-2.4C alloy. Colors M7C3 gray
2 g CrO3 and immerse sample in solution B for 5–10 s. Use
1 g KOH and M23C6 black
Solution B solution B fresh.
4 g KMnO4
85 mL water
12. Solution A Etch with solution A for 30 s or with solution B for 2 min to
4 g NaOH
1 g mercuric chloride distinguish between Co metal, cobalt oxide, and sulfides.
10 g KMnO4
99 mL water Both stain the Co matrix brown, oxide remains dark gray,
23. 140 mL HCl For Co high-temperature alloys. Use at 3 V dc for 2–10
Solution B cobalt sulfide remains yellowish and MnS remains bluish
1 g CrO3 s.
35 g sodium bisulfite gray.
24. 100 mL HCl For Co high-temperature alloys. Use at 4 V dc for 3–5 s.
100 mL water
0.5 mL H2O2 (30%)
13. 30 mL water Fry’s reagent. For MP35N alloy. Swab sample for 30 s up to
25. 940 mL water For Co. Use stainless steel cathode, 3.5 V dc, 0.75
40 mL HCl 2 min. Reveals hexagonal close-packed (hcp) platelets on
45 mL HNO3 A/cm2, 15 s, 20 °C (68 °F).
5 g CuCl2 face-centered cubic (fcc) matrix.
15 mL HCl
25 mL alcohol

Source: Ref 2
406 / Properties and Fabrication Characteristics of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

Table 7 Staining and heat-tinting procedures for identification of sigma phase and carbides in wrought Stellite 21

Colors of minor phases

Coloring First etchant Staining method obtained by previous
process Method Purpose Solution Method Solution Method investigators
1 Etch To stain sigma phase 8% oxalic acid; 92% Electrolytic etch; 8–10 s; 5 g KMnO4; 5 g NaOH; Immerse 10–20 s; room Sigma: bright green or red to
water 6V; room temperature 90 mL water temperature purple
2 Etch To differentiate between 10% NaCN; 90% water Electrolytic etch; 10–20 s; Murakami’s 10 g K3Fe(CN)6; Immerse 2–4 s; room Carbides: straw to
carbides and sigma phase 1.5 V 10 g KOH; 100 mLwater temperature yellow-brown or buff
Gamma (sigma): grey to blue or
greenish grey
3 Etch To identify carbides 2% chromic acid; 98% Light electrolytic etch 1 part (20% KMnO4, 80% Immerse 7 s; room Cr23C6: brown
water water); 1 part (8% NaOH, temperature Cr7C3: pale yellow to light tan
92% water) M6C: red, green, yellow, blue
(also reticulation)
4 Heat tint To identify carbides and 5% HCl; 95% water Light electrolytic etch; 1 s; … Heat polished specimen to Sigma: dark medium brown
sigma phase 5V dull red Cr23C6: white
Held at temperature until M6C: dark
surface becomes colored Note: M6C and sigma cannot
be differentiated in
Air cooled or Hg-quenched same structure

Source: Ref 4

REFERENCES published by ASM International), 1984, p 514, Microconstituents, and Hardness of a

569, 620–621 Wrought Cobalt Base Alloy, Trans. Am.
1. F.R. Morral, Metallography of Cobalt-Base 3. R.S. Young, Metallographic Differentiation Soc. Met., Vol 47, 1955, p 815–852
and Cobalt-Containing Alloys, Prakt. of Cobalt Metal, Oxide, and Sulphide, 5. E. Beraha, Two New Metallographic Re-
Metallogr., Vol 10, 1973, p 398–413 Metallurgia, Vol 59, April 1959, p 210 agents for Stainless Steels and Heat-Re-
2. G.F. Vander Voort, Metallography: Princi- 4. J.W. Weeton and R.A. Signorelli, Effect of sisting Alloys, J. Iron Steel Inst., Vol 204,
ples and Practice, McGraw-Hill Inc. (now Heat Treatment upon Microstructures, 1966, p 248–251
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Subject Index
A alloying element effects on nickel alloy draw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
corrosion resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . 129–130(F) hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195–196
alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T) of plate, sheet, and strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196(T)
Abrasion cold work effect on hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191(F) press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
high-stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387, 389, 390(T) content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 rod and bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
low-stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387, 389(F), 390(T) corrosion rates in molten drawsalt. . . . . . . . . . 185(T) roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Abrasive blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 278 effect on oxidation resistance of superalloys 85, 89(F) tube and pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195–196(T)
heat-resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279–280 as gamma prime former . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Bending fatigue strength, of cobalt alloys,
Abrasive flow machining, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . 244 molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186(T) individual alloy values . . . . . . . . . . 374(T), 381(T)
Abrasive wear. See Wear, abrasive. as solid-solution strengthener in nickel. . . . . . . 14(F) Benzene, corrosion rate of electroless nickel
Acetic acid Aluminum sulfate, corrosion rate of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
corrosion of cobalt-base alloys . . . 396(T), 397(F,T) electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Benzotrichloride
corrosion of iron-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) American Iron and Steel Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 corrosion rate of electroless nickel-
corrosion of nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) Ammonia, corrosion rate of electroless phosphorus coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
corrosion rate of CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) corrosion rate of mild steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
corrosion rate of Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) Ammoniacal leaching of sulfides, equation . . . . . 208 corrosion rate of nickel 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
corrosion rate of N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) Ammonia nitrate, corrosion rate of corrosion rate of stainless steel (Type 316) . . 118(T)
Acetic acid, glacial, corrosion rate of electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Benzoyl chloride
electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Ammonium sulfate, saturated, corrosion corrosion rate of electroless nickel-
Acetic acid corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 134(T) rate of electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . 118(T) phosphorus coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
Acetone, corrosion rate of electroless Annealing. See Heat treating of nickel alloys. corrosion rate of mild steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Annulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 corrosion rate of nickel 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
Acid media corrosion, of cobalt alloys . . . . . . 396(T), Anode efficiency in nickel plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 corrosion rate of stainless steel (Type 316) . . 118(T)
397(F,T) Anodizing, market segment percentage Beryllium-copper alloys, cobalt content effect . . . 353
Acrylic acid corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 and form of cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Bessemer matte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Age hardening. See Heat treating of nickel alloys. Aqueous environment corrosion, of Binary phase diagrams
Air-hardening cold-work tool steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395–398(F,T) cobalt-carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356(T)
Air plasma sprayed coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Argon-oxygen decarburization (AOD) cobalt-nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(F)
Alkali corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–136(F) process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, 251 cobalt-tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(F)
Alkali metal sulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Asbolite nickel-aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331(F)
Alkaline fuel cells, functional, service, composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) nickel-boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332(F)
and structural requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211(T) mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) nickel-carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332(F)
All-chloride nickel plating solution . . . . . 112(T), 113 Ash/salt deposit corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 nickel-chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333(F), 357(F)
cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) ASTM G 28 solutions
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) nickel-cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332(F)
corrosion of cobalt-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) nickel-copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333(F)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) corrosion of iron-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T)
pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) nickel-iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333(F), 357(F)
corrosion of nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) nickel-molybdenum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334(F)
temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Atmospheric corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130(T)
Allied Signal, production of dual-alloy nickel-niobium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334(F)
Atmospheric-pressure carbonyl process . . . . . . . . . 4 nickel-phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334(F)
turbine disk/wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224(F) Atomization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210–211(F)
Alloy phase diagrams. See Phase diagrams. nickel-silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335(F)
Austempered ductile irons, nickel content nickel-titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335(F)
Alloy steels, nickel consumption, % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
All-sulfate nickel plating solution . . . . . . 112(T), 113 nickel-tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335(F)
Austempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Biomedical applications, nickel-titanium
Austenitic manganese steels shape memory alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Black nickel (chloride bath) plating
nickel content effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T) solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T), 113
pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252(T)
temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
Auxiliary brighteners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–109
Alnico alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 351(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351(T) pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
Aluminide (diffusion) coatings, for superalloys. . 87–88 B temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
Aluminized Cr-Mo steel, corrosion rates Black nickel (sulfate bath) plating
in molten drawsalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185(T) solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T), 113
Aluminum Band sawing, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . 243–244(T) cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
alloying element effect in cobalt-base Barren solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
heat-resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Batteries, market segment percentage and mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
alloying element effect on nickel-and iron- form of cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T) Belt grinding, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
alloying element effects on corrosion Bending Blanking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Blasting, as finishing operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

408 / Index

Bobbing and sanding, wheel, compound content effect on cavitation erosion of applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
and speed used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277(T) cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61(F)
Body-centered tetragonal phase (γ ′′) . . . . . . . . . . . 15 content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 sulfuric acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61(F)
Boiling point, of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 welding products for dissimilar-metal Cast nickel-chromium-iron-molybdenum-
Boride-containing nickel-base alloys 121–122(F,T) joints with nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . 250(T) cobalt-copper-silicon alloys
Borides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Carbonates, molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . 185–186(T) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Boring, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240(T) Carbon steel corrosion resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–61(F)
Boron corrosion in chlorine-bearing environments 179(T) Cast nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys
alloying element effect in cobalt-base corrosion in molten aluminum, static applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
heat-resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 immersion tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186(T) chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 58(T)
content effect on boride-containing corrosion rates in molten drawsalt. . . . . . . . . . 185(T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 57
nickel-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . 121–122(F,T) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252(T) corrosion rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 58(T)
content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 Carbon tetrachloride, corrosion rate of heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
content effect on superalloy microstructure. . . . . . 80 electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56(T), 57
effect on superalloy mechanical properties . . . . . . 84 Carbonyl clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 oxidation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Boron-reduced cobalt-boron, electroless Carbonyl vapormetallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–206(F) weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
cobalt alloy plating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(T) Carburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172–173(F,T) Cast nickel-chromium-molybdenum-copper-
Boron-reduced cobalt-tungsten-boron, of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399, 400(F) iron alloys, chemical properties . . . . . . . 59–60(F)
electroless cobalt alloy plating systems . . . 354(T) Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–109 Cast nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 56
Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Carrolite applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
cobalt-base heat-resistant alloys . . . . . . . 402–403(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T)
of heat-resistant nickel-base alloys. . . 267–272(F,T) mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) galling resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Brazing of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267–272(F,T) CASS testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111(T) heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
atmosphere control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270–271 Cast cobalt-base heat resistant alloys mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56(T)
cleanliness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 alloying elements effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
filler metal compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267–268(T) chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367(F) Cast nickel-iron-chromium alloys
filler metal product forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268–269 compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367(T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 65(T)
fixturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367(F) elevated-temperature mechanical properties . . . . 64,
oxide dispersion-strengthened (ODS) alloys. . 272(F) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 66(T)
precipitation-hardening alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Cast corrosion-resistant nickel alloys . . . 55–61(F,T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 66(T), 67(F)
stress elimination or relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 alloy classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–57(T) Cast nickel-molybdenum alloys . . . . . . . . 57–59(F,T)
surface cleaning and preparation . . . . . . 269–270(F) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 57, 58(T)
temperatures and thermal cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T) corrosion resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 58(T)
Brighteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–109 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 56(T) heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Brine, 3.5% salt, CO2 saturated, corrosion standard grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–57(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56(T), 57
rate of electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . 118(T) Cast heat resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . 62–67(F,T) weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Brine, 3.5% salt, H2S saturated, corrosion applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Cast nickel-molybdenum-chromium
rate of electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . 118(T) chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–59(F,T)
Briquetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 6(F), 210(F) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 63(T), 65(T), 67(T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 58(T)
Broaching, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 243(T) elevated temperature mechanical corrosion resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–59(F)
Bromides, causing stress-corrosion properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 66(T) sulfuric acid corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–59(F)
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145–146(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66(T), 67(T) Cast nickel-silicon-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method . . . . . . 206 Cast heat resistant nickel-chromium alloys corrosion rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T)
Brushing applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 63 Catalysts
as finishing operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 63(T) market segment percentage and form of
wheel, compound and speed used . . . . . . . . . . 277(T) development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Brush plating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Castings nickel-base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Buffing, as finishing operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277–278 chromium-nickel alloy standard specification Catastrophic carburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172–173
Bulk electrolytic extractions . . . . . . 300–301, 302(T) (ASTM A 560) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Cathode efficiency, in nickel plating . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
nickel alloy, welding of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Cattierite
nickel and nickel alloy, standard specifications composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
(ASTM A 494) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
C Cast irons Caustic environments, and stress-corrosion
corrosion in chlorine-bearing environments . 179(T) cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154–157(F)
nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T) Caustic soda corrosion, of nickel 200 . . . . . . . . . 20(T)
Calcium chloride, corrosion rate of nickel content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–9(T) Cavitation erosion, of cobalt alloys. . . . . . 388, 391(F)
electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Cast nickel alloys Cemented carbides
Carbide films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76(F) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350(T), 351(F)
Carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 301, 303–304 compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 56 market segment percentage and form of
chromium-rich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 corrosion rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
effect on nickel alloy corrosion resistance. . . . . . 130 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 nickel content effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 13(F)
effect on stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . 141–143(F) weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 260 nickel effect on corrosion resistance . . . . . . 12, 13(F)
for tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240(F,T) Cast nickel-base proprietary alloys . . . . . 57–61(F,T) Centerless grinding, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . 244
in cobalt-base wear resistant alloys . . . . 363–364(F) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 58(T) Centrifugal atomization . . . . . . . . . . 210, 211(F), 215
in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . 308(F), 309(F), mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 58(T) Ceramics, for tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240(F,T)
310(F), 313(F), 314(F), Cast nickel-chromium alloys, chemical CGDS alloys. See Columnar-grain directionally
315(F), 322(F), 324(F), 327(F) properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 solidified alloys.
in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80(F), 83–84(F) Cast nickel-chromium-iron alloys Chalcopyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Carbide strengthening, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . 15 applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 57, 67 Chamfering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240(F)
Carbon composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 56, 66, 67(T) Chemical milling, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . 243, 244
alloying element effect in cobalt-base elevated-temperature mechanical properties . . 57(T) Chemicals, nickel consumption in U.S. by
heat-resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56(T), 57(T), end use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6(T)
alloying element effect on nickel-and iron- 66(T), 67(T) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD). . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T) weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Chemical waste incinerator, temperature
alloying element effects on corrosion Cast nickel-chromium-iron-cobalt-copper- range and contaminants encountered . . . . . 183(T)
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) silicon alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61(F) Chip breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Index / 409

Chlorides nickel aluminide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282(F) biocompatibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

causing stress-corrosion cracking . . . . 144–145(F,T) out-of-contact CVD processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284(F) corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395–400(F,T)
molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184(F,T) overlay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 heat treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Chlorine, wet high-temperature hot corrosion . . . . . 289–290(F) metallographic examination . . . . . . . . . . 404–406(T)
corrosion rate of CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) low-temperature hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387–394(F,T)
corrosion rate of Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281, 288–289(F) workability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401–402
corrosion rate of N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) pack cementation process. . . . . . . . . . . 283–284(F,T) Cobalt ammonium sulfate + boric acid,
Chlorine-bearing environments, and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288–290(F) operating conditions for cobalt
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177–181(F,T) plasma sprayed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287(F) electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(T)
Chromia scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167, 169 platinum aluminides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Cobalt-base alloys
Chromic acid precious metals in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 applications, high-temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
corrosion of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) protection and degradation of . . . . . . . . . . . . 285–286 biocompatible compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
corrosion of cobalt-base alloys at boiling requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362(T), 364
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) slurry aluminization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 as cutting tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
corrosion rate of CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) . . . . . . . . . 281, 286, microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302, 318–321(F),
corrosion rate of Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) 287–288(F), 290(F) 328–330(F)
corrosion rate of N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281–283(F) Cobalt-base corrosion-resistant alloys . . . . 367–368
Chromium Cobalt chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
alloying element effect in cobalt-base heat alloying element effect on nickel- and iron- compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T) Cobalt-base hardfacing alloys
alloying element effect on nickel- and iron- alloying element effects on corrosion abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389(F), 394
base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T) resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387(T), 394
alloying element effect on corrosion alloying element effects on nickel alloy carbide-containing wear behavior . . . . . 393–394(F)
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F) compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392(T)
alloying element effect on nickel alloy alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T) market segment percentage and form of
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 cobalt consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T) electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364(T)
content effect in cobalt-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . 364 nonmetallurgical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354–355(T) microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389(F), 394
content effect on corrosion resistance of consumption by end use in U.S. (1997, 1998) 348(T) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364(T)
superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 content effect in cobalt-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Cobalt-base heat resistant alloys . . . . . 365–367(F,T)
content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 end uses, market segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 alloying elements effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366–367(T)
effect on oxidation resistance of extraction and refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345–346 brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402–403(T)
superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 89(F) for electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(F,T) cold working. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
as solid-solution strengthener in nickel. . . . . . . 14(F) in beryllium-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401–402
Chromium-carbon (Cr23C6) precipitate, in in cemented carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350(T), 351(F)
machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
cobalt alloy microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319(F) in cobalt-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Chromizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 in conversion coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Citric acid, saturated, corrosion rate of in electroless cobalt alloy plating . . . . . . . . . . 354(T)
welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402, 403
electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) in hardfacing alloy coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
workability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401–402
Classification number, for electrodeposited in high-fracture toughness steels . . . . . . 352–353(T)
Cobalt-base superalloys. See also Superalloys.
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 in high-speed tool steels . . . . . . . . . . . 352(F), 353(T)
alloying element effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69(T)
Clydach, Wales, refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 in high-strength aluminum alloys. . . . . . . . . 353–354
Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 in high strength-to-density ratio steels . . . . . . 353(T) carbide precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83–84(F)
ceramic, for heat resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . 280 in magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350–352(F,T) cast
cobalt content effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(F,T) in maraging steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352, 353(T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72(T)
conversion cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 in nickel-base superalloys, properties microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70(F)
diffusion, for heat resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . 280 given by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71(T)
for heat resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 in nickel low-expansion alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . 352(T) joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
for superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87–89 in overlay coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 market segment percentage and form of cobalt
high-temperature, for superalloys. . . . 281–290(F,T) in paint pigment compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355(T) consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
nickel containing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–123(F,T) in pigments for coloring ceramics . . . . . . . . . . 355(T) melting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75–76
overlay, cobalt content effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 in stainless steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353(F,T) microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72–73
Coatings, high-temperature, for in steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353(F,T) welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281–290(F,T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345(F) Cobalt-base surgical implant alloys
alloying element effects on hot corrosion metallographic examination . . . . . . . . . . 404–406(T) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
resistance and oxidation resistance . . . . . . . 286 metallurgical uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349–354(F,T) compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369(T)
aluminide, oxidation of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288, 289(F) microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369(T)
application methods for overlay coatings. . . . 287(F) nonmetallurgical uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354–355(T) microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369(F)
chromide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286–287 physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Cobalt-base wear resistant alloys . . . . 363–365(F,T)
chromium diffusion coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285(F) production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345, 346(T) applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387(T), 393
coating formation mechanisms . . . . . . . . 284–285(F) recovery from arsenide ores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 hot hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392(T)
cobalt aluminide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282(F) recovery from copper-cobalt oxide machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403–404(T)
CVD aluminizing process. . . . . . . . . . 284(F), 285(F) concentrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389(F)
diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281–283(F) recovery from copper-cobalt sulfide welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286–287(F) concentrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346, 347(F) workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
high-temperature hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . 289(F) recovery from laterite ores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346–347 Cobalt-carbon binary phase diagram, crystal
low-temperature hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 recovery from nickel-cobalt sulfide structure data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356(T)
diffusion coating application methods . . 283–284(F) concentrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346, 347(F) Cobalt chloride + boric acid, operating
ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288(F) refinery capacity, worldwide (1998). . . . . . . . 346(T) conditions for cobalt electroplating. . . . . . . 354(T)
electron-beam physical vapor deposition as solid-solution strengthener in nickel. . . . . . . 14(F) Cobalt-chromium binary phase diagram,
method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287–288(F) sources, ores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345–346(T) crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357(T)
high-temperature hot corrosion uses of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349–355(F,T) Cobalt-chromium-iron isothermal section
resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289–290(F) Cobalt alloys at 600 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
low-temperature hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 alloying element effects on corrosion at 800 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
MCrAlY overlay coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288–289 resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 at 1000 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(F)
monoaluminide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281–282(F) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 at 1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(F)
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

410 / Index

Cobalt-chromium-nickel isothermal Constant-deflection tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 by stearic acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

section at 1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F) Constant-load tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 by sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131(F)
Cobalt-chromium-tungsten isothermal section Constrained recovery devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 in acid mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134–135(F), 136(F)
at 700 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F) Copper in flue gas desulfurization environments . . . . . . . 137
at 1350 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F) alloying element effects on corrosion in fused salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Cobalt Development Institute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) in petrochemical and refining environments . . . 137,
Cobalt fluoborate, operating conditions for cobalt alloying element effects on nickel alloy 138(F)
electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(T) corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F) in pulp and paper mill environments . . . . . . 136–137
Cobalt-iron binary phase diagram, crystal cold work effect on hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191(F) in sour gas environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
structure data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357(T) content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 individual alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54(F,T)
Cobalt-iron-molybdenum isothermal section corrosion rate, in propionic acid, boiling . . . . 135(F) of superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 89–90
at 20 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F) welding products for dissimilar-metal of weldments, nickel and high-nickel
at 800 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F) joints with nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . 250(T) alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137–139(F)
at 982 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F) Copper-accelerated acetic acid salt spray Corrosion rates
at 1093 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F) (fog) testing (CASS test) (ASTM B 368). . 111(T) in chlorine-bearing environments . . . . 177–181(F,T)
at 1300 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F) Copper-base alloys, nickel consumption, %. . . . . . . . 6 in fluorine-bearing environments. . . . . . . . . 181–182
Cobalt-iron-nickel isothermal section Copper Cliff Nickel Refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205–206 Corrosion resistance
at 600 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F) Copper electrowinning, market segment alloy characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127–129(T)
at 800 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F) percentage and form of cobalt consumption . . 347 alloying element effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129–130(F)
Cobalt-iron-tungsten isothermal section at Copper flash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values 373, 374(T),
1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361(F) Copper-nickel alloys. See Cupronickels. 375(T), 377, 378, 381
Cobaltite Corrosion of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 395–400(F,T) of electroless nickel coatings. . . 118(T), 119(T), 120
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) by acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397(T) of superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) by acid media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395–396(T), 397(F,T) Creep strength
Cobalt-molybdenum binary phase diagram, by acid media at boiling temperature . . . . . . . 396(T), of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . . 377(T),
crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357(T) 397(F,T) 378(T), 383(T),
Cobalt-molybdenum-nickel isothermal section by aqueous environments. . . . . . . . . . . 395–398(F,T) 385, 386(T)
at 1100 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361(F) by chromic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
at 1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361(F) by ferric sulfate mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21–54(F)
Cobalt-nickel binary phase diagram, by formic acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) C-ring tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147, 160
crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(T) by hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397(F,T) Crown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Cobalt sulfamate + boric acid, operating by iron chloride solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398(T) Cupric chloride, corrosion rate of electroless
conditions for cobalt electroplating. . . . . . . 354(T) by nitric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397(F,T) nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
Cobalt sulfate + boric acid, operating by phosphoric acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397(F) Cupronickels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12(T)
conditions for cobalt electroplating. . . . . . . 354(T) by sodium hydroxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) alloying additions effects on corrosion
Cobalt-tungsten binary phase diagram, by sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397(F,T) resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F)
crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(T) carburization resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399, 400(F) composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12(T)
Coercive force high-temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399(F), 400(F) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12(T)
of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T)
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 oxidation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399(F) product forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12(T)
Coercivity, of powder-rolled nickel strip. . . . . . 214(T) stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398–399(T) weldable grades, welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268(T)
Coiling, rod and bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196–197 sulfidation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399(F) Curie temperature
Coinage alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Conventional P/M superalloy of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Cold heading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215–220(F,T) of Duratherm 600. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Cold-working capacity, of powder-rolled centrifugal atomization process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
nickel strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) compositions of superalloys . . . . . . . . 216–220(F,T) of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
Coloring bright finish, wheel, compound consolidation of powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215–216 alloy values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54
and speed used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277(T) heat treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 of powder-rolled nickel strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T)
Coloring mirror finish, wheel, compound mechanical properties of superalloys 216–220(F,T) Cutting down, wheel, compound and speed
and speed used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277(T) postconsolidation processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277(T)
Colorizers, market segment percentage production by gas atomization. . . . . . . . . 211(F), 215 Cyaniding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
and form of cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 production by plasma rotating electrode
Columnar-grain directionally solidified process (PREP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
(CGDS) alloys production by vacuum atomization . . 211(F), 215(F)
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 84(F) screening, cleanliness evaluation, and D
structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73(T), 77 outgassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Columnar voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 steps in process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Commercially pure nickels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–16 superalloys in commercial production . . . . . . . . . 216 Deep drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191(F), 193–194
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 92 superalloys in early stages of development . . . . . 216 Deep-hole drilling, of nickel alloys . . 240–241, 242(T)
compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15(T) Corrosion of nickel and nickel alloys . . 127–140(F,T) Deformation mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–160(F)
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127(T) atmospheric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130(T) Delta phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 by acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 134(T) in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . 310(F),
mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 92 by acrylic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 311(F), 312(F)
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 by alkalis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–136(F) in nickel-base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–77
temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 by distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Compressive strength, of cobalt alloys, by formic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133–134(F,T) Dendritic white spots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
individual alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382, 384 by freshwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Densification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Compressive yield strength, of nickel and by hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . 131(F), 132(F,T) Density
nickel alloys, individual alloy values . . . 19–54(T) by hydrofluoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133(T) of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Computer-aided design (CAD). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 by lauric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . 373–386
Computer-aided design (CAD) model, by nitric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132(F) of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
laser-assisted rapid prototyping and by organic acids . . . . . . . . . . 133–134(F,T), 135(F,T) of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 by phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132–133(T) alloy values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54
Conservation of strategic aerospace materials by propionic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134, 135(F,T) of powder-rolled nickel strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T)
(COSAM), NASA program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 by seawater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–131(T) of superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Constantan (55Cu-45Ni), electrical properties . . . . 10 by steam/hot water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Depth-of-cut (DOC) notch effect . . . . . . . 239–240(F)
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Index / 411

Diamond tooling, market segment percentage Electroless cobalt alloy plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(T) in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . 307(F),
and form of cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Electroless nickel-boron coatings, corrosion 309(F), 310(F)
Diffusion bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 rates in various chemical process in superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 80, 83
Dilute aqueous solutions, stress-corrosion environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Etchants
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–154(F) Electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 for cobalt and cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 404–406(T)
Directed light fabrication (DLF) . . . . . . . 225, 226(F) Electroless nickel (hardened), Taber abraser for high-nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294(T)
Directional solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) for nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294(T)
Direct metal deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225, 226(F) Electroless nickel-phosphorus coatings for nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295(T)
Discrete white spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 corrosion rate in caustic solutions Etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299–300, 301(T)
Disk method for preparing thin foils. . . . . . . . . . . 300 (NAOH + NaCl) or (NaOH) . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) cobalt and cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404–406(T)
Driers (for paint and/or ink), market segment corrosion rates in various chemical of high-nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293, 294(T)
percentage and form of cobalt process environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293, 294(T)
consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Electroless nickel plating . . . . . . . . . . . . 115–120(F,T) nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295(T)
Drilling, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 240–241, 242(T) accelerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Ethylene glycol, corrosion rate of electroless
Drip short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
Drip short frequency (DSF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 aminoborane-reduced electroless nickel Expanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Drop-in defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 plating solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116(T) Extrusion
Dry fining, wheel, compound and speed used . . 277(T) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Dry sand and rubber wheel abrasion test both composition and characteristics . . . 115–116(T) of superalloy powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
(procedure B) (ASTM G 65) . . . . 388(F), 389(F) borohydride-reduced electroless nickel to consolidate powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Dual-alloy turbine disk/wheels. . . . . . . . . 224–225(F) plating solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116(T)
mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224–225(F) complexing agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224–225 corrosion of coatings in various
processing scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 environments . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T), 119(T), 120 F
Ductile cast irons, compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9(T) energy content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature, of hypophosphite-reduced electroless nickel
coatings, and strain tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . 288(F) plating solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116(T) Faraday’s law for nickel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Fatigue strength
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . . . 375(T)
mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117(T), 118 of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
E microstructure of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–54(T)
nickel-boron coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118–119(T) Feedstuff, market segment percentage
nickel composite coatings . . . . . . . . . . 119–120(F,T) and form of cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Elastic modulus nickel-phosphorus coatings . . 116–118(F,T), 119(T) Ferric chloride, corrosion rate of electroless
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values 374, 375(T), physical properties . . . . . . . . . 117(T), 118(T), 119(T) nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
380, 381(T), process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Ferric sulfate mixture corrosion, of
382(T), 385(T) reducing agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115–116 cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T)
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ternary nickel alloy coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(F,T) Ferronickel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–6(F)
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual Electroless plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Ferronickel smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
alloy values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54 Electrolysis, market segment percentage Ferroxyl test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Electrical conductivity and form of cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Filter elements, functional, service, and
of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Electrolytic polishing, of cobalt and structural requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211(T)
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404(T) Finishing, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277–278(T)
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual Electron-beam machining, of nickel alloys . . . . . 241 Flash pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274, 275, 276–277
alloy values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54 Electron-beam physical vapor of heat resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
of nickel-beryllium alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104(T) deposition method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287–288(F) Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems . . . 251, 264
Electrical contact materials, nickel Electron-beam remelting/refining (EBR) . . . . . . . 75 as corroding agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13 Electron vacancy number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Fluoborate nickel plating solution . . . . . 112–113(T)
Electrical discharge machining, of Electroplating. See also Nickel plating. 106–114(F,T) cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241, 243 of cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(F,T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
Electrical resistance alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 heat resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
Electrical resistivity nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T) pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 with platinum before aluminizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . 377, 378, Electroplating solutions, copper and nickel, Fluorides
381, 383, 384, 385 for electroforming (ASTM B 503) . . . . . . . . . . 115 causing stress-corrosion cracking. . . . . . 146–147(F)
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Electropolishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299, 300(T), 301(T) molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual of high-nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276, 293(T) Fluorine-bearing environments, and
alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–54(T) nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293(T) corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181–182
Electric uses, nickel consumption in U.S. nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294(T) Forging. See also Thermomechanical
by end use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6(T) Electroslag remelting (ESR) process . . . . . . 74(F), 75 processing.
Electrochemical machining, of nickel alloys . . . . 243 Elevated temperatures, forming cold- of consumably remelted superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Electrocrystallization process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 formed parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 cooling after . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Electrodeposited coatings, classification Elongation die materials for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 heating for. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198–199(F)
Electrodeposited coatings of copper plus of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values 373–386(T) hot-forming pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198(T)
nickel plus chromium and nickel plus of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 isothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
chromium, standard specification of nickel and nickel alloys, individual lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
(ASTM B 456) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54(F,T) of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198–202(F,T)
Electroforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 107, 114–115(T) EPR test for sensitization to intergranular specific alloys, practice for . . . . . . . . . . . 199–201(F)
advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 thermal-mechanical processing . . . . . . . 201–202(T)
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Erosive wear. See Wear, erosive. Formic acid
definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 ESR-VAR remelting process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 75 corrosion of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T)
disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Eta-carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 corrosion of cobalt-base alloys at boiling
nickel-cobalt plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Eta (η) phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 301, 303 temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T)
nickel solutions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 crystal structure, lattice parameter, corrosion rate of electroless nickel
process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 formula, and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

412 / Index

Formic acid corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133–134(F,T) Glyceregia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299–300 microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306–330(F)

Forming G phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 phases in wrought alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302–303(T)
alloy condition effect on formability . . . . . . . . . . 192 Grain size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 polishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278, 280
annealing treatments for precipitation- Graphite postweld heat-treatment (strain-age)
hardenable alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 maximum furnace operating temperature cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255–257(F,T)
bending, of tube and pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195–196(T) in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) reduced oxide film removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
blanking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) salt-bath descaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401–402 physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) scale conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279(T)
cold extrusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Gray cast irons, compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9(T) scale removal procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279(T)
cold-formed parts for high-temperature service . . 197 Grease coloring, wheel, compound and shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
cold heading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 speed used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277(T) tarnish removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278–279
cold vs. hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Greasing, wheel, compound and speed used. . . 277(T) temperature range for use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
composition effect on formability . . . . . . . . 191–192 Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 298 welding of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255–257(F,T)
deep drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193–194 cobalt and cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 wet tumbling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278, 280
die materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192–193 as finishing operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 wire brushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
equipment operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 high-nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Heat tinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
expanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Heat treating of cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
galling effect on formability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 age hardening of cobalt alloys, individual
lubricants for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 193, 194, 197 nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374(T)
of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191–197(F,T) wheel, compound and speed used . . . . . . . . . . 277(T) and hydrogen embrittlement of cobalt alloys . . . 398
piercing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Grooving, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240 Heat treating of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . 230–234(F,T)
plate, sheet, and strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196(T) age hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230, 233–234(T)
of rod and bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196–197 aging, and carbide precipitation . . . . . . . . . . 303–304
rolling direction effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192(F) annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230(F), 231–233(F,T)
shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 H annealing process control factors . . . . . . 232–233(T)
solution annealing effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 annealing temperature, of powder-rolled
spinning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194–195(F,T) nickel strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T)
straightening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Hafnium, effect on superalloy mechanical batch annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
strain hardening effect on formability. . . . . . . 191(F) properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 bright annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232–233(T)
temper effect on formability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Halide environments, stress-corrosion continuous annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231(T)
tool design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143–147(F,T) and corrosion infused salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
tube and pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195–196(T) Halogenation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177–182(F,T) dead-soft annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Foundry products, nickel consumption, % . . . . . . . . 6 Hard chromium, corrosion rates in various effect on stress-corrosion cracking. . . 151, 154, 155,
chemical process environments . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) 156(F), 160
Freckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 75, 78, 298
Hardenable low-expansion/constant- precipitation hardening . . . . . . . . . . 230, 233–234(T)
Friction sawing, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . 243–244(T)
modulus alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100–101(T) solution annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230, 234(T)
Froth flotation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
heat treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 solution treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fuel oil ash corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62–63(T)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101(T) specialty annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231–232
Fuel oils, residual, constituent amounts
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101(T) stress equalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230(F), 231(T), 233
from various crudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62(T)
Hardness stress relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230(F), 231(T), 233
Fused salts, as corroding agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
of cobalt alloys, individual sulfur exposure minimized. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
alloy values . . . . . . 373, 374(T), 375, 378, 380, of superalloy powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
381(T), 382, 384, 386(T) thermomechanical processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
G of nickel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–4 torch annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual types of treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230(F)
alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54(T) and welding of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257–258
Galling, of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 392(F) Hard nickel plating solution . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T), 113 Heat treating, of superalloys . . . . . . . . . . 80, 81(T), 82,
Gamma double prime phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302–303 cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) 83(F), 84, 85
in superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 82–83 composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Heterocarbonyls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Gamma double prime precipitate-free mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Heterogenite
zone (PFZ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
Gamma phase, crystal structure, lattice temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
parameter, formula, and comments . . . . . . . 303(T) Hastelloy alloys. See also Alloy Index for High-cycle fatigue (HCF), in superalloys. . . . . . . . . 84
Gamma-prime phase (gcp phase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 individual alloys. High-fracture toughness steels, cobalt
crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula, and castings, welding of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254–255 content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353(T)
comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) dissimilar metal welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252(T), 254 High-nickel alloys
in cobalt alloy microstructures . . . . . . 318(F), 328(F) fusion zone, welding considerations . . . 252–254(F) electropolishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
and electropolishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 heat-affected zone, welding metallographic examination. . . . . . . . . . 293–294(T),
in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . 309(F), 312(F), considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252, 253(F) 295–297(F)
313(F), 314(F), 315(F), postweld heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254(T) microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294, 295(F), 296(F)
316(F), 322(F), 323(F), repair welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 pickling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 275
324(F), 325(F), 326(F), 327(F) welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251–255(F,T) High-pressure/high-velocity oxygen fuel
in nickel and nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 for weld cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 (HP/HVOF) spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
in nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Heat-resistant nickel alloys High-speed tool steels, cobalt content effect . . 352(F),
in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 80(F) abrasive blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278, 279–280 353(T)
Garnierite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 acid pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 High-strength aluminum alloys, cobalt
Gas atomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211(F), 215 brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267–272(F,T) content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353–354
Gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) . . . 259(F), 261(T), chemical removal methods for metal High-strength controlled-expansion
262–263(T) contaminants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
joint configurations for applications . . . . . . . . 259(F) cleaning and finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278–280(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101(T)
Gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW) . . . . . . . . 259(F), coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101(T)
260–262(F,T) compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299(T) High-strength-to-density ratio steels,
joint configurations for applications . . . . . . . . 259(F) electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 cobalt content effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353(T)
General Electric, production of dual-alloy fusion zone, welding considerations. . . . . . . . . . . 255 High sulfate nickel plating solution. . . . . 112(T), 113
turbine disk/wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224–225(F) heat-affected zone, welding considerations . . 255(F) cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
General Electric’s clean metal spray forming 227(F) metal contaminant removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T)
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Index / 413

mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Initial permeability, of powder-rolled Laser-engineered net shaping (LENS) . . . . . . . . . 225
pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) nickel strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) Laser glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
High-temperature coatings for Insert drilling, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . 240, 242(T) Laser machining, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281–290(F,T) Interdiffusion zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284–285 Laterites (laterite ores) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
High-temperature water, stress-corrosion Intermetallic phases composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–154(F) effect on nickel alloy corrosion resistance. . . . . . 130 mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
Homogenization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 effect on stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 recovery of nickel from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–6(F)
of cast nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Investment casting, of superalloys . . . . . . . . 77–78(F) Lauric acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Honing, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Iodides, causing stress-corrosion cracking . . . . 146(T) Laves phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304, 365(F)
Hospital waste incinerator, temperature Iron crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula,
range and contaminants encountered . . . . . 183(T) alloying element effects on corrosion and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T)
Hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–183(F,T) resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) in cobalt alloy microstructures . . . . . . 320(F), 321(F)
and coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281, 286 alloying element effects on nickel alloy in cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
of superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F) in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326(F)
Hot cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 79(F) content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Hot-forming capacity, of powder-rolled as solid-solution strengthener in nickel. . . . . . . 14(F) macroetching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
nickel strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) Iron-nickel alloys. See Low-expansion alloys. and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Hot isostatic pressing, of superalloy powders . . . . 77, Iron chloride corrosion, of cobalt alloys . . . . . 398(T) Laves phase alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122(T), 365(F)
215–216 Iron-nickel-base superalloys. See also Superalloys. Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207–208
Hot-work temperature, of powder-rolled alloying element effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69(T) Lead
nickel strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349–350(T) content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 249
Howmet process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71(T) molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Hydrochloric acid joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F) Lead acetate, corrosion rate of electroless
corrosion rate of market segment percentage and form of nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
cobalt-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397(F,T) cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Leader defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 70(F), 301–302 Light-etching defect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F) Limonitic-type ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) Iron-nickel-chromium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Linnaeite
iron-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 100 composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T), 100 mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Liquid-droplet erosion, of cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . 388
Hydrochloric acid corrosion. . . . . . 131(F), 132(F,T), stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144(F) Liquid-metal embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
181, 182(F,T) Iron-nickel-cobalt alloys Liquidus temperature
Hydrofluoric acid applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . 374, 380,
corrosion rate of physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 382, 384, 385
CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) Isothermal forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 of nickel and nickel alloys, individual alloy
Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54
N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) Lithium, molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Hydrofluoric acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133(T) Low-alloy nickels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16–17
Hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . 157–160(F,T)
J compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15(T)
of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Low-alloy steels
not resulting from aqueous descaling of compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T)
Joining. See also Brazing; Diffusion bonding;
nickel-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 for cryogenic service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Welding.
of superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–90 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
cobalt-base superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Hydrogen fluoride cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270(F) nickel content effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(F,T)
iron-nickel-base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F)
Hydrogen reduction process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 welding products for dissimilar-metal joints
nickel-base superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F)
Hydrogen sulfide, causing stress-corrosion with nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250(T)
superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F)
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147–148 Low-angle boundaries (LAB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Hypophosphite-reduced cobalt-phosphorus, Low-carbon mold steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
electroless cobalt alloy plating systems . . . 354(T) Low-cycle fatigue (LCF), in superalloys . . . . . . . . . 84
Hypophosphite-reduced K Low-expansion alloys. See Nickel low-
cobalt-tungsten-phosphorus, electroless expansion alloys.
cobalt alloy plating systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 354(T) Low-level radioactive waste incinerator,
Hysteresis loss, of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Knife-line attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138(F) temperature range and contaminants
Kobe Steel, production of dual-alloy encountered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183(T)
turbine disk/wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224(F) Low-nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96(F)
Low-pressure plasma spraying
I (LPPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287(F), 290
for applying coatings to superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
L Low-stress abrasion test procedure
Impact strength (ASTM G 65) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393(F)
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values. . 381(T), 382 Lubricants
385(T) Lactic acid, corrosion rate of electroless for forging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) for forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 193, 194, 197
alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54(T) Lanthanum
Incinerators, and corrosion alloying element effect in cobalt-base heat-
encountered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–184(T) resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Inconel alloys. See also Alloy Index for alloying element effects on corrosion M
individual alloys. resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T)
for weld cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Laser-aided direct metal deposition
scale removal procedures, finishing and (LADMD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Machinability, categories of . . . . . . . . 235(F), 236(T)
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279(T) Laser-assisted rapid prototyping and Machining of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 235–244(F,T)
Inco pressure carbonyl process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225(F) boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240(T)
Industrial waste incinerator, temperature alloys under development . . . . . . . . . . . . 225–226(T) broaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 243(T)
range and contaminants encountered . . . . . 183(T) direct metal deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225, 226(F) categories of machinability . . . . . . . . . 235, 236(F,T)
Ingot slag skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74(F), 75 selective laser sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225(F) coolants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237, 240
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

414 / Index

Machining of nickel alloys (continued) crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula, Mild steel, corrosion rate in various
cutting tool selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237, 238(T) and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T), 119(F)
drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240–241, 242(T) in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . 315(F), Mill-annealed and sensitized (MAS) alloy,
grinding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 322(F), 327(F) stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
grooving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240 in superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 83, 85 Milling, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243, 244(T)
lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . 141, 142, 143 MN phase, crystal structure, lattice parameter,
milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242–243, 244(T) and thermal-mechanical processing . . . . . . . . . . . 201 formula, and comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T)
operation at 50% of machine capacity . . . . . . . . . 237 M7C3 carbides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 301, 303–304 Moa Bay hydrometallurgical process . . . 207, 208(F)
planing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 243(T) crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula, Moa sulfides, composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
reaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) Modulus of rigidity, of cobalt alloys,
sawing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243–244(T) in cobalt-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363, 364, 365 individual alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375(T)
shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 243(T) in cobalt alloy microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . 321(F), Molten carbonates, corrosion by. . . . . . . . 185–186(T)
surface finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 328(F), 329(F) Molten chlorides, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . 184(F,T)
tapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241–242(T) in cobalt alloys, and wear resistance. . . . . . . . . . . 393 Molten fluorides, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242(T) in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Molten metal corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186(F,T)
tooling inserts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239–240(F) M23C6 carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301, 303–304 Molten nitrates, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . 184–185(F,T)
turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240(F,T) crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula, Molten nitrites, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . 184–185(F,T)
work hardening avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236–237 and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) Molten salt corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184–186(F,T)
Macroetchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298, 300(T) in cobalt alloy microstructures . . . . . 319(F), 320(F), Molybdenum
Macroetching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298, 300(T) 321(F), 328(F), alloying element effect in cobalt-base
nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 329(F), 330(F) heat resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Magnesium, content effect on nickel alloy in cobalt alloys, and wear resistance. . . . . . . . . . . 393 alloying element effect on nickel- and
weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 in cobalt-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364, 365, 367 iron-base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T)
Magnetic permeability in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . . . . 302, 309(F), alloying element effects on corrosion
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . 374, 375, 313(F), 314(F), 315(F), resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T)
377, 378, 381, 383, 384 316(F), 324(F), 327(F) alloying element effects on nickel alloy
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 in nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys. . . . . . . 139 corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F)
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual alloy in superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 83, 85 alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T)
values, alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 21, 22, 27, 28, and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . 142(F), 143, 150 content effect in cobalt-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . 364
30, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 54 and thermal-mechanical processing . . . . . . . . . . . 201 maximum furnace operating temperature
Magnetic properties, of nickel and nickel MCrAl coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22–23, 24–25 MCrAlY coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 288 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
Magnetic recording, market segment ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288(F) physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
percentage and form of cobalt consumption . . 347 overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282–283(F),
Magnetostriction (soft) 1590 A/m, of as solid-solution strengthener in nickel. . . . . . . 14(F)
284, 286–287 Mo2C carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
powder-rolled nickel strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T)
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288–290(F) Mo12C carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 143
Magnets
Mechanical alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 220–224(F,T) Molybdenum disilicide
market segment percentage and form of
applications of superalloy powders . . . . 223–224(F) maximum furnace operating temperature
cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
commercial alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222–223(F,T) in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T)
compositions of nickel-base superalloys . . . . 222(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
Manganese
definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
alloying element effect on nickel- and
iron-base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T) equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–222 MoSi2 + 10% ceramic additives
content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 mechanical properties of nickel-base maximum furnace operating temperature
Manganins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223(T) in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
Manual spinning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194(T) of nickel powders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
Maraging steels powder characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222, 223(F) physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T)
cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352, 353(T) processing bath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 222(F) MolyPermalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T) production of oxide-dispersion-strengthened Mond-Langer process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
heat treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T) (ODS) superalloy powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Monels. See also Alloy Index for individual alloys.
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T) Melting point for weld cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
nickel content effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T) of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Martempering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 of nickel and nickel alloys, individual nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Matte smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 29, 31, 34, Multiphase (MP) alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368–369
Maximum permeability, of powder-rolled 36, 42, 44, 48, 54 MuMetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
nickel strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) Melting temperature, of cobalt alloys, Municipal waste incinerators, temperature
MeB2 phase individual alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375, 378, range and contaminants encountered . . . . . 183(T)
crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula, 380, 382, 384 Mu phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) Metal air cells, functional, service, and crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula,
in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . . 308(F), 322(F) structural requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211(T) and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T)
MC carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 301, 303–304 Metal carbonyls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–206(F) and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula, Metal dusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172–173
and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) Metallographic examination . . . . . . . . . . 298–304(T)
in cobalt alloy microstructures . . . . . . 329(F), 330(F) of cobalt and cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 404–406(T)
in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . 308(F), 310(F), of high-nickel alloys . . . . . 293–294(T), 295–297(F) N
311(F), 312(F), 313(F), of nickel-copper alloys . . . 293–294(T), 295–297(F)
315(F), 316(F), 322(F), of nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . 294–295(T), 297(F)
323(F), 324(F), 325(F), 327(F) objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 NACE TM-01-77 tensile test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
in superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 83, 85 specimen preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298–300(T) NACE specification MR-01-75, alloys which
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . 141, 142, 143 Metallographic specimen preparation methods passed initial corrosion screening tests. . . . . . . 137
and thermal-mechanical processing . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Microcast-X method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Near-net shape processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
M6C carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 301, 303–304 Microcracking, of nickel platings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Nickel
in cobalt alloy microstructures . . . . . 319(F), 320(F), Microdiffraction patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 alloying element effect in cobalt-base heat
321(F), 329(F), 330(F) Microetchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299–300, 301(T) resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
in cobalt-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363, 364, 366 Microexamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300–301(T) alloying element effect on nickel- and iron-
in cobalt alloys, and wear resistance. . . . . . . . . . . 393 Microfissuring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T)
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Index / 415

alloying element effects on corrosion Nickel and nickel alloys, physical nickel content (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–15(F) Nickel-chromium alloys
alloying element effects on stainless steels . . . . . . . 7 Nickel-base alloys alloy content (%) of nickel-bearing steels . . . . . 8(T)
alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T) cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 56 cast heat resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 63(T)
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6(T), 7–13(F,T), microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 275–276
9–10, 11(T) nickel consumption, % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
atomic weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Nickel-base/boride alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Nickel-chromium binary phase diagram,
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Nickel-base corrosion-resistant alloys 245–250(F,T) crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333(T)
chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 alloying elements effects on weldability 248–249(F) Nickel-chromium boride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245(T) Nickel-chromium carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
corrosion in chlorine-bearing environments 179(T) dissimilar welding of plate-to-plate Nickel-chromium-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17–18
corrosion in molten eutectic sodium- specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249, 250(T) cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 56(T), 57(T), 66(T), 67(T)
potassium carbonate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185(T) fusion zone, welding considerations . . . . . . . . 247(F) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T), 17, 55(T)
corrosion rates in molten drawsalt. . . . . . . . . . 185(T) heat-affected zone welding considerations . . 247(F) corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 127(T), 128
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245(T) temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17–18
corrosion-resistant wrought, compositions . . . 15(T) nickel-clad steel welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249–250(F) Nickel-chromium-iron isothermal section
electrical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245–246(T) at 650 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
end uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6(T) postweld heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249(T) at 800 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
extraction and refining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6(F) repair welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 at 900 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
in austenitic manganese steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T) unmixed zone, welding considerations . . . . 247–248 at 1000 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–9(T) welding of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245–250(F,T) at 1300 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
in cemented carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 13(F) welding of castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Nickel-chromium-iron-molybdenum alloys . . . . . 18
in cobalt-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 weld overlay cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T), 18
in electrical contact materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13 Nickel-base directionally solidified castings, corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128–129(T)
in low-alloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(F,T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73(T) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys . . . . . . . . . 18,
in maraging steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T) Nickel-base hardfacing alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 127–128(T)
in P/M nickel steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–13(F) boride-containing nickel-base alloys . 121–122(F,T) alloy content (%) of nickel-bearing steels . . . . . 8(T)
in stainless steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–8(F,T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121(T), 122(T) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
in tool steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Laves phase alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122(T) cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 56(T), 57, 58(T)
magnetic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3(F) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122(T) compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T), 55(T)
market segments of worldwide consumption . . . . . 6 physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122(T) corrosion in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–139(F)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–4, 17(T), as weld-overlay coatings . . . . . . . . . . . 121–122(F,T) stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Nickel-base/Laves phase alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Nickel-chromium-molybdenum isothermal
19–22(F,T)
Nickel-base single crystal castings, section
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 9
compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73(T) at 600 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T)
Nickel-base superalloys. See also Superalloys. at 1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
occurrence (resources) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
alloying additions effects on corrosion at 1250 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 19–22(F,T)
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F) Nickel-chromium-niobium isothermal section
thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
alloying element effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69(T) at 1100 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
Nickel alloy powders, atomized, for coating
cast at 1175 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72(T) at 1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
Nickel alloys
microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70(F) Nickel-chromium-titanium isothermal section
alloy composition effect on corrosion behavior 141 cobalt content effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349(F,T) at 1027 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
alloying element effects on corrosion compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71(T), 72(T) at 1277 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F) at 1352 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6(T), 7–13(F,T) market segment percentage and form of Nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys . . . . . . . . 16(T), 18
cast corrosion-resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–61(F,T) cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Nickel-chromium-tungsten isothermal section
cast heat resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62–67(F,T) microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 70(F), 80(F) at 800 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 vacuum induction melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73–74(F) at 900 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127–140(F,T) welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F) at 1000 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
corrosion-resistant wrought, composition . . . . 15(T) Nickel-beryllium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102–104(F,T) at 1250 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
heat treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230–234(F,T) applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102–103 Nickel coatings. See also Coatings. . . 10, 106–123(F,T)
intermetallic phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 castability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 solid state nickel cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122–123
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . 17(T), 22–54(F,T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102(T), 103 thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . 120(F), 121(T)
microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 electrical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104(T) Nickel-cobalt binary phase diagram,
nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T) heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103(T) crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332(T)
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22–54(F,T) mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . 102, 103(T), 104(F) Nickel-cobalt-chromium isothermal
powder metallurgy processing . . . . . . 203–228(F,T) microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103(F) section, at 1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
solution hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . 102, 103(T), 104(T) Nickel-cobalt-chromium-silicon alloys,
welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245–267(F,T) product forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T)
Nickel aluminide alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104–105(F,T) Nickel-boron binary phase diagram, Nickel-cobalt-iron isothermal section
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332(T) at 600 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
as coatings, applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286–287(F) Nickel-boron castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 at 800 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
as coatings for superalloys . . . . . 282(F), 284–285(F) Nickel-cadmium alkaline rechargeable Nickel-cobalt-phosphorus alloys, as
compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104(T) batteries, functional, service and electroless plating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104–105(F) structural requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211(T) Nickel-cobalt-phosphorus electroless
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 105(F) Nickel carbonate plating system
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel-aluminum binary phase diagram, nickel content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 environments where corrosion resistant . . . . . 119(T)
crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331(T) Nickel-carbon binary phase diagram, physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel-aluminum-chromium isothermal crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332(T) Nickel composite coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
section, at 1150 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F) Nickel cattierite Nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Nickel-aluminum-copper isothermal section composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
at 500 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341(F) mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55(T), 56
at 700 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341(F) Nickel chloride compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15(T), 55(T)
at 900 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341(F) formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127–128(T)
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

416 / Index

Nickel-copper alloys (continued) Nickel-molybdenum binary phase Nickel steels, alloy content (%) of nickel-
metallographic examination. . . . . . . . . . 293–294(T), diagram, crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . 334(T) bearing steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8(T)
295–297(F) Nickel-niobium alloys, microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Nickel sulfamate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T), 112
microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294, 296(F), 297(F) Nickel-niobium binary phase diagram, formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T) crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T)
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274–275 Ni3Nb (δ) phase, crystal structure, lattice nickel content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
welding products for dissimilar-metal parameter, formula, and comments . . . . . . . 303(T) formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
joints with nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . 250(T) Ni3Nb orthorhombic phase, in superalloys . . . . . . . 80 nickel content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Nickel-copper binary phase diagram, crystal Nickel phosphorus plating section. . . . . . 112(T), 113 Nickel sulfide matte technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
structure data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333(T) cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Nickel tetracarbonyl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203, 204–205(F)
Nickel-copper-phosphorus alloys, as coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
electroless plating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) formation reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Nickel-copper-phosphorus electroless mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) industrial application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
plating system pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) safety precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
environments where corrosion resistant . . . . . 119(T) Nickel-phosphorus binary phase diagram. . . 334(T) Nickel-thallium-boron alloys, as electroless
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334(T) plating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel dermatitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Nickel-phosphorus-molybdenum alloys, Nickel-thallium-boron electroless plating
Nickel Development Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 as electroless plating systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) system
Nickel electroforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Nickel-phosphorus-molybdenum electroless availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 plating system environments where corrosion resistant . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel hydridocarbonyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel-iron alkaline rechargeable batteries, environments where corrosion-resistant . . . . 119(T) Nickel-tin-boron alloys, as electroless plating
functional, service, and structural physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211(T) Nickel plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 106–114(F,T) Nickel-tin-boron electroless plating system
Nickel-iron alloys alloys to be thermal sprayed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
metallographic examination . . . 294–295(T), 297(F) average coating thickness estimation . . . . . . . 107(T) environments where corrosion resistant . . . . . 119(T)
microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295, 297(F) consumption worldwide for decorative physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel-iron binary phase diagram, crystal applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Nickel-titanium binary phase diagram
structure data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333(T) corrosion resistance of decorative crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335(T)
Nickel-iron-chromium alloys coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–111(T) Ni3Ti orthorhombic phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T), 18 coumarin process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Nickel-titanium shape memory alloys . . 101–102(T)
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 275–276 decorative applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 decorative bright nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–109(T) composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101–102
Nickel-iron-chromium-molybdenum decorative nickel-iron alloy plating . . . . . . . . . . . 111 heat treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
alloys, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . 148(F) decorative plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 102(T)
Nickel-iron-molybdenum isothermal section development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106(F) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102(T)
at 1100 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F) electroless nickel plating . . . . . . . . . . . 115–120(F,T) processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
at 1200 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F) engineering applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Nickel-tungsten binary phase diagram,
Nickel-iron NILO alloys, forming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 fluoborate solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112–113(T) crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335(T)
Nickel-iron phosphorus alloys, as electroless microcracked chromium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Nickel-tungsten carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
plating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) microdiscontinuous chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Nickel-tungsten phosphorus alloys
Nickel-iron-phosphorus electroless plating microporous chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 as electroless plating systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
systems multilayer decorative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109–110(T) availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) nickel-chromium plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Nickel-tungsten-phosphorus electroless
environments where corrosion resistant . . . . . 119(T) nickel-cobalt plating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113–114 plating system
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) nickel-iron plating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 114(T) environments where corrosion resistant . . . . . 119(T)
Nickel-iron soft magnetic alloys . . . . . . . 94–96(F,T), nickel-manganese plating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T)
97(T), 98(T) nickel-molybdenum plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Nickel-zinc alkaline rechargeable batteries,
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94–95(T) noncoumarin process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 functional, service, and structural
heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211(T)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 solution for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T) Ni-Hard white irons
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 tin-nickel plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9(T)
physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94–96(F,T), Watts and nickel sulfamate solutions for microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
97(T), 98(T) engineering applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T), Niobium
Nickel-iron-tungsten isothermal section 111–112, 113 alloying element effect
at 1400 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F) Watts solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–108(F,T), 109(F) in cobalt-base heat-resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . 366
at 1455 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F) effect on mechanical properties . . . . . 108, 109(F) on nickel- and iron-base superalloys . . . . . 167(T)
at 1465 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F) effect on physical properties . . . . . . . . 108, 109(F) on corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T)
at 1500 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F) weld overlay coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120–122(F,T) on nickel alloy corrosion resistance . . . . . . 129(F)
Nickel low-expansion alloys. . . . . . . . . . . 96–101(F,T) zinc-nickel plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T)
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96–97 Nickel powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–13(F) as gamma prime former . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352(T) applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13 Ni-Resist irons, compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9(T)
composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100(F) Nickel-rhenium phosphorus alloys, as physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
heat treatment effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99(T) electroless plating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) Nitrates, molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . 184–185(F,T)
magnetic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Nickel-rhenium phosphorus electroless Nitric acid
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99(T) plating system corrosion of cobalt-base alloys . . . 396(T), 397(F,T)
nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T) availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) corrosion of iron-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T)
nickel effect on thermal expansion of iron . . 97, 99(F) environments where corrosion resistant . . . . . 119(T) corrosion of nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T)
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98–100(F,T) physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119(T) corrosion rate of
Nickel-molybdenum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Nickel-silicon binary phase diagram, cobalt-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T)
alloy content (%) of nickel-bearing steels . . . . . 8(T) crystal structure data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335(T) CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T)
cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–59(F,T) Nickel-silvers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12(T) electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T), 55(T) composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12(T) nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T)
corrosion in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . 138(F), 139(F) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12(T) N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T)
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127(T), 128 product forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12(T) as corroding agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135(F), 136(F)
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Index / 417

Nitric acid + hydrofluoric acid, as corroding of binary nickel systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 331–335(F,T) nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 136(F) of ternary cobalt systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358–361(F) rough. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298–299
Nitric acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132(F) of ternary nickel systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336–341(F) Polythionic acid cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150–151
Nitridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173–176(F,T) Phenol, corrosion rate of electroless nickel Positive back-rake angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Potassium hydroxide, corrosion rate of
Nitrites, molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . 184–185(F,T) Phosphoric acid electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T)
Nitrogen, alloying element effects on corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132–133(T) Powder injection molding (PIM) . . . . . . . . . . . 226(T)
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) of cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397(F) Powder metallurgy nickel alloy strip, roll
Nomograms, for machining tool speed of cobalt-base alloys at boiling compacted and sintered nickel, pore
and feed balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239(F) temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) size distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212(F)
Nondestructive inspection corrosion rate of Powder metallurgy nickel alloy strip, roll
acid etching of nickel-base alloys before . . . . . . . 278 CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) compacted strip, physical properties. . . . . 212(T)
and finishing operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Powder metallurgy nickel-base superalloys . . . . . 12
Notch stress rupture (NSR), of superalloys. . . . . . . 84 electroless nickel-phosphorus coatings . . . 118(T) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) Powder metallurgy (P/M) processing of
mild steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–228(F,T)
nickel 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) ammonium sulfate recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
O N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Phosphorus, content effect on nickel alloy atomization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210–211(F)
weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 briquetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210(F)
Oil ash corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62–63(T) Phosphorus oxychloride carbonyl vapormetallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–206(F)
Oil refinery heaters, oil ash corrosion. . . . . . 63, 64(F) corrosion rate of conventional superalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . 215–220(F,T)
Ordered intermetallic alloys of Ni3Al 104–105(F,T) electroless nickel-phosphorus coatings . . . 118(T) mechanical alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Organic acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133–134(F,T), mild steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) powder applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206, 207(F)
135(F,T) nickel 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) powder properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206(F)
Orthochlorobenzyl chloride Physical vapor deposition production of nickel powders . . . . . . . 203–211(F,T)
corrosion rate of for applying overlay coatings to superalloys . . . . . 89 production of powder by hydrometallurgical
electroless nickel-phosphorus coatings . . . 118(T) for coatings, performance of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206–210(F,T)
mild steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Pickling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 roll compacting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–215(F,T)
nickel 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) after wet tumbling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Sherritt ammonia pressure leach
Orthochlorobenzyl chloride (crude) alloy groupings for procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206–210(F,T)
corrosion rate of bath analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Sherritt’s standard grade nickel powder,
electroless nickel-phosphorus coatings . . . 118(T) as cleaning for welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276–277 properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209(T)
mild steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) copper flash prevention and removal . . . . . . . . . . 276 sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211–213(F,T)
nickel 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 specialized superalloy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–228(F,T)
Osprey Metals, spray forming process . . . . . . . 77, 227 electrolytic salt baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275–276 sulfide precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Overlay coatings, for superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 88 electropolishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Oxalic acid, corrosion rate of electroless embedded iron detection and removal . . . . . . . . . 276 Powder metallurgy superalloys, microstructure . . 84
nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) formulas of reagents for pickling nickel alloys 274(T) Powder processing, of superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167–172(F,T), 281, 286 heat-resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Powder-rolled nickel strip . . . . . . . . . . . 214–215(F,T)
alloying element effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 high-nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 275 advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399(F) lead removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(F)
Oxide-dispersion-strengthened nickel-chromium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 275–276 mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T)
(ODS) alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 77 nickel-copper alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274–275 physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T)
Oxide-dispersion-strengthened (ODS) nickel-iron-chromium alloys . . . . . . . . 273, 275–276 powders used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
superalloy powders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220, 222 oxidizing salt baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Oxide glazes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 safety precautions for workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Power spinning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194–195(F)
Oxide intrusions (pegs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167–168 salt baths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275–276 Power station boiler components, oil
Oxide/nitride stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 surface conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 ash corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 65(F)
Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 zinc removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Precipitation hardening. See Heat treating
Oxidized or scaled surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Piercing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 of nickel alloys.
on high-nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Pin-on-block test, for cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . 392(F) Precipitation-hardening alloys
on nickel-copper alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Pixie process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 brazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Oxydrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Planar deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Planar slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16(T), 18
Planing, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 243(T) welding of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Plasma arc welding (PAW). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263–264 Precracked samples, for stress-corrosion
P Plasma rotating electrode process (PREP) . . . . . 215 cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160–161
Plating, nickel consumption, %. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Processing maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Platinum Propionic acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . 134, 135(F,T)
Pack cementation process . . . . . . . . . . . 283–284(F,T) maximum furnace operating temperature Pulp and paper mill environmental
Packer fluids, causing stress-corrosion in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136–137
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145–146(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) Pulsed-current plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Partially melted zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) Pyrrhotite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) thermal Poisson’s ratio composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
barrier coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 of Elgiloy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375(T) mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T)
Pentlandite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Permanent magnetic alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350–352(T) alloy values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54
Perovskite, in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . 323(F) Polishing R
Petrochemical and refining cobalt and cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404(T)
environments, as corroding agents . . . 137, 138(F final . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
PHACOMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 as finishing operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Radial segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Phase control electron vacancy number. . . . . . . . . 85 heat-resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Radio alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Phase diagrams high-nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Rake angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
of binary cobalt systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 356–358(F,T) nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Ramping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240(F)
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

418 / Index

Rapid prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Sherritt ammonia pressure leach Solidus temperature

Rapid solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206–210(F,T) of cobalt alloys, individual alloy
Rapid-solidification-rate (RSR) technology . . . . . 77 Sherritt process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5(F) values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382, 384, 385
Rare earths, alloying element effect on nickel- Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) . . . . . . . 259(F), of nickel and nickel alloys, individual alloy
and iron-base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T) 263(T), 264–265(F,T) values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54
Reaming, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 joining configurations for applications . . . . . . 259(F) Soluble gas atomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 211(F)
Recrystallization, and thermal mechanical Shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Solution-annealed and sensitized (SAS) alloy,
processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 heat-resistant nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Recrystallization temperature Sigma (σ) phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301, 304 Solution treating. See Heat treating of nickel alloys.
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 crystal structure, lattice parameter, formula, Solvay process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
of nickel and nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22(F) and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303(T) Sour gas environment NACE International
Reduced-oxide surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 in nickel alloy microstructures . . . . . 316(F), 323(F), Standard (MR-01-75) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
on high-nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 324(F), 325(F) Sour gas environments, as corroding agents . . . . . 137
on nickel-copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274–275 in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85(F) Spalling, of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Reducing agents, for electroless nickel and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Specialized powder metallurgy superalloy
plating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115–116 SIGMA-SAFE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 processing,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–228(F,T)
Reduction of area, of cobalt alloys, Silicate-type ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 dual-alloy turbine disk/wheels . . . . . . . . 224–225(F)
individual alloy values . . . . . . . . . . 381(T), 382(T) Silicon laser-assisted rapid prototyping and
Reduction smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 alloying element effect on manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225(F)
Relief angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 nickel- and iron-base superalloys . . . . . . . . 167(T) mechanical alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–224(F,T)
Remanance, of powder-rolled nickel strip . . . . 214(T) corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) powder injection molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226(T)
Residual induction, of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 nickel alloy corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . 129(F) spray forming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226–228(F)
Residual magnetization, of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 Specific heat
Resistance heating alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92–94(F,T) Silicon carbide of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92–93(T), 94(F) maximum furnace operating temperature of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . 378, 382
in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92–93(T)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92–93(T), 94(F)
physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) alloy values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54
Rhenium
Silver-nickel P/M composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13 Spindle speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227(T)
alloying element effect on superalloys . . . . . . . . . . 80
Simultaneous thickness and electrochemical Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194–195(F,T)
alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T)
potential (STEP) (ASTM B 764) . . . . . . . . . . 110 s phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Richardson free-energy chart. . . . . . . . . . 212, 213(F)
Single-crystal (SC) alloys, microstructure . . . . . 83, 84 Spraycast-X process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227(F)
Ring patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Single-crystal (SC) processing. . . . . . . . . 73(T), 78(F) Spray-and-fuse process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Roll compacting of nickel and nickel Sintering of nickel and nickel alloys . . 211–213(F,T) Spray forming of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . 226–228(F)
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–215(F,T) dense products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Roughing, wheel, compound and speed used . . 277(T) porous products . . . . . . . . . . . . 207(F), 211–212(F,T) alloys under development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227–228
Richardson free-energy chart. . . . . . . . . . 212, 213(F) disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226–227
selective laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225(F) Spurious grains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
S Skutterudite Stacking-fault energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) Stainless steels
mining locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346(T) alloying additions effects on corrosion
Salt-bath descaling, heat-resistant nickel Slag charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F)
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Slag pool depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 austenitic, composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7(T)
Salt fluxing model, hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Slivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 cobalt content effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353(F)
Saturation induction, of powder-rolled Slow-strain-rate tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160(T), 161 nickel consumption, % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
nickel strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) Slurry erosion, of cobalt alloys . . . . . 388, 391–392(F) nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T)
Saturation magnetization Soaps, market segment percentage and form welding products for dissimilar-metal joints
of cobalt consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 with nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250(T)
of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Sodium, molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186(F) Stearic acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sodium carbonate, saturated, corrosion rate Steels
Sawing, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243–244(T)
of electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353(F,T)
Secondary reaction zone (SRZ), of superalloys . . . 84
Sodium hydroxide cold work effect on hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191(F)
Sectioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
corrosion of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) heat resistant, nickel consumption in
nickel-iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6(T)
corrosion of cobalt-base alloys at boiling
Selective etchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T) nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T)
Selective laser sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 225(F) corrosion rate of Stellite alloys. See also Alloy Index for
Selective plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) individual alloys.
Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139(F), 142(F), electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362(T), 364
143, 145(T) Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) corrosion resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) molybdenum content effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Shape memory actuation devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Sodium sulfate, corrosion rate of electroless powder metallurgy versions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Shape memory alloys, nickel-titanium. . 101–102(T) nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Stereolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Softening temperature, of cobalt alloys, Straightening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101–102 individual alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Stress-corrosion cracking
heat treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Soft magnetic alloys alloy composition effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149(F), 152,
mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 102(T) cobalt content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 153(F), 155–156(F)
physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102(T) microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295, 297(F) alloy composition effect in nickel alloys . . . . . . . 141
processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Solidification white spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 alloy strength effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Shaping, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 243(T) Solid-particle impingement erosion, of by fluorides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–147(F)
Shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 390–391(F) by iodides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146(T)
Shear modulus Solid-particle impingement test procedure carbide precipitation effect . . . . . . . . . . . 141–143(F)
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy (ASTM G 76) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390(F), 391(F) chloride, with elemental sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374, 381(T), 382(T) Solid-solution nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398–399(T)
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Solid-solution strengtheners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–15 electrode potential effect. . . . . . . . . . . 149(F), 156(F)
of nickel and nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Solid-state cladding techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 environmental variables effect . . . . . . 151–152, 153,
Shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Solid-state nickel cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122–123 155–156(F), 157–158(F)
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Index / 419

environments causing, evolution of . . . . . . . . 141(T) N-12MV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) Tensile strength

heat treatment effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151, 154, 155, Sulfuric acid + hydrochloric acid of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
156(F), 160 (or chloride), as corroding agent. . . . . . . . . 135(F) of cobalt alloys, individual alloy
in bromides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145–146(T) Sulfuric acid+ nitric acid, as corroding values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373–386(T)
in caustic environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154–157(F) agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134–135(F) of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
in chlorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144–145(F,T) Sulfuric acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131(F) of nickel and nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54(F, T)
in dilute aqueous solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . 152–154(F) Superalloys. See also Cobalt-base superalloys; Ternary phase diagrams
in environments containing sulfur Iron-nickel-base superalloys; Co-Cr-Fe
species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147–152(F,T) Nickel-base superalloys. . . . . . . . . 12, 68–90(F, T) at 600°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
in halide environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143–147(F,T) alloying element at 800°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
inhibitors of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148–149(T) amounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69(F) at 1000°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(F)
in high-temperature water . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–154(F) effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69(T) at 1200°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358(F)
in polythionic acid solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150–151 ranges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69(T) Co-Cr-Ni at 1200°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
intermetallic phases effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 effects on microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79–80(F) Co-Cr-W
in tetrathionate-containing solutions . . . . . . 151–152 applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 79 at 700°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
in thiosulfate-containing solutions. . . . . . . . 151–152 carbide precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83–84(F) at 1350°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
liquid-metal embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 coatings for. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87–89 Co-Fe-Mo
metallurgical variables effect . . . . . . . 158–160(F,T) chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68, 85–90(F) at 20°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F)
microstructure as factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–153 corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 88–90 at 800°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F)
nickel addition effect in stainless steels. . . . . . . . 7(F) environmental effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85–90(F) at 982°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F)
pH effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 forgeability ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76(T) at 1093°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F)
precipitation effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150(F,T) formability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68, 69 at 1300°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359(F)
precipitation hardening effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145(T) gamma double prime precipitation. . . . . . . . . . 82–83 Co-Fe-Ni
sensitization effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145(T) gamma prime precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–82(F) at 600°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F)
slow-strain-rate tests vs. constant- heat treatment . . . . . . . . . 80, 81(T), 82, 83(F), 84, 85 at 800°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360(F)
deflection tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 high-temperature coatings. . . . . . . . . . 281–290 (F,T) Co-Fe-W at 1200°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361(F)
of superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–90 inert environment effects on mechanical Co-Mo-Ni
testing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160–161(T) properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 at 1100°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361(F)
Stress equalizing. See Heat treating of investment casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77–78(F) at 1200°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361(F)
nickel alloys. joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F) Ni-Al-Cr at 1150°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
Stress relieving. See Heat treating of nickel alloys. market segment percentage and form of cobalt Ni-Al-Cu
Stress-rupture strength consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 at 500°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341(F)
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . . . . . 376, mechanical properties . . . . . . 68(F), 69, 79–85(F,T), at 700°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341(F)
377(T), 378(T), 379, 380, 86(T), 87(T), 88(T), 89(T) at 900°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341(F)
381(T), 383(T), 385, 386(T) melting temperatures and Ni-Cr-Fe
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual melting ranges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 at 650°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54(F,T) microstructure . . . . . 68, 69(F,T), 70(F), 79–85(F,T) at 800°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 nickel consumption in U.S. by end use . . . . . . . . 6(T) at 900°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
Submerged arc welding (SAW) . . . . . . . . . . . . 261(T), oxidation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 86–87, 89(F) at 1000°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
265–266(T) physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68–69 at 1300°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336(F)
Subsolvus solution treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 powder processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Ni-Cr-Mo
Sulfate chloride nickel plating solution . . 112(T), 113 processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73–79(F,T) at 600°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
cathode current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 at 1200°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) tramp element effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 at 1250°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) transition-element phase formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Ni-Cr-Nb
pH value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 at 1100°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
temperature range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112(T) Superelastic devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 at 1175°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
Sulfidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176–177(F,T), Supersolvus solution treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 at 1200°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337(F)
178(F), 179(F), 281 Surface finishing, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Ni-Cr-Ti
of cobalt alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399(F) Surface grinding, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 at 1027°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
resistance in cobalt-containing alloys . . . . . . . 350(T) at 1277°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
Sulfide ores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 at 1352°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
recovery of nickel from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5(F) Ni-Cr-W
Sulfide precipitation reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 T at 800°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
Sulfide stress cracking resistant materials at 900°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
for oil equipment (MR0175) NACE at 1000°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Taber Abraser Index values, at 1250°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338(F)
Sulfides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 for nickel coatings . . . . . . . 117–118(T), 119, 120(T) Ni-Co-Cr at 1200°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
Sulfur for silicon carbide composite coatings . . . . . . 120(T) Ni-Co-Fe
alloying element effects on corrosion resistance 17(T) Tampico wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 at 600°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
causing stress-corrosion cracking . . . . 148–149(F,T) Tantalum at 800°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
content effect on nickel alloy alloying element effect in cobalt-base Ni-Fe-Mo
weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248–249(F) heat resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 at 1100°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
Sulfur embrittlement, of nickel 270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 alloying element effects on nickel alloy at 1200°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
Sulfuric acid corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129(F) Ni-Fe-W
corrosion of alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T) at 1400°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
cobalt-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 396(T), 397,(F,T) as gamma prime former . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 at 1455°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340(F)
iron-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) maximum furnace operating temperature at 1465°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) at 1500°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339(F)
corrosion rate of mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) Tetrathionate-containing solutions, and
cobalt-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) stress-corrosion cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152
CW-12MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58(T) Tapping, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241–242(T) Tetrathionic acid, and stress-corrosion cracking 150
electroless nickel coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Tarnish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 274, 275 Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs), for
Hastelloy D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59(T) on high-nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 88
iron-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) on nickel-copper alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Thermal conductivity
nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397(T) Tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

420 / Index

Thermal conductivity (continued) physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) cobalt-base wear resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . 374, 375, as solid-solution strengthener in nickel. . . . . . . 14(F) Welding of nickel alloys . . . . . . 245–267(F,T), 268(T)
377, 378, 379, 380, Turning, of nickel alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–240(F,T) cast nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
383, 384, 385, 386 Two-fluid atomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 211(F) cleaning of workpieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Twin bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 consumables selection for joining
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual Twin ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268(T)
alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–54(T) Twist drilling, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . 240, 241(T) corrosion-resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 245–250(F,T)
of powder-rolled nickel strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) Typical semibright bath, mechanical corrosion-resistant alloys containing
Thermal diffusivity, of nickel and nickel properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T) molybdenum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251–255(F,T)
alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 43, 52 defects of welds, minimizing . . . . . 265(F), 266–267
Thermal expansion coefficient dissimilar metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
of cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 U gas-metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . 259(F), 261(T),
of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
262–263(T)
alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–54(F,T)
gas-tungsten arc welding . . . . 259(F), 260–262(F,T)
of powder-rolled nickel strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214(T) Ultimate tensile strength, of cobalt alloys,
Hastelloy alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251–255(F,T)
Thermal expansion coefficient (linear) individual alloy values. . . . . . . . . . 377(T), 378(T),
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values . . . 374, 375, 381(T), 385(T) heat-resistant alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255–257(F,T)
378, 379, 380, Ultrahigh strength steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257–258
382, 384, 385, 386 Ultrasonic atomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 211(F) iron-nickel-base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F)
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Unmixed zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 joint configurations and dimensions. . . . 258–260(F)
Thermal expansion coefficients (CTES), and nickel-base superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79(F)
dissimilar metal welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 plasma arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263–264
Thermal shock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 240, 287 V precipitation-hardenable (PH) alloys . . . . . . . . . . 260
Thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . 10, 120(F), 121(T) processes used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Thermal spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 shielded metal arc welding . . . . . . . . 259(F), 263(T),
Thermocouple alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 94(T) Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) process . . . . 74–75(F) 264–265(F,T)
Thermocouple thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Vacuum atomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 211(F), 215 submerged arc welding . . . . . . . 261(T), 265–266(T)
Thermomechanical fatigue (TMF), Vacuum induction melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73–74(F) weldability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 of nickel-iron soft magnetic alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 weld cladding alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Thermomechanical processing Vacuum plasma sprayed coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 weld-overlay coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120–122(F,T)
(TMP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201–202(T), 234 Vanadium, as solid-solution strengthener Weldments
Thermomechanical working, of superalloys . . . . . 84 in nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14(F) corrosion in specific environments. . . . . 137–139(F)
Thionyl chloride Vanadium pentoxide, and hot slag corrosion defect minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265(F), 266–267
corrosion rate of of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
electroless nickel-phosphorus coatings . . . 118(T) Vapor honing, of heat resistant nickel alloys . . . . . 280 Weld-overlay coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
mild steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Vibratory cavitation test procedure
weld cladding alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T), 200 (ASTM G 32) . . . . . . . . . . . 390(F), 391(F), 394(F)
Weld surfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
stainless steel (Type 316) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) VIM-ESR-VAR (triple melt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Western Mining Corporation refinery. . . . . . . . . 207
Thiosulfate-containing solutions, and Vitallium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
stress-corrosion cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152 Volt swing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Wet abrasive blasting, of heat-resistant
Thoria-dispersed nickel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222–223 nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Thoriated nickel, microstructure . . . . . 315(F), 316(F) Wet tumbling, of heat-resistant nickel alloys. . . . . 280
Threading, of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242(T) W Widmanstatten structures
Throwing power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 in nickel-base superalloy after deformation
Tin-containing nickel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Wackenroder’s solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 in superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 85
chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Waste incineration environments, and phases and carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303–304
Tire adhesives, market segment percentage corrosion in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–184(T) with carbide precipitation in superalloys . . . . . . . . 83
and form of cobalt consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Water, corrosion rate of electroless nickel Window method, for preparing thin foils . . . . . . . . 300
Titanium coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Wire brushing, of heat-resistant nickel alloys . . . . 280
alloying element effect Water atomization, schematic of process . . . . . 211(F) Work hardening, avoidance in machining . . 236–237
in cobalt-base heat resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . 366 Watts nickel
on corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) corrosion rates in various chemical process
on nickel alloy corrosion resistance . . 129–130(F) environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118(T) Y
on nickel- and iron-base superalloys . . . . . 167(T) electrolyte composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T)
alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T) mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T)
content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248 operating conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108(T) Yield strength
corrosion in molten aluminum, static Wear of cobalt alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387–394(F,T)
of cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
immersion tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186(T) abrasive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387, 388–389(F)
of cobalt alloys, individual alloy values. . 373–386(T)
corrosion rates in molten drawsalt. . . . . . . . . . 185(T) high-stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387, 389, 390(T)
of nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
as gamma prime former . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 low-stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387, 389(F), 390(T)
as solid-solution strengthener in nickel. . . . . . . 14(F) carbide-containing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393–394(F) of nickel and nickel alloys, individual
Tool steels, nickel content effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 erosive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 390–392(F) alloy values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–54(F,T)
Tramp elements, content effect in superalloys . . . . 80 cavitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391(F), 394(F) Yttria, as thermal barrier coating . . . . . . . . . . . 287, 290
Transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding . . . . . . . . . . 79 slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391–392(F) Yttria-zirconia, as thermal barrier coating . . . . 288(F)
Tungsten solid-particle impingement . . . . . . . . . 390–391(F) Yttrium
alloying element effect galling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392(F), 393(F) alloying element effect in cobalt-base heat-
in cobalt-base heat resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . 366 Laves-type alloy compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
on nickel- and iron-base superalloys . . . . . 167(T) sliding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387–388, 392(F) alloying element effect on nickel- and iron-
on corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T) sliding, oxide control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 base superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167(T)
on nickel alloy corrosion resistance . . . . . . 129(F) types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 alloying element effects on corrosion
alloying element range in superalloys. . . . . . . . 69(T) Weldability, and galling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T)
content effect in cobalt-base alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Weld cladding alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 122 Yttrium oxide
maximum furnace operating temperature Welding of cobalt alloys alloying element effects on corrosion
in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) cobalt-base heat resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . 402, 403 resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17(T)
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93(T) cobalt-base superalloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 as thermal barrier coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287, 290
 © 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys (#06178G)

Index / 421

Z Zinc, molten, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186(T) content effect on nickel alloy weldability . . . . . . 248
Zirconia, as thermal barrier coating. . . . . . . . . 287, 290 effect on superalloy mechanical properties . . . . . . 84
Zirconium Zirconium oxide, as thermal barrier
Zero Emission Batterie Research Activity alloying element effect in cobalt-base heat- coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287, 290
(ZEBRA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Z phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304