MATERIAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

• Material -> something tangible that

goes into the makeup of a physical
object.
• Material Science -> involves
investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties
of materials
MATERIAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
• Structure -> The structure of a material
usually relates to the arrangement of its
internal components.
• Different levels of defining structure of a
material.
• Property -> A property is a material trait
(distinguishing feature) in terms of the kind
and magnitude of response to a specific
imposed stimulus.
• Six categories of properties -> mechanical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and
deteriorative.
 Material Science & Engineering
• In addition to structure and properties, two
other important components are involved in
the science and engineering of materials—
namely, “processing” and “performance.”
• Processing -> preparing or putting through a
prescribed procedure, e.g. the processing of
ore to obtain material
• Performance -> the accomplishment relative
to stated goals or objectives
Relationship Among the Four Components

• The structure of a material will depend on

how it is processed.
• Furthermore, a material’s performance will
be a function of its properties.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

• Three basic classifications of solid

materials: metals, ceramics, and
organic polymers (or just polymers).
• In addition, there are the
composites, combinations of two
or more of the above three basic
material classes
 1. METALS
Cast Iron
Steel
 Mild steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon
steel
Specialty steel
 Stainless (tin plated or galvanized)
Alloys (two or more pure metals)
 Steel= iron & carbon
 Brass= copper & zinc
 Bronze= copper & tin
Metallic Objects
 2. CERAMICS
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and
nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
• Traditional ceramics -> clay minerals (i.e.,
porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.
• Common (nontraditional) ceramics -> alumina,
silica, silicon carbide, silicon nitride.
• Relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and
strengths are comparable to those of the metals.
• Very hard
• Thus, very brittle
Ceramic Objects
Traditional Ceramic Products
 Tempered glass table

Heat resistant glass

 3. POLYMERS
• A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule)
composed of repeating structural units typically
connected by covalent chemical bonds.
• Common polymers -> polyethylene (PE), nylon,
poly vinyl chloride (PVC), polycarbonate (PC),
polystyrene (PS), and silicon rubber.
Polymer Objects
 METALS CERAMICS POLYMERS

High density Low density Very low density

Medium to high High melting point Low melting point
melting point
Medium to high Very high elastic Low elastic
elastic modulus modulus modulus
Reactive Unreactive Very reactive
Ductile Brittle Ductile and brittle
types
 COMPOSITES
• Composites are engineered materials made
from two or more constituent materials with
significantly different physical or chemical
properties, which remain separate and distinct
on a macroscopic level within the finished
structure.
 Materials Testing
Materials testing is a respected and established
technique which is used to ascertain both the
physical and mechanical properties of raw
materials and components. It can be used to
examine almost anything from human hair to
steel, ceramics or composite materials.
Common Tests  Coefficient of Friction
 Deformation  Elastic Limit
Strength  Flexure / Bend
 Rupture Strength Strength
 Shear Strength  Break Load
 Adhesion Strength  Tensile Strength
 Bond Strength  Young’s Modulus
 Delamination  Ductility
Strength  Toughness
 Tear Resistance  Puncture Strength
 Creep and Stress  Compression
Relaxation  Elongation
 Crush Resistance  Peel Strength
Applications of Material Testing Machines
Materials testing machines are ideal for use in
production, quality control, education, research
or laboratory settings. Due to the extensive
testing capabilities mentioned above, these
devices can be used in a diverse range of
applications within markets such as:
 Electronics  Plastics
 Automotive  Textiles
 Paper and Board  Rubber
 Medical  Packaging
 Building Materials  Pharmaceuticals
 Metals  Wood
Corrosion is a natural process, which converts a
refined metal to a more chemically-stable form,
such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the
gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by
chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with
their environment. Corrosion engineering is the
field dedicated to controlling and stopping
corrosion. Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is
a well-known example of electrochemical
corrosion. Corrosion can also occur in materials
other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers,
although in this context, the term "degradation" is
more common.
Types of Corrosion
1. General Attack Corrosion
2. Localized Corrosion
3. De-alloying corrosion
4. Galvanic corrosion
5. Environmental Cracking Corrosion
6. Flow-Assisted Corrosion (FAC)
7. Intergranular Corrosion
8. Fretting Corrosion
9. High-Temperature Corrosion
Rust is the result of the oxidation of iron. The
most common cause is prolonged exposure to
water. Any metal that contains iron, including
steel, will bond with the oxygen atoms found in
water to form a layer of iron oxide, or rust. Rust
will increase and speed up the corrosion process,
so upkeep is important. Removing rust is not too
difficult. This article will show you how.
Why study Corrosion
There are four main reasons to study corrosion.
Three of these reasons are based on societal
issues regarding
(i) human life and safety,
(ii) the cost of corrosion, and
(iii) conservation of materials.
The fourth reason is that corrosion is inherently
a difficult phenomenon to understand, and its
study is in itself a challenging and interesting
pursuit.
Effects of corrosion
Losses are economic and safety:
I. Reduced Strength
II. Downtime of equipment
III. Escape of fluids
IV. Lost surface properties
V. Reduced value of goods
Corrosion prevention
Method 1 Using Acidic Solutions
1. Soak in vinegar: This non-toxic household acid
works wonders for rust, among a host of other
household applications. Simply submerge the
rusted item in vinegar overnight and then scrape
the rust away in the morning.
2. Use lemon or lime juice: Lemon or lime juice
works particularly well for rust stains on clothing,
but it can also be effective on metal if left to work
for long enough time. Sprinkle salt over the rusted
area, let soak with lemon or lime juice, and then
scrape away with a crumpled-up aluminum ball.
3. Get scientific with phosphoric or hydrochloric
acid: Phosphoric and hydrochloric acids are
common household items that are inexpensive
and work well on rust.
4. Use a potato: The oxalic acid in potatoes helps
remove the buildup of rust. This method is
especially useful for smaller rusted items, such as
knives.
6. Remove rust with fizzy cola drink: Place the
rusty item inside of a glass or larger vessel filled
with cola drink. Simply let it sit or just dip it. After
each half hour, check for progress. The cola should
do the job.
Method 2 Using Pastes
1. Make a baking soda paste: Mix enough baking
soda and water together to form a paste a little bit
thicker than toothpaste. This will require slightly
more baking soda than water. Once the paste is
mixed, apply to rusted material and begin working
in with an abrasive, such as steel wool or a
toothbrush. Wipe off and inspect the site.
You may need to use several applications of your
baking soda paste in order to see results, but the
process definitely works.
Method 2 Using Pastes
2. Make a paste of hydrogen peroxide with cream
of tartar: Achieve the same consistency as the
baking soda paste by using slightly more cream of
tartar than hydrogen peroxide. Apply to rusted
material, work in with an abrasive, and then wipe
off.
If you do not have hydrogen peroxide, you can
also use water to similar effect. The active rust-
busting ingredient here is cream of tartar.
Method 3 Using Mechanical Abrasion
1. Obtain a power grinder or sander if you don’t
own one already.
2. Fit the grinder with the coarsest disc available.
3. Secure the rusted material so that it will not
move when you grind away the rust.
4. Turn on the power grinder.
5. Use a power sander to finish the rust off.
Method 4 Using Electrolysis
1. Set up an electrolyte solution.
2. Use a different, sacrificial piece of steel as an
anode.
3. Connect a negative terminal.
4. Connect a positive terminal.
5. Plug in the car battery charger and turn it on.
6. Unplug the car battery and remove the leads
from your objects.
Method 5 Using Commercial Chemicals
1. Purchase a chemical rust remover.
2. Apply the solution.
3. Rinse with water and dry.
4. Scrape off any remaining rust.
5. Repeat the process if necessary.
Procedure (A) Remove the rust:
Part 1
1. Take 1 corroded nail.
2. Soak in acid (Hydrochloric acid or phosphoric
acid or Sulphuric acid).
3. Shaking for 10 min
4. Using spatula grinding the nail until remove the
rust.
Procedure (A) Remove the rust:
Part 2
1. Take another nail and put it in a beaker.
2. Make paste using soda she with acid.
3. Added the paste to the corroded nail.
4. Keep it for 10 min.
5. Using spatula grinding the nail until remove the
rust.
Procedure (B) Make the corrosion:
1. Take 3 test tube and numbering it.
2. Test tube 1 contains clean nail and water.
3. Test tube 2 contains clean nail, water and oil.
4. Test tube 3 contains clean nail and anhydrous
calcium chloride.
5. Keep the 3 test tubes for 7 day
6. Make the result for each test tube.
Theory
Polymer is a substance (natural or synthetic),
molecules of which consist of numerous small
repeated chemical units (monomers) linked to
each other in a regular pattern.

Polymers usually combine crystalline and

amorphous structures (semi-crystalline).

Degree of polymerization is an average number of

monomers (mers) in a polymer molecule.
Theory
Polymer molecules may combine up to million of
monomers (mers) forming a one-dimensional
structure (chain), two-dimensional structure
(planar molecules) or three-dimensional
structure.

One-dimensional structure is common for organic

polymers.
Theory
Organic polymer is a polymer compound built of
hydrocarbon base monomer units.

Besides carbon and Hydrogen the following

atoms may be incorporated in polymer
molecules: Oxygen, Nitrogen, chorine, fluorine,
silicon, phosphorous, and sulfur.

Atoms of a polymer molecule are held by

covalent bonding.
Theory
Cross-links provide elasticity to the polymer,
preventing sliding of the neighboring chains when
the material is stretched.
Branched polymer consists of molecules having
side chains (branches) attached to the main chain.
Copolymer is a polymer molecule of which
contains more than one kind of monomers.
Neighboring chains may form secondary bonds
between them (cross-links) which are less strong
than covalent bonding between the atoms within
the molecules.
Theory
Nylon is a common copolymer. Its molecules
consist of two alternating monomers: diacid and
diamine.

Graft copolymer is a kind of branch polymer, side

chains of which are made of monomers differing
from the monomer of the main chain.

Block copolymer is a polymer molecules of which

built from alternating polymeric blocks of two or
more different polymers.
 Structure parameters affecting
polymer properties:
Increase of the chain length.
Effect: increase of tensile strength and Modulus
of Elasticity (stiffness).

Increase of number and length of side chains.

Effect: increase of tensile strength and stiffness.

Introduction of large monomers in molecules.

Effect: increase of stiffness.
Increase of number and strength of cross-links.
Effect: increase of tensile strength and stiffness.
Orientation of the molecules as a result of
deformation during manufacturing.
Effect: anisotropy of the material properties
(properties along the deformation differ from
those in other directions).

Every polymer is characterized by a temperature

below of which mobility of its molecules sharply
decreases and the material becomes brittle and
glassy. This temperature is called Glass
Transition Temperature.
Basis of Classification Polymer Type

Origin: Natural, Semi synthetic, Synthetic

Thermal Response: Thermoplastic, Thermosetting
Mode of formation: Addition, Condensation
Line structure: Linear, Branched, Cross-linked
Application and Physical Properties: Rubber, Plastic, Fibers
Tacticity: Isotactic, Syndiotactic, Atactic
Crystallinity: Non crystalline(amorphous),
Semi-crystalline, Crystalline
Polarity: Polar, Non polar
Chain: Hetro, Homo-chain
Theory
Addition Polymers:
Chain growth or addition polymers are formed by
a reaction in which monomer units add to another
with no other by-products. The most common
type are vinyl polymers:
Theory
Polystyrene is a thermoplastic polymer, most
commonly known for its use in Styrofoam.
Styrene is usually polymerized by a free-radical
chain mechanism. The reaction is initiated by a
free radical source. In this experiment the
initiator is benzoyl peroxide, a relatively unstable
molecule which decomposes at 80-90 °C with 0-0
bond rupture to give two benzoyloxy radicals,
which then losses CO2 to form two benzyl
radicals:
The initiator radicals, symbolized by R• add to the
C=C bond of styrene monomer to produce a new,
benzyl-type free radical, as shown below:

1- Initiation: This radical adds to another

styrene monomer; the process repeats itself in
what is called the propagation step, during which
the polymer chain continues to grow:
 2- Propagation
As many as 5000 monomer units may add to one another
before the chain is terminated. Thus, the initiator radical
contributes only a very small fraction (perhaps 0.02%) to
the molecular weight of the polymer. Termination may
occur by the combination of two radicals (either both
polymer radicals, or one polymer radical and one initiator
radical) by the abstraction of a hydrogen atom, or in
other ways.
 3- Termination

The overall equation for the polymerization is:

 Procedure
a) In a fume hood, to 4.55g (5 mL) of styrene in a
medium sized test tube, 0.2g benzoyl peroxide. [Care:
do not CRUSH this solid].
b) Write your name on a little (9mm x 20mm) piece of
paper and put it into the test tube.
c) Place the test tube in a beaker of boiling water (on a
hotplate) for over 1 hour.
d) Cool the tube, and examine the polymer. You may
have to break the test tube, but first wrap it in a paper
towel (have your TA show you how this is done). Be
careful with the broken glass.
e) Describe the polymer (colour, clear/opaque,
stiff/flexible, brittle, solid/pellets/powder, etc.).
 Goal of experiment
 The goal of this experiment is to compare
specific heat capacities of sunflower oil and
water.
Part A Procedure
1. Set the hotplate to 80°C.
2. Fill one of the two identical containers with water and
the second with oil of the same mass. The density of the
oil is lower; therefore the oil has larger volume.
3. Insert the thermometer in both containers.
4. Record the initial temperature of the liquids
5. Place the containers above hotplate and start the
stopwatch.
6. Record the temperature of the liquid every 2 minutes
for 20 minutes.
7. Record any observations.
 Calculation
1. Complete the fallowing table:
No. Time / min Temperature Temperature
of Oil / °C of Water / °C
1. 2
2. 4
3. 6
4. 8
5. 10

2. Draw the plot between temp. and time.

 Conclusion
The oil is heated more than water, therefore its
specific heat capacity less than water.
Part B
 Calculation
1. Recorded the result of both water and oil
according to the table below:

No. Water Recorded data SI unit

1. Mass of beaker g kg
2. Mass of beaker with g kg
100ml of water
3. Initial temp. of water °C °C
4. Final temp. of water °C °C
5. Time it take for the min sec
water to reach the 80 °C
No. Oil Recorded data SI unit
1. Mass of beaker g kg
2. Mass of beaker with g kg
100ml of oil
3. Initial temp. of oil °C °C
4. Final temp. of oil °C °C
5. Time it take for the min sec
oil to reach the 80 °C

No. Samples specific heat capacity

(J/(kg K)
1. Oil 1670
2. water 4184
2. Calculate the heat q:
𝒒 = 𝒎 . 𝒄 . ∆𝑻

𝒒 = 𝒎 . 𝒔 . ∆𝑻

3. Calculate the power:

𝒒
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝒕
Specific heat
The specific heat of petroleum oils can be modeled as
follows
𝟏
𝑪 = [ 0.388 – 0.00046T ]
𝒅
where C is measured in BTU/(lb °F), T is the temperature
in Fahrenheit and d is the specific gravity at 60 °F (16 °C).

In units of kcal/(kg·°C), the formula is:

𝟏
𝑪= [ 0.4024 – 0.00081T ]
𝒅
where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific
gravity at 15 °C.
No. Samples Specific Gravity g/cm3 at
60 °F and 15 °C
1. Sunflower oil 0.924
2. Diesel Fuel Oil 0.81 – 0.96
3. Gasoline 0.74
 Part C Procedure:
1. Take the sample about 50 ml.
2. Measure the temperature of sample in °C.
3. Convert the temperature in °F.

Calculation
1. Calculate heat capacity (temp must be in °F):
𝟏
𝑪 = [ 0.388 – 0.00046T ]
𝒅
2. Calculate heat capacity (temp must be in °C):
𝟏
𝑪= [ 0.4024 – 0.00081T ]
𝒅
 Condensation Polymers
Step Growth or Condensation polymers are
formed by reaction between molecules with two
or more functional groups (such as glycols,
diamines, and dicarboxylic acids), with each new
bond created in a separate step. This method gives
long chains joined by many ester or amide links
along with the elimination of some small molecule
such as water, ammonia, or hydrogen chloride.
Examples include Nylon (a polyamide), Dacron (a
polyester), Bakelite, and polyurethane foams.
Theory
Bakelite is the oldest totally synthetic polymer
invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907. Phenol and
formaldehyde react, in the presence of acid or
base, to form a three-dimensional polymer --
Bakelite -- suitable for making many molded
articles. The reaction sequence for the acid
catalyzed reaction is:
Theory
Under carefully controlled conditions, o- or p-
hydroxybenzyl alcohol may actually be isolate.
The next step involves protonation of the
alcohol, formation of a benzyl cation, and an
electrophilic aromatic substitution:
 Procedure
a) In a fume hood, place 1.2 g of phenol, 3.5 mL of glacial
acetic acid, and 1.5 mL of 37- 40% aqueous formaldehyde
solution in a test tube.
b) Warm the tube slightly, with shaking, to melt the
phenol and obtain a homogeneous solution.
c) Cool the test tube in an ice bath and then place the test
tube in the fume hood. Add 3.5 mL of conc. HCl to the test
tube while still in the fume hood. Shake until you see the
solid polymer starting to form and set aside to finish.
d) Cool the tube, then dislodge and examine the polymer.
e) Describe the polymer (colour, clear/opaque,
stiff/flexible, brittle, solid/pellets/powder, etc.).
Wood structure
Simply, wood is a natural and renewable material, which
is widely used in construction, and more and more
engineered wood products are continually being
developed. Chemically, wood is a porous material
consisting mainly of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin.
Theory
Various methods for measuring the moisture content of
wood are described by the American Society for Testing
and Materials in publication. In this experiments we
study the dry oven method.
Oven Dry Testing
 One of the oldest ways to measure the moisture
content of any hygroscopic material is the oven dry
test.
 The oven drying method is the standard way of
determining wood moisture content. With this method
a piece of wood is initially weighed and then dried in
an oven at 103°C.
 Drying is continued until the piece is completely dry
 The
(when moisture content
no further weightofloss
green wood
occurs) andvaries greatly
this oven dry
from
weightone species to another.
recorded.
 Moisture content can vary between apparently similar
pieces of the same species and in addition there may
be differences, between and within species, in the
rates at which moisture is lost from timber during
Procedure
1. Take 2 sample of wood (cubic pieces).
2. Weight the sample by accurate balance.
3. Put the sample in kiln oven at 103 ⁰C for 30 minute.
4. Weight the sample after drying.
5. Calculate the Moisture Content (MC).
Theory
 The metals have a shiny appearance, they show a
metallic luster. Due to their shiny appearance they
can be used in jewelers and decorations.
Particularly gold and silver are widely used for
jewellery. In the old days, mirrors were made of
shiny metals like silver. Silver is a very good reflector. It
reflects about 90% of the light falling on it. All
modern mirrors contain a thin coating of metals.

 Metals are mostly harder to cut. Their hardness

varies from one metal to another. Some metals like
sodium, potassium and magnesium are easy to cut.
 Metals on being hammered can be beaten into
thinner sheets. This property is called Malleability.
Theory
 Wires are made from copper, aluminum, iron and
magnesium. This property of drawing the metal in to
thin wires is called ductility. Most metals are ductile.

 Electric wires in our homes are made of aluminum and

copper. They are good conductor of electricity.
Electricity flows most easily through gold, silver,
copper and aluminum. Gold and silver are used for fin
electrical contacts in computers. Copper wires are used
in electrical appliances while aluminum is cheaper is
generally used for making electrical cables.

 Metals are general sonorous. That is they make a

ringing sound when struck.
Theory
 Metals have high melting points.

 Metals have high tensile strength, that is they can be

stretched to some degree without breaking. Metals
like tungsten has high tensile strength.

 All metals except Mercury, exist in the solid form

at room temperature.
Key words:
Lustrous: It is that property of metals which makes them
shine and their structures are capable of reflecting
incident light.

Sonority: It is that property of metals which produces

ringing sounds on hitting.

Ductility: It is that property of metals which allows them

to be drawn into the wires. Example: Metals like
aluminum and copper wires are used in electric
connection.

Conductivity: It is that property of metals which allows

the current and heat to pass through them easily.
Example- Metals like iron rod, nail, copper wire, etc. are
good conductors of electricity.
Physical Properties of Metals
 Strong under tension and compression.
 Malleable (can be hammered and bent).
 Ductile (they can be drawn into wires).
 Shiny (when clean and uncorroded).
 Good conductors of electricity and heat.
 They have high melting and boiling points (all
are solids except Hg)
 They have high densities (feel heavy).
Color, Form (crystalline, flakes, smooth, plate,
amorphous), Luster, Hardness, Malleability, Ductility,
Sonority, Conduction of Heat, and Conduction of
electricity
Physical Properties of Non-Metals
 They are brittle (do not bend or
form).

 They have low melting and boiling

points.

 They are poor conductors of heat

and electricity.

 They have low densities.

Procedure:
1. Take 6 samples of metals, nonmetals and others.
2. Using a spatula or forceps to handle the elements,
place a small amount of each element in the appropriate
place in the spot plate.
2. One at a time, use a small amount of the elements in
the spot plate and test the properties.
3. Test conductivity of each element by touching the
wires of the conductivity tester directly to either end of
one piece of the solid in the spot plate.
4. Test the malleability of each element: gently rap each
element with a small hammer or with a pestle in a
mortar. A material is brittle if it shatters or cracks into
small pieces when struck. A material is malleable if it
flattens or bends without shattering (or does not
 Results & Calculation
Samples A B C D E F G
Physical
Properties
Color
Form
Luster
Hardness
Malleability
Ductility
Sonority
Conduction of
Heat
Conduction of