Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

and Equipment
Shearing
Formability
Bending
Deep drawing
Spinning
 Sheet metal forming

Fig 16.1 Examples of sheet-metal parts. (a) Stamped parts. (b) Parts produced by spinning.
Source: Courtesy of Williamsburg Metal Spinning & Stamping Corp.
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing

Table 16.1 General Characteristics of Sheet-metal Forming Processes (in alphabetic order).
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing

Table 16.1 General Characteristics of Sheet-metal Forming Processes (in alphabetic order).
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Punching

Fig 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration of shearing with a punch and die, indicating some of the
process variables. Characteristic features of (b) a punched hole and (c) the slug. (Note that
the scales of (b) and (c) are different.)
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Punching

Fig 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration of shearing with a punch and die, indicating some of the
process variables. Characteristic features of (b) a punched hole and (c) the slug. (Note that
the scales of (b) and (c) are different.)
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Punching

Fig 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration of shearing with a punch and die, indicating some of the
process variables. Characteristic features of (b) a punched hole and (c) the slug. (Note that
the scales of (b) and (c) are different.)
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Punching

Fig 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in
shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather
than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the
thickness of the sheet.
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Punching

Fig 16.3 (b) Microhardness (H V) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick A I S I 1020 hot-
rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Shearing operation

Fig 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking.

 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Shearing operation

Fig 16.4 (b) Examples of various die-cutting operations on sheet metal. Lancing involves
slitting the sheet to form a tab.
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing

Fine blanking (a)

(b)

Fig 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-
blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking.
Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations Inc.
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Slitting

Fig 16.6 Slitting with rotary knives; this process is similar to opening cans.
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing

(a)

(b)

Fig 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser butt welding and stamping.
The thickness of each section is as indicated.
Sheet metal forming - Shearing

Fig 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser butt welding and
stamping. The thickness of each section is as indicated. Source: After M. Geiger and T.
Nakagawa.
 Sheet metal forming - Shearing
Punch and die shapes
(a) (b)

(c)
(d)

Fig 16.10 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.
 Sheet metal forming –
Formability

Formability tests

(b)

Fig 16.13 (a) A cupping test (the Erichsen test) to determine the formability of sheet metals. (b)
Bulge-test results on steel sheets of various widths. The specimen farthest left is subjected to,
basically, simple tension. The specimen that is farthest right is subjected to equal biaxial
stretching. Source: (b) Courtesy of ArcelorMittal.
 Sheet metal forming –Formability Formability tests

(a)

(b)

Fig 16.14 (a) Strains in deformed circular grid patterns. (b) Forming-limit diagrams (FLD) for
various sheet metals. Although the major strain is always positive (stretching), the minor strain
may be either positive or negative. R is the normal anisotropy of the sheet, as described in
Section 16.3.
 Sheet metal forming –Formability
Formability tests

Fig 16.15 The deformation of the grid pattern and the tearing of sheet metal during forming.
The major and minor axes of the circles are used to determine the coordinates on the forming-
limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b. Source: After S.P. Keeler.
 Sheet metal forming –Bending

Fig 16.16 Bending terminology; note that the bend radius is measured to the inner surface of
the bent part.
 Sheet metal forming –Bending
(a) (c)

(b)

Fig 16.17 (a,b) The effect of elongated inclusions

(stringers) on cracking as a function of the direction of
bending with respect to the original rolling direction of
the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of an aluminum
strip bent to an angle of 90°. Note also the narrowing of
the top surface in the bend area due to the Poisson effect.
Sheet metal forming –Bending

𝑅𝑅
= 50⁄𝑟𝑟 − 1
𝑇𝑇
R min bend radius
T sheet thickness
r tensile reduction of area (%)

Table 16.3 Minimum Bend Radius for

(Experimental)
Various Metals at Room Temperature.

Fig 16.18 Relationship between Rmin/T and

tensile reduction of area for sheet metals.
Source: After Datsko and Yang.
 Sheet metal forming –Bending
Springback

Springback :
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌 3 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌
=4 −3 +1
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 , 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 initial and final radius
Y yield stress
E modulus of elasticity
T thickness

Fig 16.19 Springback in bending. The part tends to recover elastically after bending, and its
bend radius becomes larger. Under certain conditions, it is possible for the final bend angle to
be smaller than the original angle (negative springback).
 Sheet metal forming –Bending Springback
Example: A straight bead is being formed on a 1-
mm-thick aluminum sheet, in a 20-mm-diameter
die, as shown in the accompanying figure. Let
Y=90 MPa and E=70GPa. Considering springback,
calculate the outside diameter of the bead after
it is formed and unloaded from the die.

Initial bend radius 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = 20⁄2 − 1 = 9mm

𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌 0.009 × 90
= = 0.0116
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 70,000 × 0.001
Using the springback eqn,
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌 3 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌
=4 −3 +1
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= 4 0.0116 3 − 3 0.0116 + 1 = 0.965
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 ⁄0.965 = 9.32mm
Sheet metal forming –Bending
Compensation

(b)
(d)

(a) (c)

Fig 16.20 Methods of reducing or compensating for springback in bending operations.

 Sheet metal forming –Bending
Bending operations

(a) V-die

(b) Wiping die

Fig 16.21 Common die-bending operations showing the die-opening dimension, W, used in
calculating bending forces.
 Sheet metal forming –Bending Bending operations
(a) Air bending (c) Three-roll bending

(b) Bending in a four-slide machine

(d) Bending with a compliant roll

Fig 16.22 Examples of various bending operations.

 Sheet metal forming – Deep drawing
(a)

Fig 16.32 (a) Schematic illustration of the

deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-
metal blank. The stripper ring facilitates the
removal of the formed cup from the punch.
 Sheet metal forming – Deep drawing
(b)
Do blank diameter
Dp punch diameter
c clearance
Rp punch radius
Rd die-corner radius
T blank thickness
F punch force

𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝐹max = 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇𝑌𝑌ut − 0.7
𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝

Fig 16.32 (b) Process variables in deep drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the
parameters indicated in the figure are independent variables.
 Sheet metal forming – Deep drawing
(b) Deep
drawability
Limiting drawing ratio (LDR)
maximum blank diameter 𝑫𝑫𝒐𝒐
LDR = =
punch diameter 𝑫𝑫𝒑𝒑
Normal anisotropy R
width strain 𝜖𝜖𝑤𝑤
𝑅𝑅 = =
thickness strain 𝜖𝜖𝑡𝑡

Fig. 16.34 The relationship

between average normal
anisotropy and the limiting
drawing ratio for various
sheet metals.
Sheet metal forming – Deep drawing
Deep drawability

𝑹𝑹 +𝟐𝟐𝑹𝑹 +𝑹𝑹
𝑹𝑹𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝟒𝟒
a in 𝑹𝑹𝒂𝒂 is specimen
orientation wrt sheet
rolling direction
Fig. 16.33 Strains on a tensile-test specimen removed
from a piece of sheet metal. These strains are then
used in determining the normal and planar
anisotropy of the sheet metal.
Sheet metal forming – Deep drawing
Practice

(a) (b)
Fig. 16.40 (a) Aluminum beverage cans; note the smooth surface. (b) Detail of the
can lid, showing the integral rivet and scored periphery for the pop-top.
 Sheet metal forming – Deep drawing

Fig 16.31 The metal-forming processes involved in manufacturing two-piece aluminum

beverage cans.
 Sheet metal forming – Deep drawing

Fig 16.31 The metal-forming processes involved in manufacturing two-piece aluminum

beverage cans.
 Sheet metal forming –Spinning

Fig 16.48 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process.

 Sheet metal forming –Spinning

Fig 16.48 (b) Types of parts conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.
 Sheet metal forming –
Spinning
(a) (b)

(c)

Fig 16.49 (a) Schematic illustration of the shear-spinning

process for making conical parts. The mandrel can be
shaped so that curvilinear parts can be spun. (b,c)
Schematic illustrations of the tube-spinning process.