Review

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Plastic Debris in the Marine Environment: History

and Future Challenges
Imogen Ellen Napper* and Richard C. Thompson*

corrosion-resistant properties. Plastics are

The success of plastic as a material has shaped the development of modern highly versatile materials which can be
society and challenged older materials in many of their established uses. How- used to produce a range of products, from
ever, plastic is now a major component of litter and is extensively reported flexible to rigid items, adhesives, foams,
and fibers. Consequently, the annual pro-
within the marine environment. Impacts from plastic debris have been
duction of plastic increased significantly
identified as a major global conservation issue with implications for maritime to 30 million tonnes in 1988 and then
industries, tourism, marine life, and human health. Although there are many 359 million tonnes by 2018.[3,4]
benefits of plastic, it is clear that society’s relationship and reliance on plastics Plastic consists of synthetic or semisyn-
needs to be addressed. Conversely, alternative materials to replace plastic thetic organic polymers. These polymers
items, or solutions mitigating plastic release, also need to be critiqued to make have a unique molecular structure of long
chain-like molecules made up of repeating
sure their properties and environmental impacts are more beneficial. This
chemical structural units. The structural
review examines the history and impact of plastics in the marine environment. units are composed of hydrocarbons which
Current solutions that aim to mitigate plastics accumulation in the environ- have typically been derived from fossil oil
ment and the future challenges of plastic as a material are also discussed. or gas feedstocks.[5] There is a vast variety
of different polymers, such as polyeth-
ylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and
1. The Development of Plastic polypropylene. Additionally, a wide variety of additives (such as
fillers, plasticizers, flame retardants, thermal stabilizers, anti-
The history of mankind is often described according to the microbial agents, and colorings) can also be added to enhance
materials used to make implements and other basic necessities. their performance and appearance.[3]
The most well-known of these periods being the Stone Age, the The success of plastic as a material has shaped the devel-
Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Currently, it could be argued opment of modern society and challenged older materials in
that we are in the Plastic Age.[1] many of their established uses. Numerous societal benefits
Plastics are relatively new materials which have existed for are now especially evident in healthcare, agriculture, transport,
just over a century.[2] The first synthetic plastic was produced in construction, and packaging.[6]
the early 20th century. This was called “Bakelite” (a phenol for-
maldehyde thermoset) and it was commonly used in household
items from building material to radios. However, it was not 2. Accumulation in the Environment
until the end of World War II that mass production of plastics
began in earnest, with annual production of around 5 million The human race generates a considerable amount of solid waste
tonnes in the 1950s.[3] on a daily basis. Many of the plastic objects used by people
The benefits of plastics quickly became evident due every day are considered single use, convenient, and dispos-
to their lightweight, strong, inexpensive, durable, and able. As such, plastics are a major component of waste and sub-
stantial quantities are now accumulating as litter in the marine
environment.[7] It is estimated that 75% of all marine litter is
Dr. I. E. Napper, Prof. R. C. Thompson plastic and this debris has been reported to be accumulating on
Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre (MBERC)
School of Biological and Marine Sciences beaches,[8] on shorelines of even the most remote islands,[9] at
University of Plymouth the sea surface,[10] in the deep sea,[11,12] and in arctic sea ice.[13]
Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, England There is also increasing awareness of the accumulation of
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] plastic litter on land as well as in freshwater habitats.[14–16]
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article In the 1980s, roughly 30 years after the start of mass pro-
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201900081. duction, marine plastic debris was first identified as a potential
© 2020 The Authors. Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. wild scale impact to the marine environment worldwide.[17,18]
KGaA, Weinheim. This is an open access article under the terms of the Some of the earliest reports of plastic debris in the ocean were
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution of small floating particles that were captured in surface-towing
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited. plankton nets.[19–21] Other reports included synthetic fibers
in water samples,[22] shipboard visual observations of large
DOI: 10.1002/gch2.201900081 floating debris,[23] seafloor debris in benthic fishing trawls,[24]

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and plastic debris on beaches.[25,26] Although marine plastic

pollution was reported decades ago, it has only recently been Imogen E. Napper is a
recognized as a pervasive global issue.[2,27–29] marine scientist and National
Plastic debris can be defined and described in a variety of Geographic Explorer. Upon
ways. Frequent descriptors are shape (spheres, beads, pel- finding that up to three mil-
lets, foams, fibers, fragments, films, and flakes),[30–32] color, lion plastic beads could be in
polymer type, origin, and original usage (e.g., packaging).[30,33] one facial scrub bottle, she
For example, research by Kor and Mehdinia in 2020 evaluated helped to influence the ban
plastic abundance in surface waters of the Persian Gulf and of microbeads in cosmetics
reported that majority of plastics collected were polyethylene internationally. Her research
(48%) and polypropylene (28%) and the predominant colors also found that up to 7 00 000
were blue and white. In terms of their shape, 44.1% of the col- plastic fibers could potentially
lected plastic was fibers, followed by fragments (29.0%), film come off our clothing in the
(14.7%), and pellets (12.2%).[34] Whereas research by González- washing machine. Her most recent research found that
Hernández et al. in 2020, analyzed microplastic debris in Playa biodegradable bags can still hold a full load of shopping
Grande beach (Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain) and reported after being submerged in the ocean or buried in soil after
that polypropylene and polyethylene accounted for 76% and three years.
19% of the total, respectively. Among the plastics found, 83%
were fragments, 11% pellets, 4% fibers, and 2% films.[35]
Richard C. Thompson wrote
Size is typically the most common reporting descriptor, as
the first paper describing the
this encompasses all plastic types. However, there can be ambig-
accumulation of microplastics
uous terminology for the sizes of plastic which can compromise
in the ocean, and much of his
progress in research and mitigation measures. As well as size
work over the last two dec-
classes, Hartmann et  al. in 2019 have produced a framework
ades has focused on marine
which also focuses on physicochemical properties (polymer
debris, including its sources,
composition, solid state, solubility) as defining criteria with size,
distribution, impacts, and
shape, color, and origin as classifiers for categorization.[36]
potential solutions. Richard
The three categories that are typically used to describe the
leads the International Marine
size of plastic contamination are macroplastic (>20  mm dia­
Litter Research Unit at the
meter), mesoplastic (5–20 mm), and microplastic (<5 mm).[1,37]
University of Plymouth, which
However, nanoplastics are more frequently being reported
has been recognized for its groundbreaking research and
(<1000 nm).
policy impact on microplastics pollution in the oceans.

2.1. Macroplastic

Macroplastic pollution refers to plastic items larger than until 2004 that the term “microplastics” was coined in a paper
20 mm and due to its high visibility, contamination to the envi- describing the long-term accumulation of fragments just a few
ronment by macroplastic may be perceived as one of the most microns in diameter.[46] Until recently, microplastics have been
concerning forms of plastic pollution. Its accumulation has a largely overlooked part of plastic pollution monitoring. Within
been widely reported since the 1990s and has been found in a the last decade, with accumulating data on the impact and con-
wide range of habitats.[29,38–41] Due to the size of this debris, it sequences of such debris, the topic has received increasing
is often possible to categorize items according to their original research interest.[27]
usage, e.g., packaging, fishing, or sewage-related debris. There are two main classifications of microplastic: primary
Macroplastic can enter the environment from many sources, and secondary sources.
generally split into oceanic or land based. Oceanic sources Primary microplastic directly enters the environment in the
include fishing, boating, and shipping—including gradual break- microplastic size (<5 mm in diameter). These are produced through
down of rope and polymer-based paints. Land-based sources extrusion or grinding, either as a feed stock for manufacture of
include primary industry, litter, sewage, and storm water.[42–45] products[47] or for direct use,[48] e.g., in cleaning products,[33,49]
Clean-up campaigns typically focus on these larger items microbeads in cosmetics[50,51] and as air-blasting media.[52]
as they are more visible and normally easier to find. However, Microplastics resulting from the fragmentation of other
there is wide geographical variability in abundance, which plastic items/pieces are described as secondary microplastics.
increases the difficulty of analyzing potential trends.[8] Additionally, this can include microplastics from the generation
of particles during product use, e.g., tire wear or fibers from
clothing.[33,53,54] It is predicted that even if emissions of larger
2.2. Microplastic items of plastic to the environment were to immediately stop,
it is likely that we would still see an increase in the quantity of
The presence of small plastic fragments in the open ocean was microplastic as a consequence of the fragmentation of larger
reported for the first time in the 1970s.[19] However, it was not items that are already in the environment.[55]

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Microplastics greatly outnumber large plastic items in marine More research is needed to understand long-term weath-
systems, but only account for a small proportion of the total ering of plastic and the relationships between weathering prop-
mass of plastic in the ocean.[56,57] However, it is now apparent erties and sorption capacities toward pollutants.[71]
that microplastics are a ubiquitous component of anthropo-
genic debris in marine and freshwater environments.[13,54,58–60]
4. Sources
2.3. Nanoplastic Over 359 million tonnes of plastic is produced annually
and production has been predicted to double in the next
Nanoplastics are less than 1000  nm in size. They also can be 20 years.[4,72] More than 40% of this amount is for single-use
from primary or secondary sources.[27] Like microplastics, applications which can include plastic carrier bags, cutlery,
nanoplastics have been an overlooked part of plastic pollution straws, cups, and food packaging.[2,73] These short-lived applica-
in recent years, but now there are increasing studies on the tions rapidly lead to large amounts of persistent plastic waste
identification of nanoplastic sources.[27,61] However, there is not and a proportion of this waste can enter the environment as
conclusive data about their impacts.[62] It is likely that all plastic litter. It is estimated that 8 million tonnes of mismanaged
breaks down into nanoplastic size before complete degradation plastic waste enters the oceans every year and there is evi-
and mineralization. Therefore, the presence of nanoplastics in dence of increasing quantities over time.[7,74] The majority of
the marine environment is likely to be of increasing signifi- this plastic originates from inland sources and is emitted to the
cance in the years to come. oceans from coastlines or rivers.[7] It has been predicted that
rivers are a major transport pathway for marine plastics, trans-
porting 1.15 to 2.41 million tonnes of plastic waste potentially
3. Degradation and Mineralization entering the ocean per year.[75]
Assuming there are no improvements in waste management
The degradation process for plastics is ongoing and the material infrastructure, the cumulative quantity of plastic waste available
fragments into smaller and smaller pieces over time; eventu- to enter the marine environment from land could increase by
ally breaking down into microplastic, and then probably further approximately three times over the decade up to 2025.[7] Micro-
into nanoplastic particles.[33] The rate of degradation depends plastics have been detected at very high levels globally in rivers
on the chemistry of the polymer and where it was exposed.[27,63] and lakes which could further add to this estimation.[76–78] Due
Initial degradation converts the plastic polymers into to the scale of the issue, plastic waste in the marine environ-
smaller, more fragmented units and introduces new chemical ment has been identified as a major global issue by the United
groups to the ends of the carbon chain, changing the nature Nations Environment Assembly and in the G7 Leader´s decla-
of the compound. This process is followed by biotic degrada- ration 2015.[79–81]
tion (mineralization), which converts the carbon atoms into Plastic can also enter the marine environment from sources
carbon dioxide (CO2) and inorganic chemicals. However, this that are typically not considered as generic waste. Over 7 00 000
is a very lengthy process and further considerable degrada- microplastic fibers are estimated to be released from a typical
tion would be required before the plastic would reach a size 6  kg wash of synthetic clothing.[82] It has also been suggested
where it might biodegrade completely. The timeframe for the that plastic teabags might release ≈11.6 billion microplastics
complete mineralization of plastic is unknown, but Andrady and 3.1 billion nanoplastics into a single cup per beverage.[83]
in 2005 suggests that all of the conventional plastic ever made Tire wear has also been considered as a substantial microplastic
is still with us on the planet in a form too large to biodegrade, emitter into the environment, where it has been estimated to
except if burnt.[64] contribute 28% of secondary microplastics to global oceans
Fragmentation in the marine environment is dominated (4 20 000 tonnes yr−1).[84] These various sources of microplastics
by physical mechanisms including weathering due to UV may enter the marine environment by bypassing waste water
radiation, mechanical (abrasion, wave action, and turbulence), treatment plants, through storm drains or even be carried in
thermal, and chemical action.[65] UV radiation in sunlight the air and deposited at sea.[85,86]
causes oxidation of the polymer matrix, resulting in chemical Plastic can also be released from ocean-based sources such
bond breakage. According to Corcoran et  al., beaches are the as shipping and aquaculture.[27,87] Due to its low cost and dura-
optimal settings for plastic fragmentation due to the presence bility, fishing gear is mostly made from plastic. Items that com-
of both chemical and mechanical weathering.[66] prise abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear are
Rates of degradation may be reduced in the seawater due extremely heterogenous in terms of polymer type, size, shape,
to reduced light levels, lower temperatures, and saline con- and color. For instance, some discarded or abandoned nets can
ditions.[67] Colonization of microorganisms, plants, algae, be 100s of meters in length, while offcuts are typically < 5 mm
and marine life onto floating plastic in the ocean (a process (UNEP in 2016). The structure of synthetic rope is highly
described as fouling) can also inhibit degradation.[68] First, the durable, but its plastic material is susceptible to embrittlement,
biofilm may “shield” the plastic from UV light[69] and since cracking, and reduction in mechanical properties. This leads to
exposure to UV enhances degradation, fouling will likely reduce fragmentation and the formation of secondary microplastics.[65]
any photo-degradation rates. Second, fouling can make plastics Therefore, the fragmentation could also result in the release
negatively buoyant causing buoyant items to sink[70] and hence of large quantities of microplastic particles into the marine
further reducing irradiance. environment.[88]

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5. Distribution environment.[102] Laboratory experiments have shown that

ingested plastics may accumulate in the stomach of organisms
Once in the marine environment, plastic can become widely and affect individual fitness, with potential consequences for
transported due to its properties of buoyancy and durability. reproduction and growth.[98,103] It was also observed that micro-
Particles of low density tend to stay in surface water and plastics 31.5 µm in size, in the digestive systems of planktonic
could transfer horizontally. Denser particles are more likely crustacean were alternated to <1 µm in diameter,[104] suggesting
to transfer vertically, e.g., 5  mm polyoxymethylene parti- that secondary nanoplastic could also be produced by fragmen-
cles, which have a density of 1.6  g cm−3, could settle through tation of microplastic inside the digestive organ of animals after
the water column of ≈250 m in the central Gotland basin in ingestion.[105]
<18 h.[89] Additionally, biofouling may also act as a mechanism Plastics may transfer contaminants sorbed from surrounding
increasing sedimentation.[27,90] water, such as endocrine disruptors and persistent organic pol-
However, quantifying the abundance and distribution of lutants.[51,106–108] Additive chemicals can be present in high
plastic is strongly influenced by the sampling method chosen concentrations and it is considered their release could provide
and this can vary by location and debris size. At present, most an important pathway for chemical transfer to biota.[109,110] For
methods depend on some degree of visual selection of items example, a recent study in Korea demonstrated that potentially
or particles. The most direct visual selection methods occur in harmful flame retardants could be released from buoys used
surveys of debris on beaches.[29] Visual selection can also occur in an aquaculture facility, leading to elevated concentrations of
at the sea surface from ships or aircraft, and on the seafloor flame retardants in the surrounding environment.[111] However,
by divers or towed underwater camera systems, in which only modeling estimates indicate the amount of chemical transfer
debris visible to the observer (for direct observation) or to the from water to organisms via plastic is probably not a major
analyst (for photographs or video) is recorded.[91] pathway leading to harm.[112] Additionally, more work will be
Prevailing weather may also be an important factor in dis- needed to establish the extent to which chemical additives
tribution. Research by Prata et  al. investigated the effects of incorporated in plastic items at the time of manufacture could
seasonal factors on the characteristics of (micro)plastics in a transfer to organisms in sufficient quantities to be harmful.
sandy beach in Aveiro, Portugal. The results found that pellets The durability and buoyancy of plastics present the possi-
of polyethylene were more abundant during wet seasons, while bility of transporting species horizontally to ecosystems where
fragments and pellets of both polyethylene and polypropylene they are not native[113] or vertically from the sea surface through
characterized dry seasons. A higher concentration of plastic the water column to the seafloor.[114] Microorganisms from the
fibers was also found during dry seasons, likely from their Vibrio family were shown to be capable of rafting on plastics
accumulation and beach use during bathing season.[92] and microplastics.[115] Plastic may also offer habitats, e.g., the
insect Halobates micans has been shown to use plastic litter
as oviposition sites.[116] Sediments have also been smothered
6. The Impact of Plastic in the Marine with nonbuoyant plastic items affecting gaseous exchange
and altering the composition of species present in assem-
Environment
blages.[117,118] Marine plastics may also cause more greenhouse
There are a variety of potential impacts plastic can have gas emissions due to impacting ecosystems responsible for the
within the marine environment. The European Union Marine gas exchange and circulation of marine CO2.[119]
Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) expert group on The substantial quantities of plastics that are entering
marine litter recently concluded that plastics present a “large aquatic habitats daily can present a range of negative economic
scale and serious threat to the welfare of marine animals.”[79] and environmental consequences.[7,120] Plastic debris can have
More than 700 species of marine organisms have been reported negative economic consequences on navigation, aquaculture,
to encounter plastic debris, which can result in severe phys- tourism, and fisheries. Stranded plastic along shorelines creates
ical harm or death, or more subtle effects on behavior and an aesthetic issue, which has negative impacts for tourism.[121]
ecological interactions (e.g., the ability to escape from predators In terms of fisheries, plastic litter can reduce or damage catches
or migrate).[93,94] and vessels. There is also emerging evidence that even small
The most visible effect of plastic pollution on marine organ- quantities of litter on beaches may have a negative effect on
isms is entanglement of organisms in marine debris, often in human well-being.[122]
discarded or lost fishing gear and ropes.[95,96] Entangled organ- Plastic waste in the environment can have substantial eco-
isms can be hindered in their ability to move, feed, and breathe. nomic costs associated with it. For example, Beaumont et  al.
In addition, many marine organisms mistake litter for food estimate that the economic costs of marine plastic, as related
and ingest it.[94,97–99] Ingestion of plastics by sea turtles[100] and to marine natural capital, are conservatively conjectured at
seabirds[101] was first documented in the 1960s. Recently, micro- between $3300 and $33 000 per tonne of marine plastic per
plastics were reported in all digestive tracts of ten species of year (based on 2011 ecosystem service values and marine plastic
marine mammals stranded around the British coast.[8] stocks).[123] The full economic cost is likely to be far greater as
Laboratory studies predict uptake of even smaller parti- this value includes only marine natural capital impacts.[123]
cles, in the nano-size range, may be rapid.[102] For example, One of the main obstacles in the advance of knowledge in
Al-Sid-Cheikh et  al. found nanoplastics could accumulate in the consequences of plastic pollution is the absence of harmo-
scallops (Pecten maximus) within 6 h of experimental expo- nization of assessment methodologies (sampling and analysis).
sure, but many were subsequently excreted back to the marine There are inconsistencies among the research results because

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there are limits in the accuracy of the sizes and possible con- have a key role in mitigating plastic accumulation into the
centrations in the environment due to the analytical instrumen- environment. Systemic changes may be facilitated by policy ini-
tation.[124] Therefore, although scientific evidence on the impact tiatives, e.g., a tax may be required on nonrecyclable products
of plastic is rapidly increasing, many critical issues such as per- or an incentive to use recycled content in new products so as
sistence and accumulation are still poorly understood. Without to encourage reuse and or design for recyclability. Policy can
consensus in a standardization of analytical methods for col- create the essential legislative framework to stimulate mitiga-
lection, identification and quantification of plastics in all size tion actions that contribute to a reduction in plastic waste at
ranges in the environment, their concentrations, spatial and source, as well as encouraging the clean-up of plastic pollu-
temporal changes, and risks will be unclear. tion on coastlines. For example, the EU has announced a ban
on single-use cutlery, cotton buds, straws, and stirrers from
2021, as well as a reduction of other plastic items that are not
7. Solutions and Future Challenges included in the ban by at least 25% by 2025 in each member
state.[128] The UK also has a plan to tax the manufacture and
There are many areas where the use of plastics can make a pos- import of plastic packaging that contains less than 30% recy-
itive contribution to society and the environment. However, it is cled plastic.[129]
equally clear that some single use items are not necessary, espe- However, despite existing efforts, the amount of plastic waste
cially when considered in the context of the associated waste continues to increase and plastic leakage into rivers and oceans
generation. Littering of the aquatic environment by plastics is persists. Currently there is little consistency of regulations between
attributed to a number of factors. These can include human countries. Understandably, there will be variations in plastic waste
population density, increase of plastic production, improvement at a local level, but it is recommended that governments need to
of living standards facilitated by so-called disposable society and cooperate globally or nationally to regulate the major sources of
associated consumer behavior. As a consequence, the potential microplastics, namely, industrial and domestic products.[130]
solutions to mitigate the problem are widespread and complex. Raubenheimer and Urho have suggested the introduction of
However, changes from industry, governments, and increased a global extended producer responsibility (EPR) scheme. The
consumer awareness can have a key role in helping reduce the overall objective of a global EPR scheme is to provide assis-
potential for end of life plastic to become waste and litter. tance to countries in regulating the features of plastic products
placed on their market based on the availability and capacity of
national waste management services. This scheme could pro-
7.1. Industry vide a tool to drive innovation as it will give a market advan-
tage to companies that strive to meet them. Implementation
Focusing on industry, disposal pathways for a product need to could result in minimization of residual waste, making end-of-
be considered right from the design stage. Long-term sustain- life plastics a valuable raw material for recycling purposes and
able solutions require moving from a linear economy toward reducing leakage of plastics into the environment.[131]
a more circular economy.[125,126] Although most plastics are
inherently recyclable, many single-use items are not currently
designed to be widely compatible with recycling. Waste reduc- 7.3. Public Awareness and Education
tion can be achieved by a combination of sustainable produc-
tion and  consumption patterns, and more circular use of Litter can be defined as something of little or no value and
materials, e.g., designing products which avoid unnecessary hence the problem may be exacerbated because plastics are
plastics usage or are made to be more re-usable and recyclable. inexpensive, which facilitates short-lived applications. However,
A key challenge therefore is to ensure end-of-life is appropri- it has been suggested that marine litter can be used as a vehicle
ately considered right from the design stage. In the views of to inspire and promote more sustainable economies and life-
the authors, there are many examples of products where recy- styles.[132] Education, outreach, and awareness are effective ways
clability has been severely compromised by inadequate design. to address marine litter.[133] This is because improving public
It should also be noted that there is a rise of items, such as awareness of the problems produced by plastic debris is an
shoes and clothes, that claim to be made out of plastic waste important step toward changing people’s behavior with regard
collected from the ocean or beach. Although providing a ben- to plastic consumption.
efit in terms of removing waste in the natural environment and There has been a rise in citizen science and outreach activi-
education to the consumer, the environmental implications of ties focusing on plastic pollution. The Marine Conservation
such products remain unproven. Therefore, there should be society in the UK attracted record numbers for its annual Great
consideration in product development so redeveloped products British Beach Clean with 15 000 volunteers; double the number
do not themselves become possible sources of plastic pollution in 2017.[134] This suggests that the public are becoming more
again.[45] engaged in the issue and wanting to take action. Additionally,
citizen science projects can engage the public, while also col-
lecting relevant data for scientists. For example, Camins et  al.
7.2. Government Intervention discuss how a lightweight and low-cost paddle trawl towed
behind paddle surfers could obtain samples for microplastic
Various measures have already been undertaken at local, characterization and quantification nearshore for potential
national, regional, and international levels.[127] Governments research purposes.[135]

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However, there needs to be education and change in behavior interim for countries with relatively poor waste management
right along the supply chain in order to develop long-term sus- infrastructure, e.g., a lack of recycling plants, mandatory take
tainable solutions. This could be facilitated by greater dialog back schemes could be used as a policy intervention such that
between the various stakeholders from design, through produc- there is a requirement on those exporting to such nations that
tion and use, to disposal. Overall, we need greater stewardship they take back and responsibly deal with end-of-life plastic.
so that the benefits of plastic can be realized without the accu-
mulation of unnecessary waste in managed systems and in the
environment. 7.5. The Future of Plastic
Children can also be very influential to create change in
society; not only because they represent the next generation of Production of plastic is likely to rise substantially during the
consumers and decision-makers but often they can inspire and next few decades. With the many benefits that plastic provides,
influence directly the behavior of their families and close com- it is difficult to see modern society without it as a core material.
munity.[136] For example, it was found that educational activities It is important to address the many benefits that plastic provides
about marine litter can enhance understanding and concern in lieu of other concerns, e.g., plastic makes vehicles lighter,
surrounding it in UK school children, and therefore children and therefore more fuel efficient.[142] Plastic food wrapping
have an important role to play.[137] also prolongs food shelf-life and reduces excess food waste.[143]
Many plastic items have important functional benefits, their
drawbacks should not be seen as arguments to remove all these
7.4. Waste Management applications from the market today; rather, they set the direction
and focus for redesign, innovation, and behavior change.
The accumulation of plastic litter in the oceans is actually However, plastics substantial overuse (especially for some
a symptom of a wider, more systemic problem of the linear single-use items), is becoming an increasing environmental chal-
use of plastic materials and the rapid accumulation of waste lenge. It is clear that our reliance and relationship with plastic as
on land. One study suggests that unless waste management material needs to change but finding alternatives that provide the
improves profoundly in the coming years, by 2025 the amount same qualities that plastic possess is not necessarily the answer, as
of plastic waste entering the ocean from land could be three alternative materials may have different environmental impacts.
times greater than it was a decade previously.[7] As an example, cotton clothing may become more popular as
A range of preventive measures exist. These include recy- consumers try to find alternatives to plastic after awareness that
cling, banning plastics, improving port reception facilities, and a large majority of our clothes are made out of plastic. Although
incentives/disincentives relating to littering. An array of these cotton is a natural material, it also has its own environmental
measures are already being implemented.[138–140] problems. Cotton requires a substantial amount of water for its
Waste management frameworks are typically designed to growth, depleting it from areas that might require it for other pur-
help minimize loss to the environment, but management prac- poses.[144] It is also more expensive than synthetic plastic clothing.
tices can differ considerably between countries. Incorrectly To find a solution to the growing amount of plastic waste, there
managed systems may cause waste to escape into the environ- have been developments in creating plastic formulations which
ment. In industrialized countries, landfills are usually covered state they deteriorate faster and/or have fewer impacts on the
regularly with soil or a synthetic material, and the landfill is environment because their persistence is shorter.[145] However, it
cordoned by a fence to prevent any waste accidentally leakage. was reported that biodegradable plastic formulations can persist
However, this is often not the case in developing regions.[7,37] in the soil and the marine environment for over 3 years. Com-
There are also circumstances in which waste management postable plastic tested in the same experiment completely disap-
will not suffice in stopping plastic leaking into the ocean. For peared in the marine environment within a 3 month period but
example, in the immediate aftermath of a tropical storm or remained intact in soil for 3 years. Therefore, it is not clear that
flood, resource management is understandably focused on such plastic formulations provide sufficiently advanced rates of
human health as opposed to waste management.[141] deterioration to be advantageous in the context of reducing litter.
Recycling can be used to increase its circularity and material Many plastics which claim to be biodegradable or compostable
flows. However, it can be expensive and is reliant on human need to be disposed of to an industrial composter, with high heat
behavioral engagement. It can also produce lower quality mate- and moisture, in order to deteriorate. Therefore, statements about
rials, in terms of both thermal and mechanical properties. More the degradation of plastic products should be clearly linked to
effective and longer-term change to a more circular economy appropriate standards, made in conjunction with statements on
will require consideration of end-of-life recyclability from the the receiving environment for such degradation (e.g., commercial
design stage. composter) and time scale to which those claims relate.
The variety of different plastic types also presents a complica- Hence, the potential negative repercussions of replacing con-
tion for the viability of recycling and the quantity and diversity ventional plastic alternative materials should be fully evaluated
of single-use products is putting increasing pressure on waste alongside any potential benefits. This process should consider:
management infrastructures, e.g., separating different material natural resource depletion, cost, accessibility, and consumer
types into appropriate recycling streams. However, on a global awareness. Industries are developing solutions aimed to stem the
scale, a substantial proportion of the human population is not flow of or capture plastic getting into the environment. However,
connected to waste management systems. Hence, a key focus it is essential that any proposed solutions are fully tested for their
is on improving solid waste collection and management. In the efficiency and evaluated to understand their potential benefit.

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