A

Text Book
On
Explosive & Control Blasting

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 CONTENTS

S.No. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. NEED 3
3. CONTROLED BLASTING 4
4. CONTROLED BLASTING TECHNIQUE 5
4.1 Line Drilling 5
4.2 Pre-Spilitting 7
4.3 Smooth Blasting 9
4.4 Cushion Blasting 10
4.5 Air Decking 11
4.6 Muffle Blasting 13
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5. EXPLOSIVE
5.1 Properties of Explosive 14
5.2 Classification of Explosive 19
6. INITIATIONS DEVICES 24
6.1 Classification of Initiations Devices 25
7. CONCULUSION 34
8. REFRENCES 35

1. Introduction:-

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 “Mining is the process of excavating minerals of economics value from the earth‟s crust
for benefit of mankind”. Mineral is a rock which has fix from and definite chemical
composition is known as mineral. Mineral is found in earth crust in various forms as seam,
vain or lode. In both the mining and construction industries, blasting is the predominant
method for fragmentation of consolidated mineral deposits. Mines, quarries and construction
sites that were formerly located relatively remote areas now find themselves near congested
areas. The public relation problems of users of explosives have increased greatly within the
past few years as explosives are being consumed in increasing quantities by mines and
infrastructure development agencies. New expressways, underground metros are being
constructed to connect the cities with downtown areas built through the middle of long
established business and residential neighborhoods. Open pit mines and quarries are carrying
out mega blasts very often, in order to enhance their production. Tunnel and construction
blasting, now a days, emphasize more on reduction of blast induced back-break to preserve
the property of host rock intact for safety and economic reasons. UG metal mines are very
much keen to maximize value of their output by improving their quality standard of ore by
preventing ore dilution at the stops by reducing over- break of the wastes and wall rocks.
They are also conscious about the back-fill done at the stops, which should not get disturbed
during mining and blasting process. (Sharma A.,2014)

On detonation of explosive charges in blastholes apart from effective utilisation of

explosive energy in fragmentation and displacement, considerable part of energy is wasted in
the form of ground vibrations, airblast noise, flyrock and damage to the remaining rock.
Conventional blasting causes cracks and fractures in the rock which has been fragmented and
also in the remaining rock, whereas the rock mass itself is very often part of structure which
must have certain strength, be used as dimensional stone or surface/underground excavations
are constructed after blasting operations. The rock strength and stability are of major
importance in underground excavations to prevent rock fall that can injure people and
damage equipment. Open pit mines demand high steep slopes to avoid failures, costly scaling
and to decrease the excavation costs for waste rock. Increased size of open pit mining
operations have let to higher bench heights, larger diameter blastholes and larger sized blasts
which have reduced mining costs but have also resulted in energy concentration in the blast
area which can cause severe back break problems for the final pit walls. The rock beyond the
excavation line in underground often suffers excessive damage during conventional blasting.
Controlled blasting techniques are adopted to reduce damage to the rock and improve the

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competence of the rock at the perimeter of the excavation by reducing development and
growth of uncontrolled cracks.(Bhandari,1997 )

(a) (b)
Fig:-1 (a)conventional blasting result
(b)controlled blasting result (Bhandari , 1997)

In many cases the technique is called cautious blasting, contour blasting or smooth blasting.
Controlled blasting techniques have several advantages. Besides retaining load carrying
capacity of the rock it allows desired roof curvature so that the load carrying capacity of the
structure is greater. In conventional blasting overbreak tendency of rock is experienced,
whereas by controlling the overbreak the smoothness and precision of rock walls are
achieved and extra cost of loading the muck and concreting or providing rock reinforcement
is reduced. Finally, smooth walls result in reduced frictional resistance to air flow, and
improved mine ventilation capacity.
All type of controlled blasting have one common objective: to better distribute the energy
delivered in the rock mass by the explosive detonation so as to reduce crushing, fracturing,
overbreak of the remaining rock, and to prevent undue disturbance of the jointed mass and
therefore to preserve the inherent jointed mass, and strength of the in-situ rock. A number of
tools are used to control the blasting damage which include controlling the explosive type,
the loading density, blast hole diameter, burden and spacing, subgrade drilling, collar and
stemming height. (Bhandari ,1997)

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2. Need of controlled blasting:-

Conventional blasting causes cracks and fractures in the rock which has been fragmented
and also in the remaining rock, whereas the rock mass itself is very often part of structure
which must have certain strength, be used as dimensional stone or surface/underground
excavations are constructed after blasting operations. The rock strength and stability are of
major importance in underground excavations to prevent rock fall that can injure people and
damage equipment. Controlled blasting techniques are adopted to reduce damage to the rock
and improve the competence of the rock at the perimeter of the excavation by reducing
development and growth of uncontrolled cracks. In many cases the technique is called
cautious blasting, contour blasting or smooth blasting. Controlled blasting techniques have
several advantages. Besides retaining load carrying capacity of the rock it allows desired
roof curvature so that the load carrying capacity of the structure is greater. In conventional
blasting overbreak tendency of rock is experienced, whereas by controlling the overbreak the
smoothness and precision of rock walls are achieved and extra cost of loading the muck and
concreting or providing rock reinforcement is reduced. Finally, smooth walls result in
reduced frictional resistance to air flow, and improved mine ventilation capacity.

The following needs are fulfill by controlled blasting:-

• Reduce damage of rock
• improve the competence of the rock at the perimeter of the Excavation
• Reduce ground vibration.
• Reduce flyrock during blasting.
• To improve high wall stability along final excavation line.
• To improve slope stability of high walls.
• Prevention of damage by controling ground vibrations.
• Improved safety to men & machinery.
• Improved roof and wall stability.
• Improved excavation rates.
• Reduced overbreak and mucking loa.
• Smooth walls result in boosting ventilation capacity.
• Faster drivage rate due to lower cycle time.
• Lower construction costs and lower maintenance.
(Sharma ,2010)

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3. Controlled blasting:-

3.1 Parameters in Controlled Blasting:-

The following parameters influence controlled blasting results :

1. Precision and Location of drill holes

 Shape of opening
 Spacing, burden and their ratio
 Hole deviation and collaring error
2. Explosive
 Velocity of detonation
 Decoupling ratio
 Density of explosive
 Charge concentration per metre
 Length of borehole
 Shape of the charge
3. Interval timing
 Number of delays in perimeter holes
 Delay scattering detonators
 Misfired holes
4. Rock characteristics
 Rock stress
 Rock strength
 Rock structure (Bhandari ,1997)

4. Controlled Blasting Techniques:-

There are several blasting techniques used to control blasting results. The technique
selected is dependent on the nature of the project or end use of the rock face, geology, drilling
equipment available and associated cost. Various controlled blasting techniques are used for
reduction of over-break and propagation of vibration in mines and excavation work.
However, all techniques have one common objective that is, reduction and better distribution
of explosives charge specially at the periphery of the blast in order to minimize stressing and
fracturing of the rock beyond the exact excavation line. For many years Line drilling was the

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only technique employed for minimization of over break of rock. Over the years, many
modifications in line drilling have taken place and thus, many other terms of controlled
blasting have been introduced; such as cushion blasting, pre-shearing, pre- splitting, smooth
blasting, perimeter blasting, contour blasting etc. These modified techniques differ from
original line drilling principle mainly in placing of light explosives charge. Placements of
very closely spaced uncharged holes are the principle of Line drilling. Where as, in other
modified form of controlled blasting techniques light explosive charges are used. Firing of
these light charges tend to shear the rock between the holes, thus permitting wider hole
spacing than line drilling – hence drilling costs are reduced with better results. Some common
controlled blasting techniques may be classified into the following main categories:

 Line Drilling
 Pre-splitting
 Smooth Blasting
 Cushion Blasting
 Air Decking

 Muffle blasting

The techniques most commonly used to control damage in the final walls of excavations
are smooth blasting, pre-splitting and air decking. The basic mechanics of failure for these
techniques are almost identical.

When two adjacent boreholes are detonated simultaneously, the circumferential tensile
stresses induced by the explosion reinforce one another and cause an increase in the tensile
stress acting perpendicular to a line drawn between the two holes. This tensile stress, which
is higher than that across any other radial line drawn from either borehole, tends to cause
preferential crack growth along the line between the two boreholes. By carefully choosing
the correct borehole spacing and charge densities a clean fracture can be caused to run from
borehole to borehole around the perimeter of excavation. .(Bhandari ,1997)

4.1 Line Drilling:-

Line drilling involves the drilling of a row of closely spaced holes along the final
excavation line.It is not truly a blasting technique since the line-drilled holes are not loaded
with explosive.The line-drilled holes provide a plane of weakness to which the final row of
blastholes can break.Line drilling is used mostly in small blasting jobs and involves small

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holes in the range of 50 to 75mm diameter. Line drilling holes are spaced (center to center)
two to four diameter apart. The maximum practical depth to which line drilling can be done
is governed by now accurately the alignment of the holes can be held at depth, and is seldom
more than 10 m.

To further protect the final perimeter, the blastholes in the production blast adjacent to the
line drilling are often more closely spaced and are loaded more lightly than the rest of the
blast, using deck charges and detonating cord downlines if necessary. Best results are
obtained in a homogeneous rock with little jointing or bedding, or when the holes are aligned
with a major joint plane.

Fig.:-2 Line drilling (Bhandari, 1997)

The use of line drilling is limited to jobs where even a light load of explosives in the
perimeter holes would cause unacceptable damage. The results of line drilling are
unpredictable, the cost of drilling is high, and the results are heavily dependent on the
accuracy of drilling. Holes should not deviate out of the general plane of drilling by more
than 150 mm. Drilling inaccuracies usually limit the depth that can be drilled. Line drilling
is in general most costly and time consuming compared to the other techniques. Because
there are so many variables involved, experimentation is usually necessary in order to
determine proper charge weights in the row of primary blastholes nearest the lined drilled
holes, and also any necessary adjustments to the burden and spacing. In some cases, small
amount of explosives may be loaded in line drilled holes to help fracture the web and trim the
final wall. This is not a normal function of the drilling technique but rather a consequence of
a change in the hardness of the formation or an increase in line-hole spacing. .(Bhandari )

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4.2 Pre-splitting:-

In pre-splitting, sometimes called pre-shearing, a row of holes is drilled along the final
excavation line.These holes are loaded with light charge of explosives and initiated prior to
the primary blast.The actual line of pre-splitting holes can be either fired separate from the
primary blast or simultaneously with primary blast but with an early delay period.This creates
a fracture zone between the holes.The fractured zone between the holes may be a single
narrow crack or a thick zone of several cracks.This fracture causes a discontinuity which
minimises or eliminates over-break from the subsequent main primary blast and produces a
smooth finished wall.

Pre-splitting is best carried out when the burden is composed of homogeneous consolidated
rock that is resistant to shifting.In badly fractured rock, unloaded guide holes may be drilled
between the loaded holes. A heavier bottom charge is used in the bottom part of the hole.

Fig:-3(a)Pri-splitting prior to primary blast;(b) pre-splitting simultaneously with primary blast

(Bhandari, 1997)

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In presplitting technique it is extremely important to find the right hole spacing and charge
for the type of rock. The characteristics of the rock influence the result to a greater extent
that in most other blasting methods. It is advisable to carry out a sample blasting in a short
span (about 5 m) before drilling a long distance.Optimum distance and charge values can be
found by blasting with variable inter hole distances and charges.

Fig:-4 Example of Pre-spillting (Gopinath, Venkatesh ,2013,)

The geologic structural orientation of the rock mass can imply that the rock splits easily along
its direction of cleavage while at right angles to this direction the holes must be considerably
move closely spaced with the same charge.
This situation commonly occurs in quarries where large blocks of stone are taken out. In
spite of homogeneous types of rock, the material behaves in completely different ways when
it is to be cracked in different directions. At the outer charges in a presplitting operations the
crack formation deviates from the direction between the drilled holes and instead follows the
natural cleavage direction of the rock. It the holes are drilled close enough to each other, a

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tendency of this type can be counteracted since crack formation is forced to follow the rows
of holes.

For presplitting, the bore hole spacing is normally 8-12 times the hole diameter and the
burden can be considered infinite. .(Bhandari, 1997)

Pre-spiltting controlled blasting technique used in rampura aagucha mines, Udaipur,

rajasthan (India). This technique is also used in two units of nuclear power plants in india.

4.3 Smooth Blasting:-

Smooth blasting also employs holes along the planned excavation limits, but the holes are
detonated after the main production blast (Fig.).The aim is to slash or trim excess material
from the walls and to improve their stability. A line of holes is drilled along the planned
excavation limits, loaded lightly, and detonated to remove the undesirable material. Smooth
blasting, also called contour blasting, perimeter blasting, trim blasting, or sculpture blasting is
the most commonly used method for controlling over break in underground openings. It
involves a row of holes at the perimeter of the excavation that is more lightly loaded and
more closely spaced (usually 15 to 16 times the hole diameter) than other holes in the blast
round with usually a spacing to burden ratio of 0.8. The charges in the perimeter should be
initiated simultaneously for best results in smooth blasting. Holmberg (1982) indicates that
the minimum required linear charge concentration for smooth blasting and presplitting is a
function of the hole diameter;

w = 90 d²

where w is the linear charge concentration of ANFO-equivalent

explosive in kg per meter hole and d is the hole diameter in meter.

Confinement conditions are different when smooth blasting than when presplitting.
During presplitting, the production round has not yet fired and for all practical purposes, the
burden is infinite. In smooth blasting, however, burdens are normally within reasonable
distances since the production round has been fired.

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 Fig:-5 Smooth blasting (Bhandari, 1997)

The blast design should use burden greater than the spacing to ensure that the fractures will
properly link between holes rather than prematurely move towards the burden.(Bhandari
,1997)

4.4 Cushion Blasting:-

Cushion blasting is similar to smooth blasting and is practiced in surface blasting. The
term cushion blasting is used in the U.S.A. Like other controlled blasting techniques, it
involves a row of closely spaced, lightly loaded holes at the perimeter of the excavation.

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 Fig:-6 Cushion blasting (Bhandari,1997)

Hole sizes are commonly 100 mm - 175 mm in diameter, and holes are spaced 1.5 m to
2.5 m apart. After the explosive are loaded, stemming material is usually placed in the void
space around the charges. The spacing between holes is normally larger than that used in the
presplitting. The burden is designed so that it is greater that the spacing, B = 1.2 - 1.3S.
Subdrilling is not necessary in general. The holes are fired after the main excavation is
removed. A minimum delay between the holes is desirable. .(Bhandari 1997)

4.5 Air Deck Technique:-

The Air deck technique involves loading a small charge of explosives (usually at the toe)
in a blasthole that is otherwise empty (Bussey and Borg, 1988), Urekar and Bussey, 1988,
Mead et al, 1993). This is similar in principle to that of Air Cushioning practiced in Russia
(Melinikov, 1962; Melnikov and Marchenko, 1971). Near the top, the hole is sealed with a
plug (inflatable device or chemically activated plug) and then stemmed.

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 Fig.:-7 Air decking (Bhandari, 1997)
When explosive in the hole is fired, the peak borehole pressure is lowered due to
expansion of gases in the empty space, the crushing and cracking immediately around the
holes is reduced but other effects are sufficient to start the cracking process from the bole but
lacks sufficient energy to cause breakage beyond the desired limits. In place of inflatable
plugs, jute bags filled with sand are utilised by suspending up to the desired depth by a nylon
cord (Sandhu and Pradhan, 1991). Conventionally charges are decked by separating portions
of the explosive column by wooden or cardboard spacers or by taping charges onto
detonating cord.

Air deck technique has significant advantages. One of the most important is that it can be
adopted to production hole diameters thus eliminating the need for different hole diameters or
two different drills. Mead et at. (1993) reported that 35% reduction in explosives was
achieved in tribal blasts in iron ore and copper mines and by reducing the charge by 20-25%
in limits blasts and up to 70% in the final row in conjunction with an air deck, equivalent
levels of fragmentation were obtained while reducing back-break by typically more than
50%. Air decking can also have other applications in reduction of fines, fly rock control or in
dimension stone blasting. .(Bhandari ,1997)

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4.6 Muffle blasting:-

As discussed earlier, fly-rock is another important adverse impact of blasting operations,

specially, when conducted in the vicinity of dense human habitation / congested areas. The
factors which influence the fly-rock are: (1) density, strength and quantity of explosives used
in relation to the spacing and burden of the pattern, (2) delay sequence used, (3) stemming
column height, which should not be less than 1.2 to 1.4 of burden in critical areas, (4)
condition of free face etc.

Fig.:-8 muffle blasting(Sharma,2010)

In case of blasting in congested areas, Muffling or covering of blast holes properly before
blasting, is the common solution to prevent fly-rock from damaging human habitants and
structures. Generally, mat or mesh (40 mm x 40 mm size) made of preferably of locally
available steel ropes (5 to 6 mm) are used for muffling purpose. Sand bags weighing 40 to 50
kg are kept over the mesh at an interval of 3 m. Rolls of mesh should be kept over rows of
holes in such a way that strip of mesh overlaps each other. It is a good practice to keep a
portion of mat or mesh hanging over the free face to content fly-rock from escaping from the
free face as well. It is to be , no blast area is kept uncovered with the mat or mesh and sand
bags re placed properly Efficiency of arresting of fly-rock depends mainly on the quality of
muffling system implemented.

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Recent development in explosive and initiation devices
5. Explosives:-
An explosive is a substance or mixture of substances, which with the application of a
suitable stimulus, such as shock impact, heat, friction, ignition, spark etc., undergoes an
instantaneous chemical transformation into enormous volume of gases having high
temperature, heat energy and pressure. This, in turn, causes disturbance in the surroundings
that may be solid, liquid, gas or their combination. The disturbance in the air causes air blast
and this is heard as a loud bang. The disturbance in the solid structure results in its shattering
and demolition. The energy released by an explosive does the following operations:

● Rock fragmentation
● Rock displacement
● Seismic vibrations
● Air blast (heard as loud bang).

Comman Ingredients of Explosives:-

Explosives are manufactured using fuels, oxidizers, sensitizers, energizers and few other
substances in varying percentage. Given in table is an account of type of ingredients usually
used.

Table:-1 Common ingredients of explosives(Tatiya,2005)

Items Ingredients
Explosive itself Fuels + Oxidizers Sensitizer+Energizers
+Miscellaneous Agents
Common fuels Fuel oil, carbon, aluminum, TNT
Common oxidizers AN, Sodium nitrate, Calcium carbonate
Common sensitizers NG, TNT, Nitro-starch, aluminium etc.
Common energizers Metallic powders
Common miscellaneous Water,thickeners,gelatinizers,emulsifier
agent stabilizers,flame retarders etc.
Main elements of these Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Carbon,
ingredients plus,certain metallic element such as:
aluminum,sodium,calcium etc.

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5.1 Properties of explosive:-

The main parameters that influence the performance and selection of an explosive are:

• Effective energy
• Velocity of detonation
• Density
• Detonation pressure
• Sensitivity
• Fume characteristics
• Storage life
• Water resistance
• Physical characteristics
• Explosive cost

•Effective energy:-
Some explosive energy is always wasted (vented to the atmosphere, lost as heat, etc) and
so it is more realistic to express explosive strength in terms of the amount of energy a user
can expect to have available to do useful work (ICI 1997). This parameter is termed the
effective energy and is used by all major mining companies in Australia to compare explosive
strengths. Effective energy is defined as the total energy released by the explosive gases as
they expand and do useful work from the initial detonation down to a cut-off pressure of 100
MPa.

a) Relative effective energy:-

Manufacturers tend to use their own methods for determining explosive energies and it
can be misleading to compare quoted values from different suppliers. A more useful
indication of the strength of an explosive is the relative effective energy.

b) Shock and heave energy:-

Energy is delivered by an explosive in two main forms, shock energy and heave energy.
At detonation, the rapidly expanding gases compress the rock around the charge and cause a
shock wave to travel through the surrounding rock mass. The gases continue to expand,
forcing their way into fractures created by the shock wave, and displace the fractured rock
outwards. This latter effect of the expanding gases is termed heave. (Sharma P.D.)

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• Velocity of Detonation (VOD):-

The velocity of detonation (VOD) is the rate at which the detonation wave travels along an
explosive column. The greater the VOD the greater the power or „shattering‟ effect of an
explosive. High VOD explosives are more suitable in hard rock and low VOD in softer rock.
Generally, explosives with a lower VOD tend to release gas over a longer period and
consequently have more „heave‟. The VOD range in commercial explosives is 2500-7500
m/s. (Sharma P.D.)

• Density:-

The density of a explosive determines the charge weight per meter of hole. The
explosives‟ density is in the range of 0.5 to 1.7. A dense explosive release more energy/unit
volume, hence it is useful for the hard and denser strata. For any explosive there is a critical
density, above which, it cannot reliably detonate. For example for TNT – 1.78 gms/c.c;
ANFO – above 1 gms/c.c. (Sharma P.D.)

• Detonation pressure:-

Detonation pressure is the pressure in the reaction zone as an explosive detonates. It is a

significant indicator of the ability of an explosive to produce good fragmentation. Its value
varies from 5 to 150KB. Due to this property a primer having higher detonation pressure
should be selected. Given below is the mathematical relation to express this parameter:

Where as: p-detonation pressure in kilobars (KB)

⍴- explosive density in gms/c.c
v -velocity of detonation in m/sec.
Above the critical density, detonation pressure is zero, as the cartridge does not explode.
(Ganpathy,b.)

• Sensitivity:-

Sensitivity is a measure of the ease with which an explosive can be detonated by heat,
friction or shock and of its ability to propagate that detonation. Some explosives with very
high sensitivity, such as pure nitroglycerin or dynamite,can be detonated by mechanical
impact or friction. The sensitivity of an explosive has other operational implications. If the

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sensitivity is too low, the detonation within a blast hole can be interrupted if there are gaps or
obstacles between the charges. An explosive that is too sensitive can result in propagation of
a detonation from one blast hole to another (sympathetic detonation). There are various
measures of sensitivity (Atlas 1987). Minimum Booster The smallest detonator or primer
charge that will produce detonation. Gap Sensitivity The ability of an explosive to propagate
across an air gap. The test is conducted on unconfined cartridges. Critical Diameter The
smallest diameter at which the detonation will propagate along a column of explosive.
Pressure Tolerance The static pressure in a blasthole at which the explosive will fail to
detonate. (Sharma, 2010)

• Fume characteristics:-

The gases produced by the detonation of an explosive consist mostly of non-toxic carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and steam. However, small amounts of toxic gases are also produced, the
main ones being carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen.

a) Carbon monoxide (CO):-

Carbon monoxide is produced by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous material. Some

properties are:

• extremely toxic - 0.1% collapse, 1% immediate death

• colourless, odourless, tasteless
• highly flammable - burns with blue flame 12.5% to 74.2%
• explosive – maximum violence at 29% by volume in air

b) Oxides of nitrogen:-
The oxides of nitrogen are nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). Of these, nitrogen dioxide is the most toxic. The gas dissolves readily in the water in
eyes and lungs to form both nitrous and nitric acids which cause irritation and, at higher
concentration, corrosion of the eyes and respiratory system. At a concentration in the air of
100 ppm, coughing may commence and a concentration of 200 ppm is likely to be fatal
(McPherson 1993, p382). Fortunately, even under extreme conditions, the concentrations of
these gases in explosive fumes are very small (of the order of 0.1%). Their effects are
minimised by: After blasting, wait a set time before re-entering the area to allow fumes to
clear. Provide sufficient ventilation to disperse the fumes. (Sharma P.D.)

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• Storage life:

Explosives deteriorate and shelf life is particularly affected by both climate and magazine
conditions. Statutory authorities in each State and Territory are responsible for the approval
and licensing of magazines used for storing explosives. The maintenance of explosives
magazines is also subject to Statutory Regulations. Explosive manufacturers specify the
storage properties or shelf life of their products, based on normal magazine conditions (ICI
1997). Nitroglycerin products are the most susceptible to deterioration during storage.
Dynamite undergoes a normal aging process which rarely affects the energy output but can
affect the appearance and sensitivity. (Sharma, 2010)

• Water resistance:-

Blasting often takes place in wet conditions, even underwater for special tasks. In these
cases, the water resistance of an explosive is a very important consideration. ANFO has no
water resistance whilst emulsions and slurries have excellent water resistance. The water
resistance of an explosive can be classified by testing its ability to detonate after exposure to
water for certain time periods (Atlas 1987). (Sharma, 2010)

•Physical characteristics:-
The physical characteristics of an explosive can be important with respect to handling and
loading into blastholes. ANFO is a granular material, which is loose and free-flowing. It can
be readily poured into a blast hole from bags or blown in from a large container by means of
compressed air. Bulk emulsions are gel-like in consistency and can be pumped into blastholes
from large containers; other emulsions are more like putty and can be packaged in plastic
sausage-shaped cartridges that are easy to load by hand into a blasthole.

•Explosive cost:-
While selecting an explosive its cost plays an important role. Comparing to
AN(Ammonium Nitrate), the relative cost of some of the common explosives on unit weight
basis has been given in table.

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Table:-2 Some important explosives together with their density, bulk strength, weight
strength and costs.( Tatiya, 2005)1

5.2 Classification of Explosives:-

Explosives have wide applications in mining and tunneling operations to carryout rock
fragmentation for the differing conditions; hence, a wide range of this product is available.
Given below is the general classification of explosives. Line diagram shown in figure depicts
this aspect. (Dowding and Ganpathy,1978)

Primary or Inintiating Explosives:-

Primary explosives may be defined as those explosive substances, which respond to
stimuli like shock, impact, friction, flame etc. and pass from the state of Deflagration (a high
rate of burning) to detonation. Example: Mercury fulminates, Lead styphanate, Di-Azo-
Nitrophenol (DDNP), Tetrazene etc. It is used in the manufacturing of the detonators,
detonating fuses and boosters. The mixture of lead styphanate, lead oxide and aluminum
powder, known as A.S.A mixture, is also used as a primary explosive.( Ganpathy, 1978 and
Pradhan, 1996)

Secondary Explosives:-

These are the explosive substances, which are capable of detonation, created by a primary
explosive and not by the deflagration. Thus these explosives have a high rate of detonation
and initiated by the primary explosives. Example: Penta Erythritol Tetra Nitrate (PETN),

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RDX, Tetryl etc.These explosives are used in the manufacturing of the detonators and form
their base charge.

Low Explosives:-
The earliest known explosives belong to this class. These are commercially known as
gunpowder or black powder. It is a mechanical mixture of ingredients such as charcoal
(15%), sulfur (10%) and potassium nitrate, KNO3, (75%). It is initiated by ignition
(deflagration) and decomposition is slow. Its flame propagates slowly; few m/sec. And
burning particles are liable to remain in contact with the surrounding atmosphere for a
considerable duration. It produces considerable amount of noxious gases rendering its use
unsuitable for underground mines. It has heaving effect on the rocks and gets spoiled by
water. ( Ganpathy.B and Pradhan,G.K.)

Fig.:-9 General classification of explosive (Ganpathy,1978.:Advance course on blasting)

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Commercial Explosives – High Explosives:-

These are the explosive substances, which cannot be initiated easily by the stimulus such
as impact, friction or flame but with the application of a shock pressure or a detonation wave.
Example: Tri-Nitro-Toluene (TNT), Nitroglycerin (NG) and slurry explosives.

Gelatin explosives:-
Nitroglycerin:

It is produced by the reaction of glycerin and nitric acid. It is an oily fluid. It is so sensitive
that by shock of any nature it can explode. To make it suitable for its industrial use either it
must be absorbed in an inert material or it must be gelatinized. Explosive containing NG, are
available three consistencies: Gelatinous, semi gelatinous and powdery. Higher NG contents
renders explosives gelatinous; lower NG content up to 10% powdery. NG based explosives
can be divided into three classes:

● Dynamites (straight dynamite, ammoniac dynamite)

● Blasting gelatin
● Semi gelatin.

Dynamites (straight dynamite, ammonia dynamite:-

The NG based explosives were called dynamites. The first commercial explosive in NG
was absorbed in natural mineral kieselghur, was termed as „Straight Dynamite‟. Later on
ammonium nitrate was introduced and a mixture of AN, NG, NaNO3, and fuel element was
marketed as Ammonia Dynamite.

Blasting gelatin:-

This is the most powerful explosive containing 92% NG and 8% Nitrocellulose (NC)
which contains 12.2% nitrogen. Chalk, zinc oxide, air bubbles, acetone etc. are added to
make the composition suitable for blasting purposes.

Semi gelatin:-

These are also termed as low NG, or high AN explosives due to the fact that in these
explosives NG is mixed with NC, to form gel matrix which is mixed with AN in various
proportions. Starch and wood meal are used as fuels. Straight gelatin and permitted
explosive that are used in coalmines also fall in this category. ( Ganpathy,and Pradhan,1996)

23
Wet blasting agents:

Blasting agent is a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. It is not classified as an explosive, and
cannot be detonated by a detonator (no. 8). A Dry Blasting Agent is a granular, free running
mix of solid oxidizer (usually AN); prilled into porous pellets, into which a liquid fuel or
propellant is absorbed. The typical example is ANFO. Main ingredients required to produce
wet blasting agents have been shown in table 5.3. The main ingredients to produce slurries
and emulsion explosives have been also shown in this diagram. The blasting agents that
contain more than 5% water by weight are referred as wet blasting agents; within this
category falls slurry explosives, water gels, emulsions, and heavy ANFO.( Ganpathy.and
Pradhan,1996)

Slurry explosives:-
Slurry explosive is defined as a semi-solid or pasty suspension of oxidizers, fuel,
sensitizers etc. in a thickener like guar gum. Inorganic cross-linking agents are added to
prevent the segregation of solid and liquid on storage. The final product is the cross linked
water gel. The oxidizers commonly used are nitrates and perchlorates of ammonium, sodium
and calcium. The fuels are glycol, starch, sugar, coal powder, sulphur etc. TNT, Nitro starch,
finally divided aluminum powder; air bubbles are used as sensitizers. Micro-balloons of 3–4
microns size are also used as sensitizers. Slurry explosives are replacing the gelatin
explosives due to the following characteristics they possess:

● Built in safety against fire, friction and impact

● Water compatibility
● Reductions in the production of toxic gases like CO and NO (fumes).(Hartmen,1978)

Emulsions Explosives:-

Emulsions are a two-liquid phase containing microscopic droplets of aqueous nitrates of

salts (chiefly AN) dispersed in fuel oil, wax or paraffin using emulsifying agent.Micro-
spheres, microscopic glass or plastic air filled bubbles, and AN droplet form the oxidizer. It is
mostly mixed at site prior to charging into holes. It is also available in cartridge packs.
(Hartmen,1987)

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Heavy ANFO:-

Heavy ANFO is 45 to 50% AN emulsion mixed with prilled ANFO. This is done to
increase density of ANFO. It is mostly mixed at site prior to charging into holes; but it is also
available in cartridge packs. ( Ganpathy, and Pradhan ,1996)

Dry blasting agents:-

Powder explosives:

One of the major applications of the prilled ammonium nitrate coated with an anti-caking
agent is in the manufacture of powder explosives. These are used as powder or in the form of
cartridges. Caking, bad fumes, poor water compatibility and low density are some its
drawbacks. Its low cost, ease in manufacturing, handling and use has made it widely
acceptable in surface as well as non-coal u/g mines. Detailed description is given in the
following paragraphs.

Explosive ANFO:-
Ammonium nitrate:

Ammonium nitrate (AN) is well known for its military and civilian use. It has been used
extensively in both world wars to manufacture Amatol which is 80% _ 20%, or 50% _ 50%
mixture of AN and TNT. It is an excellent fertilizer. Explosive properties of AN was known
accidentally when a shipload of fertilizer grade AN blew up suddenly due to a fire accident. It
was considered a potential blasting agent since then. Ammonium nitrate, which was earlier
known as an oxidizer in the manufacturing of explosives, has become the principal ingredient
of the commercial explosives in use, in the mining industry. Today due to some of its
inherent properties AN based explosives are in use all over the world. In the commercial
explosives AN percentage varies in the range of 10–95%. In all the principal classes of
explosives i.e. NG based, dry and wet blasting agents AN is used. When AN is mixed with 5–
6% fuel oil, the mixture is known as ANFO. ANFO has become an indispensable explosive
for most of the surface mines and underground non-coal mines.(Sundram, and Singh,1978.)

Special types of explosives:-

Permitted explosives:-

These explosives have been designed to use in u/g coalmines to avoid methane-coal dust
explosion. These are available in granular, gelatinous and slurry forms. For wet coal mines
gelatinous type is more suited. The V.O.D of these explosives is in the range of 6000 to

25
16,000 ft/sec. A cooling agent is incorporated in all permitted explosives. Common amongst
them are sodium chloride, potassium chloride and Ammonium chloride. A 3 mm thick cover
(sheath) of sodium bicarbonate, when wrapped all along the length of the cartridge, this is
known as Sheathed explosive. This is also a permitted type of the explosive, which can be
used in coalmines.( Pradhan,1996)

Seismic explosives:-

In seismic exploration work for mineral discovery, shots are fired in the earth crust, often
under the high heads of water, so that the resulting ground vibration reading can be recorded
by the geophones in some selected areas. The trade name given varies from company to
company e.g. Seismograph high explosive, Petrogel, Geogel etc. (Gregory,C.E.)

Overbreak control explosives:-

For smooth, perimeter blasting special types of explosives often of giving a poor coupling
ratio, having the diameter of cartridge in the range of 5/8–7/8 are used. The trade name given
varies from company to company e.g. „Smoothite‟, „Kleen-cut‟ etc. . (Gregory,C.E.)

Military Explosives:
These explosives are less sensitive to impact and shock compared to dynamites. They show
high brisance or shattering effect. Brisance is described as the ability of explosive to shatter
and fragment steel, concrete and other very hard structures. Their velocity of detonation is in
the range of 7000 to 9000 m/sec. comparing the same for the commercial explosives, which
is up to 5000 m/sec. These are known by the names such as: TNT, PETN, RDX, TETRYL
etc. They have high detonation pressures of the order of 17 million p.s.i. The components are
either melted or pored or casted into shells or suspended. These explosives features following
characteristics:

● Maximum power/unit volume

● Minimum weight/unit power
● High velocity of detonation
● Long term stability under adverse storage conditions
● Insensitivity to shock on firing and impact.

Other military explosives include the mixtures such as Ammonium salt of picric acid
(Picramate), Dinitro toluene (DNT), ethylene diamine dinitrate (EDDN), Ammonium nitrate

26
(AN), cyclotol (RDX _ TNT), composition „B‟ (RDX _ TNT _ Wax),(Dowding,and Aimone
and Ganpathy,1978)

6.Explosive Initiating Devices:

Any explosive needs stimuli like shocking, friction or flaming for it to blast, or the
reaction to initiate in it. The devices used to carryout these operations are known as initiating
devices. The description below outlines the development and application of each of such
devices/techniques to initiate an explosive. In line diagram classification of explosive
initiating devices/systems has been shown.

6.1 Classification of Initiations devices:-

Fig:-10 Classification of Initiations devices (Tatiya,2005)

Detonator System:-
Detonators:
In order to initiate high explosives and the blasting agents, a strong shock or detonation is
required. A capsule of sensitive explosive material termed detonator can accomplish this. A
detonator consists of a metal tube or shell (Cu, bronze or Al), generally 5.5 to 7.5 mm in
outer diameter and a varying length depending upon whether it is instantaneous or delay type.

27
In a detonator at its bottom a base charge PETN (Secondary explosive) is placed. To initiate
this base charge a column of primary explosive, which is a mixture of lead styphanate, lead
oxide and aluminum powder, known as A.S.A mixture is placed over it. The charges are
compacted under adequate pressure to give the desired strength.(Ganpathy,B. and
Gregory,C.E.)

Instantaneous detonators:-
Plain detonator:-

This is simpler in construction and made of an aluminum shell closed at bottom and open
at the other end (fig.). It is used under dry and non-gassy conditions and initiated by the
safety fuse that is inserted in its open end and crimped.

Instantaneous electric detonators:-

These detonators have the same construction as the plain detonators except that an electric
explosive device, often called fuse-head, is used to initiate primary explosive charge
incorporated within it. In this detonator a bridge wire is provided, and the mouth of the tube
is sealed with a plastic plug through which the insulated leg wires pass. Proper electric
current, when passed through the bridge wire of the fuse head, it fuses it; thereby it becomes
incandescent and ignites the priming charge. The detonator is fired instantaneously i.e. at the
same time, as the current is passed.

Fig:-11 Different types detonator (Tatiya ,2005)

28
Delay detonators:-
Electric delay detonators:-
These are manufactured as two varieties – Long/half second delay detonators and
short/millisecond delay detonators. These detonators are longer in length than the
instantaneous electric detonators as a delay element is incorporated in between the primary
charge and the fuse head. Long delay detonators are available in 0–15 numbers, with a
nominal half-second time interval between each delay. In short delays the delay interval is
much shorter. These types of detonators are available in a wide range of intervals using no. 6
and no. 8 strength caps. These short delays can be further classified as normal and non-
incendive delays. The normal detonators are available in the range of 18–38 delays10 each
interval varying from 8 to 100 or more milliseconds. The leg wires‟ length is in the range of 4
to 60 ft. These delays are widely used in mines other than u/g coalmines. They are also used
in tunnels. The non-incendive types of detonators are used in coalmines and are made of
copper tubes with copper leg wires of 4–16 ft lengths. These are available in 10 delays with
interval of 25–75 milliseconds. Both types can be used in wet conditions.(Ganpathy,b.)

Electronic delay detonators:-

An electronic delay detonator is very recent and in its exterior appearance it looks like a
conventional detonator. The detonator is marked with delay period number from 1 to 250.
This number does not indicate delay time but only the order in which the detonators will be
fired. Each detonator has its own time reference, but the final delay time is determined
through the interaction between the detonators and the computerized blasting machine before
their firing. Dyno Nobel is one of the companies who are manufacturing this. In this system
detonators react to the dedicated blasting machine eliminating risk of unintentional initiation.

Fig:-12 Electronic delay detonator (Tatiya , 2005)

1-Base charge (PETN), 2-Primary explosive (lead-azide),
3-Mtachhead with bridge wire, 4-Integrated circuit chip, Capacitor,
6-Over voltage protection circuitry, 7-lad wires, 8-Sealing plug.

29
In the manufacturing of this detonator several elements are used as the chain reaction of
igniting the detonator, and detonating the charge in the drill hole. Each element involves a
time delay, which is not the same for all normally equal detonators. The reason is that each
element has a certain amount of scatter time.

In figure the internal structure of an electronic detonator has been shown. Apart from base
charge (PETN) and primary explosives, lead wires and sealing plug like in the conventional
detonators, the other important components include: match head with bridge wire, an
integrated chip, capacitor and an over voltage protection circuit Not detonating without a
unique activation code and protection against excessive voltage are some its unique features
that allows it to be safer than the conventional detonators. The blasting machine is the central
unit, which supplies detonator the initiation energy and allocates it the delay time.

The latest development in explosive technology is the electronic delay detonator (EDD)
(Russell 1997, White 1999). Each detonator incorporates a micro-processor chip, contained
within a lengthened version of the PVC end plug, which controls the time at which the
fusehead ignites and therefore the delay. An electronic console is used to test and program the
delay time for each detonator. Delays can be set in increments from 1 to 6000 ms. The circuit
can be fired either manually or by computer. With the manual system, each detonator is
programmed individually using the console. In computerised firing, each detonator is
assigned an 'order number' from the console. (White 1999) A pre-determined firing pattern is
then downloaded from a laptop.

The main disadvantage at this time is that the cost of detonators is up to four times per unit
that of other types.

These are some of the specific features of these detonators:

● Shortest delay time is 1 ms and longest is 5.25 seconds.

● In this system maximum up to 500 detonators can be connected to the blasting machine.
● The filter combination with toroid, gives protection against parasite currents, static
electricity produced during pneumatic charging of explosives or radio frequency signals.
● They are extremely precise to the extent of 0.2 ms.
● The limitation at present is their costs, which is 10–15 times the conventional caps.
Electronic detonator used in rampura aagucha mines Udaipur , rajasthan (India).
(Matti,H. Sandvik-Tamrock,1999)

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Non-electric delay detonators: detonating relays (ms connectors):-

This system is used in conjunction with detonating cords (DC) for blasting large number
of holes and is capable of introducing millisecond intervals (delays) between holes or rows of
holes. A detonating relay consists of a long aluminium tube with two minidelay detonators on
both side and having an attenuate in the center. The opening at either end can be crimped to
detonating cord. These are manufactured with delay interval of 15, 17, 25, 35, 45, 50, 60 and
100 ms.14 Use of such relays can provide advantages such as easy and safer to handle, better
fragmentation, reduced ground vibration, better muck pile and reduction in overall costs.
Only one detonator is required to fire a blast. Their placement in wet conditions should be
avoided. The system finds its applications in surface mines and u/g metalliferous mines.

Primadet and anodet non-electric delay blasting systems:-

To safeguard against the static charge and current hazards from the electric detonators
Ensign Backford developed the primadet system. It consists of three components:

Fig:-13 Anodet system (Tatiya, 2005))

1. A blasting cap (no. 6) with delay elements (short or long delay). Short delay system with
30 delay periods ranging from 25 to 250 milliseconds.
2. A detonating cord having PETN of 4 grains/ft. called primaline. One end of which is
crimped into the blasting cap at the time of its manufacturing. It is available in different
lengths 2 m to 15 m (6–50 ft).
3. A plastic „J‟ connector for readily attaching the free end of the primaline to the trunk line.
Anodet and it is similar to primadet and it has been developed by CIL for its use during
charging ANFO pneumatically in the blastholes of 25 to 70 mm. The primaline is known as

31
Anoline in this system. In this system to locate the primer centrally in the hole the
manufacturer also supplies a plastic cap holder. The Anoline is available in the length of 3, 4,
or 5 m. Anodet short delays are available from 0–30 numbers. Long delay are available from
0–15. In figure. procedure to use an anodet detonator together with its accessories has been
illustrated.(Gregory, and Pradhan,1996)

The nonel system:-

It is an invention by Nitro Nobel AB Sweden used as a nonlectric system without use of

detonating cords .The manufacturer as a standard pack of the following four components
supplies it:

Fig:-14 Nonel system (Tatiya ,2005)

1. a Nonel tube – it is a transparent tube having 3 mm external dia. with 1.5 mm. bore. Inside
wall of this tube is coated with low concentration of explosive powder that posses the ability
to conduct a shock wave at constant velocity.
2. a plain detonator with a delay element.
3. a connecting block, provided with a mini-detonator – which supplies the shock wave to the
Nonel tube.
4. a starting gun and Nonel trunk line.
A special gun initiates the complete circuit that energies a Nonel trunk line, which in turn
initiates each connecting block connected to it. The mini-detonator in the connecting block
supplies the shock wave. It travels through the tube and emerges in the detonator as intensive

32
tongue of flame. The Nonel detonators are supplied in the range of 20 delay intervals each of
25 milliseconds, and six more each of 100–150 milliseconds. Nonel is a closed system. Each
hole is supplied with a separate Nonel unit and a simple manual operation connects each unit
to the preceding one. The ignition impulse, once ignited, is transmitted from unit to unit via
the connecting blocks. Several rounds may be fired in parallel. Since the system is non-
electric, no balancing or instrument checking is required. The system virtually eliminates
accidents common with electrical blasting system while at the same time radically simplifies
the blasting operation.( Gregory, and Pradhan ,1996)

The hercudet blasting cap system:-

This system also eliminated all the hazards associated with the use of electric detonators.
It is practically noiseless. It consists of the following three major elements:-

1. A special aluminium shell Hercudet detonator, having a delay element and two plastic
tubes in place of two legs wires (as in an electric detonator) (fig.).
2. Hercudet connectors for connecting lengths of tubing between adjacent holes in the circuit.
3. Hercudet blasting machine (with bottle and tester).

Fig:-15 Hercudet blasting cap system with detonator(Tatiya ,2005)

In Hercudet system the detonators are connected in the circuit as shown in figure. To fire the
round, the valves on the bottle box are opened to charge the blasting machine with the firing
mixture of fuel and oxidizer, the „arm‟ button is pressed for a short time, and then the „fire‟
button. This initiates the gas mixture in the ignition chamber of the blasting machine,

33
resulting in a detonation that proceeds at about 300 m/sec (1000 ft/sec) and initiate all the
detonators. Hercudet system has been developed in USA. This non-electric system does not
require any detonating cord, as the other non-electric systems such as primadet, anodet etc.
need. This factor obviates excessive noise resulting from most other nonelectric systems.

The system consists of a delay blasting caps appearing like the conventional once, but
with hollow plastic tubes replacing wires or detonating cord. Tubes have no explosives or
other filling or coatings. In use the caps are connected together via a tube circuit and when all
connections are made, the hook up is checked for continuity. After thus proven, a mixture of
fuel oxidizer gases is introduced to fill tubing. A spark produced in the ignition chamber
within the blasting console then causes reaction to travel at a speed of 200 m/sec. throughout
the circuit activating all the caps.(Pradhan,1996)

Advantages of short delay blasting:-

Advantages of the blasting with the use of short delay millisecond detonators comparing
the same with half second or instantaneous delays are as under:

● Reduction in ground vibrations

● Reduction in air concussion
● Reductions in over-break
● Improved fragmentation
● Better control on fly rock.

Fuse/Cord System:-
Safety fuse:-

William Blackford in 1883 introduced safety fuse to initiate gun powder/black powders.10
Safety fuse consists of a core of fine-grained gun powder/black powder, wrapped with layer
of tapes or textile yarns and waterproofs coating, to guard against moisture and shock. Its rate
of burning is 600 mm/min. It is available in a coil of 915 m (3000 ft). (Gregory,1979)

Detonating fuse/cord (DC):

Detonating fuse is a cord having a primary explosive, such as PETN, as its core and
warping of textile fibers, wire and plastic coverings around this core. Its VOD is around 6500
m/sec. Its external diameter is in the range of 4 to 10 mm (0.15 to 0.4 inches) with a core load
in the range of 8–60 grains of PETN/ft or 10–15 gms/m. Special types of DCs are available
with varying core loads such as: Seismic cord with 100 gr./ft for seismic work; RDX 70

34
Primacord with 70 gr./ft for oil well perforating; PETN 60 plastic with 60 gr./ft for oil well
servicing; Plastic Reinforced Primacord with 54 gr./ft for under-water blasting; a Detacord
with 18 gr./ft and B line with 25 gr./ft for secondary blasting. DC is safe to handle, extremely
water resistant and capable of transmitting energy of a detonator to all points along its length.
With DC detonators are not required to be put inside the holes. Some of blasting powders like
ANFO requires a greater initiating effect through out its charge column, and DC can fulfill
this requirement very well. It can be initiated by using a plain or electric detonator. To blast
number of holes, the DC is inserted into the holes by lacing it to a primer cartridge or
threading through a cast booster. The DC coming out from each of the holes (as a branch
line) is connected to a common trunk line by strapping (taping), clove hitch or by a plastic
connector. The detonator, plain or electric (of no. 6 strength) is lashed with tape, with its base
pointing in the intended direction of travel of the detonation wave. (Gregory ,1979)

Fig:-16 Detonating fuse/cord (Wikipedia)

Igniter cords (IC):-

It is cord-like in appearance and when ignited the flame passes along its length at a
uniform rate. These are available with three rates of ignition; Fast – @ 11.5 sec/m (3.5 sec/ft,
black in color); Medium speed @ 16–31 sec/m (5–10 sec/ft, green in color) and; Slow @ 50–
65 sec/m (15–20 sec/ft, red in color). They can be used in surface mines, non-gassy and
metalliferous underground mines, and tunnels for lighting any number of safety fuses in a
desired sequence. IC connectors are required to use this cord, as shown in figure.
(Gregory,C.E.)

35
 Fig:-17 IC Connector (Tatiya ,2005)
7. Conclusion:-

Drilling and blasting generally is recognized as the most cost-efficient way to crush rock
and minerals. However, efforts to contain costs, increase production and mitigate adverse
effects of blast to meet tighter aggregate specifications, to reduce production of both fines
and oversize and to appease quarry neighbors adds complexity to drilling and blasting
operations. Fortunately, technology continues to move the process from an art to a science.
Proper controlled blasting techniques with computers and micro-electronics have profoundly
improved the design and use of drills, drill tools, blast initiation products, explosives and
seismographs. If the progress continues at this pace, days are not far, when we run our mines
or excavation activities with no or very little nuisances of blasting.

Overcharging of holes should be avoided as not only it increases cost but also result in
greater ground vibration and fly rock..Ground condtion shold be given importance while
selecting explosives. Appropriate initiation system should be considered keeping in view of
our desired fragmentation .

Benefits of appropriate selection of explosives are:-

• Reduce damage of rock.

• improve the competence of the rock at the perimeter of the Excavation.
• Reduce ground vibration.
• Reduce flyrock during blasting.
• Improve high wall stability along final excavation line.
• Iimprove slope stability of high walls.

36
8. References:-

1. Sharma Abhishek and Ananthamurthy B.S.(2014), “Absolute Controlled Blasting in Pier

Found ations”; The Indian mining&engineering journal,vol.53(08),pp.19- 24
2. Kumar Ashish, Bharti Prerna and Kumar Shiv Shankar(2013),Blast Vibration technique,
. The Indian mining & engineering journal,vol.52(11),pp.17- 26
3. Gopinath G.,Venkatesh H.S. and Balachander R.(2013), Pre-split blasting for final
wall control in a nuclear power project, Taylor & Francis Group, London
4. Sharafisafa M.and Mortazavi A.(2013), A numerical analysis of the pre-splitting
Controlled blasting method, Taylor & Francis Group, London
5. Sharma Partha Das(2010), “Techniques of controlled blasting for mines”.
6. Bhandari Sushil(1997), “Controlled blasting” Engineering Rock Blasting
Operation,pp.326-346
7. Tatiya Ratan Raj(2005), “Explosives and blasting”,Surface and Underground
Excavations, Taylor & Francis Group,LLC,PP.115
8. Sharma Partha Das(2006),Non primary explosive detonators(NPED),Journal of
Mines,Metals(3)
9. Gregory C.E.(1979), Explosives for North American Engineers. Trans. Tech. Publ.
Rockport M.A.
10. Sharma Partha Das(2011),Explosive and Detonators,
11. Pradhan G.K.(1996),Explosives and Blasting Techniques. Mintech Publications,
Buvnesvar
12. Matti H.(1999), Rock Excavation Handbook. Sandvik – Tamrock

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