Basics of

Electrical
Engineering
Training Manual

Prepared on: 05.01.2015

Review date: 04.01.2016

 Marico Limited

CONTENTS

Level I: Electrical Basics Page no.

1. Electricity Basics
1.1 Basic Principles of Electricals 04
1.2 Types of Electricity AC/DC 05
1.3 Major Electrical Parameters 13

2. Electrical Knowledge- HT
2.1 Basics of Generation, transmission and Distribution 14
2.2 Switchgears used in transmission and distribution 14
2.3 HT Yard understanding 19
2.4 Maintenance Practices in HT side 22

• Electrical Knowledge- LT
3.1 Understanding LT side of the plan 24
3.2 Basics of LT switchgears and components 24
3.3 Losses in LT side 26
3.4 Maintenance practices in LT side 29

Level II: Major Electrical Equipment

1. Transformer
1.1 Basics of Transformer 38
1.2 Protections of Transformer 45
1.3 Maintenance Practices of transformers 47
1.4 Losses in Transformer 51

2. Diesel generators
2.1 Basics of Diesel Generator 55
2.2 Maintenance practices of DG 61
2.3 Efficiency of DG set 62
2.4 Statutory requirements of DG set 63

3. Motors

3.1 Basic principles of motors 66

3.2 Types of Motor application 68
3.3 Maintenance practices of motors 69

4. Circuit Breakers

4.1 Basic Principle 70

4.2 Types of circuit breaker and application 72
4.3 Application 72
4.4 Maintenance Practices 74

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5. Electrical Panels

5.1 Standard Installation and requirements 76

Level III: Measurement Analysis and Improvement

1. Losses Measurement

1.1 Types of losses in electrical system 79

2. Energy consumption measurement

2.1 Metering system 87

2.2 Standard formulae 101

3. Power Factor and improvement

3.1 Basics of power factor 103

3.2 Power Factor Correction 106
3.3 improvement techniques & benefits 110

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LEVEL I: ELECTRICAL BASICS

1. ELECTRICITY BASICS

1.1 Basic Electrical Principles

The conduction of current in conductors refers to flow of free electrons under the influence
of an external potential. Under normal conditions the electrons are bonded inside an atom
with a positively charged nucleus and electrons revolving around the nucleus in different
orbits or energy states.

Nature of electricity

The electrons in a conductor are under the influence of an external potential and this flow if
charges is called current. However the charge can also accumulate on a non –conducting
material under certain conditions, thus making that part of the material electrically charged.
These charged do not flow unless a conducting path becomes available and this type of
electricity is known as static.

An electric current is produced when free electrons move from negative to positive
potential. Materials that permit many electrons to move freely to potential. Materials that
permit many electrons to move freely are called conductors. Copper, silver, aluminium,
brass and iron are considered good conductors. Copper is most common material used as
conductor. Materials that allow few or no electrons are called insulators or bad conductors.
Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass, mica and ceramic are insulators or bad conductors.

There is another class of materials known as semi conductors. These materials do not
conduct electricity at normal room temperatures. However at some higher temperature they
start behaving like a conductor. The two most common types of semiconductors are silicon
and Germanium, can be used to manufacture devices that have characteristics of both
conductors and insulators.

1) Electrical potential & emf: It is the measure of the work required to be done to
move a unit charge between infinity & that point, against the electric field. The unit
of electric potential is the volt.

Volt= Watt/Ampere

Difference in electric potential between 2 points in an electric circuit is called

potential difference. The emf provided by source of energy such as battery or a
generator is measured in volt.

2) Potential difference & resistance: For a continuous current to flow between

two points in a circuit, a potential difference or voltage is required between them; a
complete conducting part is necessary to & from the source of electrical energy. The
unit of pd is volt.

The flow of electric current is subjected to friction. The friction or opposition is called
resistance. It is the property of the conductor that limits current.

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Resistance R = Potential Difference

Current

3) Electrical Power & Energy: Power P in electric circuits given by the product of
potential difference V & current I. The unit of power is watt (W).

P=V*I

P=I²*R

P=V²*R

Electrical Energy: If the power is measured in watt and the time in second, then the
unit of energy is watt*sec or Joule.

Electric Energy = Power * Time

1.2 Types of Electricity AC/ DC

Direct Current or D.C. as it is more commonly called, is a form of current or voltage that
flows around an electrical circuit in one direction only, making it a “Unidirectional” supply.
Generally, both DC currents and voltages are produced by power supplies, batteries,
dynamos and solar cells to name a few. A DC voltage or current has a fixed magnitude
(amplitude) and a definite direction associated with it. For example, +12V represents 12
volts in the positive direction or -5V represents 5 volts in the negative direction.

We also know that DC power supplies do not change their value with regards to time, they
are a constant value flowing in a continuous steady state direction. In other words, DC
maintains the same value for all times and a constant unidirectional DC supply never
changes or becomes negative unless its connections are physically reversed. An example of
a simple DC or direct current circuit is shown below.

DC Circuit and Waveform

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An alternating function or AC Waveform on the other hand is defined as one that varies in
both magnitude and direction in more or less an even manner with respect to time making
it a “Bi-directional” waveform. An AC function can represent either a power source or a
signal source with the shape of an AC waveform generally following that of a mathematical
sinusoid as defined by: - A (t) = Amax x sin (2πƒt).

The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current

Generally refers to a time-varying waveform with the most common of all being called a
Sinusoid better known as a Sinusoidal Waveform. Sinusoidal waveforms are more
generally called by their short description as Sine Waves. Sine waves are by far one of the
most important types of AC waveform used in electrical engineering.

The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or
current against time is called an AC Waveform. An AC waveform is constantly changing its
polarity every half cycle alternating between a positive maximum value and a negative
maximum value respectively with regards to time with a common example of this being the
domestic mains voltage supply we use in our homes.

This means then that the AC Waveform is a “time-dependent signal” with the most common
type of time-dependant signal being that of the Periodic Waveform. The periodic or AC
waveform is the resulting product of a rotating electrical generator. Generally, the shape of
any periodic waveform can be generated using a fundamental frequency and
superimposing it with harmonic signals of varying frequencies and amplitudes but that’s for
another tutorial.

Alternating voltages and currents cannot be stored in batteries or cells like direct current
can, it is much easier and cheaper to generate those using alternators and waveform
generators when needed. The type and shape of an AC waveform depends upon the
generator or device producing them, but all AC waveforms consist of a zero voltage line
that divides the waveform into two symmetrical halves. The main characteristics of an AC
Waveform are defined as:

AC Waveform Characteristics

 L2The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat
itself from start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the waveform
for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
 The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second
time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, (ƒ = 1/T) with the unit of
frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
 The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in volts or
amps.

In our tutorial about Waveforms , we looked at different types of waveforms and said that
“Waveforms are basically a visual representation of the variation of a voltage or current

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plotted to a base of time”. Generally, for AC waveforms this horizontal base line represents
a zero condition of either voltage or current. Any part of an AC type waveform which lies
above the horizontal zero axis represents a voltage or current flowing in one direction.

Likewise, any part of the waveform which lies below the horizontal zero axis represents a
voltage or current flowing in the opposite direction to the first. Generally for sinusoidal AC
waveforms the shape of the waveform above the zero axis is the same as the shape below
it. However, for most non-power AC signals including audio waveforms this is not always
the case.

The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering are the Sinusoidal Waveforms. However, an alternating AC waveform may not
always take the shape of a smooth shape based around the trigonometric sine or cosine
function. AC waveforms can also take the shape of Complex Waves, Square Waves or
Triangular Waves and these are shown below.

Types of Periodic Waveform

The time taken for an AC Waveform to complete one full pattern from its positive half to
its negative half and back to its zero baseline again is called a Cycle and one complete
cycle contains both a positive half-cycle and a negative half-cycle. The time taken by the
waveform to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic Time of the waveform, and is
given the symbol “T”.

The number of complete cycles that are produced within one second (cycles/second) is
called the Frequency, symbol ƒ of the alternating waveform. Frequency is measured in
Hertz, (Hz) named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.

Then we can see that a relationship exists between cycles (oscillations), periodic time and
frequency (cycles per second), so if there is ƒ number of cycles in one second, each
individual cycle must take 1/ƒ seconds to complete.

Relationship between Frequency and Periodic Time

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AC Waveform Example No.1

1. What will be the periodic time of a 50Hz waveform and 2. What is the frequency of an AC
waveform that has a periodic time of 10mS?

a.

b.

Frequency used to be expressed in “cycles per second” abbreviated to “cps”, but today it is
more commonly specified in units called “Hertz”. For a domestic mains supply the frequency
will be either 50Hz or 60Hz depending upon the country and is fixed by the speed of
rotation of the generator. But one hertz is a very small unit so prefixes are used that denote
the order of magnitude of the waveform at higher frequencies such as kHz, MHz and even
GHz.

Amplitude of an AC Waveform

As well as knowing either the periodic time or the frequency of the alternating quantity,
another important parameter of the AC waveform is Amplitude, better known as its
Maximum or Peak value represented by the terms, Vmax for voltage or Imax for current.

The peak value is the greatest value of either voltage or current that the waveform reaches
during each half cycle measured from the zero baseline. Unlike a DC voltage or current
which has a steady state that can be measured or calculated using Ohm’s Law, an
alternating quantity is constantly changing its value over time.

For pure sinusoidal waveforms this peak value will always be the same for both half cycles
(+Vm = -Vm ) but for non-sinusoidal or complex waveforms the maximum peak value can
be very different for each half cycle. Sometimes, alternating waveforms are given a peak-to-
peak, Vp-p value and this is simply the distance or the sum in voltage between the
maximum peak value, +Vmax and the minimum peak value, -Vmax during one complete
cycle.

The Average Value of an AC Waveform

The average or mean value of a continuous DC voltage will always be equal to its maximum
peak value as a DC voltage is constant. This average value will only change if the duty cycle
of the DC voltage changes. In a pure sine wave if the average value is calculated over the
full cycle, the average value would be equal to zero as the positive and negative halves will
cancel each other out. So the average or mean value of an AC waveform is calculated or
measured over a half cycle only and this is shown below.

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To find the average value of the waveform we need to calculate the area underneath the
waveform using the mid-ordinate rule, trapezoidal rule or the Simpson’s rule found
commonly in mathematics. The approximate area under any irregular waveform can easily
be found by simply using the mid-ordinate rule.

The zero axis base line is divided up into any number of equal parts and in our simple
example above this value was nine, ( V1 to V9 ). The more ordinate lines that are drawn the
more accurate will be the final average or mean value. The average value will be the
addition of all the instantaneous values added together and then divided by the total
number. This is given as.

Average Value of an AC Waveform

Where: n equals the actual number of mid-ordinates used.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform this average or mean value will always be equal to
0.637 x Vmax and this relationship also holds true for average values of current.

The RMS Value of an AC Waveform

The average value of an AC waveform is NOT the same value as that for a DC waveforms
average value. This is because the AC waveform is constantly changing with time and the
heating effect given by the formula (P= I 2.R), will also be changing producing a positive
power consumption. The equivalent average value for an alternating current system that
provides the same power to the load as a DC equivalent circuit is called the “effective
value”.

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This effective power in an alternating current system is therefore equal to: (I 2.R.Average). As
power is proportional to current squared, the effective current, I will be equal to √ I
squared Ave. Therefore, the effective current in an AC system is called the Root Mean
Squared or R.M.S. value and RMS values are the DC equivalent values that provide the
same power to the load.

The effective or RMS value of an alternating current is measured in terms of the direct
current value that produces the same heating effect in the same value resistance. The RMS
value for any AC waveform can be found from the following modified average value
formula.

RMS Value of an AC Waveform

Where: n equals the number of mid-ordinates.

Form Factor and Crest Factor

Although little used these days, both Form Factor and Crest Factor can be used to give
information about the actual shape of the AC waveform. Form Factor is the ratio between
the average value and the RMS value and is given as.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be equal to 1.11. Crest Factor is
the ratio between the R.M.S. value and the Peak value of the waveform and is given as.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Crest Factor will always be equal to 1.414.

AC Waveform Example No2

A sinusoidal alternating current of 6 amps is flowing through a resistance of 40 . Calculate

the average voltage and the peak voltage of the supply.

The R.M.S. Voltage value is calculated as:

The Average Voltage value is calculated as:

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The Peak Voltage value is calculated as:

The use and calculation of Average, R.M.S, Form factor and Crest Factor can also be use with
any type of periodic waveform including Triangular, Square, Saw toothed or any other
irregular or complex voltage/current waveform shape. Conversion between the various
sinusoidal values can sometimes be confusing so the following table gives a convenient way
of converting one sine wave value to another.

Sinusoidal Waveform Conversion Table

Convert From Multiply By Or By To Get Value

Peak 2 (√2)2 Peak-to-Peak

Peak-to-Peak 0.5 1/2 Peak

Peak 0.7071 1/(√2) RMS

Peak 0.637 2/π Average

Average 1.570 π/2 Peak

Average 1.111 π/(2√2) RMS

RMS 1.414 √2 Peak

RMS 0.901 (2√2)/π Average

In the next tutorial about Sinusoidal Waveforms we will look at the principal of generating
a sinusoidal AC waveform (a sinusoid) along with its angular velocity representation.

Direct Current: Direct current is one which flows in only one direction i.e. from positive
electrode towards negative electrode.

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Alternating Current: Alternating Current is one which continuously keeps reversing its
direction several times in a second.

AC values: Instantaneous Values are the values of alternating quantity at any instant of
time.

Instantaneous voltage, v= Vmax.sinwt

Average voltage=0.637*max. Voltage

RMS value= 0.707* max. Value

RMS Value: It is the effective value of an alternating current which will produce same
amount of heating effect as an equivalent dc current. By default, AC quantity is the rms
value.

Why Ac is preferred over dc?

95% of the total electric energy is generated, transmitted and distributed as ac for following
reasons:

 Higher voltages can be generated than DC. So more current can be transmitted with
less current loss and with smaller size of conductors.
 AC voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by using transformers.
 AC motors of same power rating as of DC motors are cheaper, less bulky & require
less maintenance.
 AC can be converted into DC by low cost technology.

1.3 Major Electrical Parameters

1. Electric Charge

Characteristic of subatomic particles that determines their electromagnetic interactions

• An electron has a -1.602∙10-19 Coulomb charge

• The rate of flow of charged particles is called current

2. Current

• Current = (Number of electrons that pass in one second) ∙ (charge/electron)

• -1 ampere = (6.242∙1018 e/sec) ∙(-1.602 10-19Coulomb/e)

• Notice that an ampere = Coulomb/second

• The negative sign indicates that the current inside is actually flowing in the opposite
direction of the electron flow

• i = dq/dt – the derivative or slope of the charge when plotted against time in
seconds

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• Q = ∫ i ∙ dt – the integral or area under the current when plotted against time in
seconds

• DC Current has a constant value

• AC Current has a value that changes sinusoidal

3. Why Does Current Flow

• A voltage source provides the energy (or work) required to produce a current

• Volts = joules/Coulomb = dW/dQ

• A source takes charged particles (usually electrons) and raises their potential so they
flow out of one terminal into and through a transducer (light bulb or motor) on their
way back to the source’s other terminal

4.Voltage

• Voltage is a measure of the potential energy that causes a current to flow through a
transducer in a circuit

• Voltage is always measured as a difference with respect to an arbitrary common

point called ground

• Voltage is also known as electromotive force or EMF outside engineering

5.Passive Devices

• A passive transducer device functions only when energized by a source in a circuit

• Passive devices can be modeled by a resistance

• Passive devices always draw current so that the highest voltage is present on the
terminal where the current enters the passive device

6.Active Devices

• Sources expend energy and are considered active devices

• Their current normally flows out of their highest voltage terminal

• Sometimes, when there are multiple sources in a circuit, one overpowers another,
forcing the other to behave in a passive manner

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2. Electrical Knowledge –HT

2.1 Basics of Generation, transmission and Distribution

Electrical power is carried from generating point up to the points of consumption by
Transmission and distribution networks. Generators in the generating stations produce
power at normally 6kV or 12.5 kV. This power is first carried over fairly long distances of
hundreds of km or more, up to the receiving substation and from the consumers through a
number of substations. Domestic consumers, small industries and commercial
establishments require power at low voltages. Large industries can accept power at higher
voltages from 11kV to 110 kV. To minimize the losses of transmission and distribution,
appropriate voltages have to be chosen for each section of the T &D networks. The
schematic diagram shows a typical T & D network:

2.2 Switchgears used in transmission and distribution

In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnects

switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment.

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Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear
faults downstream. This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability of the
electricity supply.

The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on
insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making
opening manually operated switches too dangerous for anything other than isolation of a
de-energized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely
controlled. By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed
structure with electrically operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-
filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing
large currents and power levels to be safely controlled by automatic equipment
incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and communications.

The high-voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for operating
motors and other electric machines.[1] The technology has been improved over time and can
now be used with voltages up to 1,100 kV.[2]

Typically, switchgears in substations are located on both the high-voltage and low-voltage
side of large power transformers. The switchgear on the low-voltage side of the
transformers may be located in a building, with medium-voltage circuit breakers for
distribution circuits, along with metering, control, and protection equipment. For industrial
applications, a transformer and switchgear line-up may be combined in one housing, called
a unitized substation or USS

Switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be insulated by some other
substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is the gas insulated
switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur
hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil or vacuum insulated switchgear.

The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to interrupt
fault currents of thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within a switchgear enclosure) is the
primary component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching of the arc when the circuit
breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects the circuit) requires careful design.
Circuit breakers fall into these five types:

Oil

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil along the
path of the arc. The vapor released by the arcing consists of hydrogen gas.

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Air

Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) or the magnetic force of the arc itself to
elongate the arc. As the length of the sustainable arc is dependent on the available voltage,
the elongated arc will eventually exhaust itself. Alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung
into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly: typically between
30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of the device.

Gas

Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely
upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 gas to quench the stretched arc.

Hybrid

A hybrid switchgear is one that combines the components of traditional air-insulated

switchgear (AIS) and SF6 gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) technologies. It is characterized by a
compact and modular design, which encompasses several different functions in one
module.

Vacuum

Circuit breakers with vacuum interrupters have minimal arcing characteristics (as there is
nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched
by a small amount (<2–8 mm). Near zero current the arc is not hot enough to maintain
plasma, and current ceases; the gap can then withstand the rise of voltage. Vacuum circuit
breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 40,500 volts. Unlike
the other types, they are inherently unsuitable for interrupting DC faults

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Breakers that use carbon dioxide as the insulating and arc extinguishing medium work on
the same principles as an SF6 breaker. Because SF6 is a more potent greenhouse gas than
CO2, by switching from SF6 to CO2 it is possible to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions by
10 tons during the product life cycle.

Classification

Several different classifications of switchgear can be made:

 By the current rating.

 By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current kAIC that the device can safely
interrupt)
o Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents
o Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currents

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o Isolators are off load disconnectors which are to be operated after Circuit
Breakers, or else if the load current is very small
 By voltage class:
o Low voltage (less than 1 kV AC)
o Medium voltage (1 kV AC through to approximately 75 kV AC)
o High voltage (75 kV to about 230 kV AC)
o Extra high voltage, ultra high voltage (more than 230 kV)
 By insulating medium:
o Air
o Gas (SF6 or mixtures)
o Oil
o Vacuum
o Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 By construction type:
o Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA enclosure
type)
o Outdoor
o Industrial
o Utility
o Marine
o Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)
o Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)
o Live-front
o Dead-front
o Open
o Metal-enclosed
o Metal-clad
o Arc-resistant
 By IEC degree of internal separation[6]
o No Separation (Form 1)
o Bus bars separated from functional units (Form 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)
o Terminals for external conductors separated from bus bars (Form 2b, 3b, 4a,
4b)
o Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not
from each other (Form 3a, 3b)
o Functional units separated from each other (Form 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b)
o Terminals for external conductors separated from each other (Form 4a, 4b)
o Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated functional
unit (Form 4b)
 By interrupting device:
o Fuses
o Air Circuit Breaker
o Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
o Oil Circuit Breaker
o Vacuum Circuit Breaker
o Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker
o CO2 Circuit Breaker
 By operating method:

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o Manually operated
o Motor/stored energy operated
o Solenoid operated
 By type of current:
o Alternating current
o Direct current
 By application:
o Transmission system
o Distribution
 By purpose
o Isolating switches (disconnectors)
[7][8]
o Load-break switches.
o Grounding (earthing) switches

A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for example, air-
insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually operated switches may all exist in the
same row of cubicles.

Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a multitude of standards.
In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards are used, much of the rest of the world
uses IEC standards, sometimes with local national derivatives or variations.

Functions

One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of short-circuit

and overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear also
provides isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to enhance
system availability by allowing more than one source to feed a load.

Safety

To help ensure safe operation sequences of switchgear, trapped key interlocking provides
predefined scenarios of operation. For example, if only one of two sources of supply are
permitted to be connected at a given time, the interlock scheme may require that the first
switch must be opened to release a key that will allow closing the second switch. Complex
schemes are possible.

Indoor switchgear can also be type tested for internal arc containment (e.g. IEC 62271-200).
This test is important for user safety as modern switchgear is capable of switching large
currents.[9]

Switchgear is often inspected using thermal imaging to assess the state of the system and
predict failures before they occur. Other methods include partial discharge (PD) testing,
using either fixed or portable testers, and acoustic emission testing using surface-mounted
transducers (for oil equipment) or ultrasonic detectors used in outdoor switchyards.
Temperature sensors fitted to cables to the switchgear can permanently monitor
temperature build-up. SF6 equipment is invariably fitted with alarms and interlocks to warn
of loss of pressure, and to prevent operation if the pressure falls too low.

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The increasing awareness of dangers associated with high fault levels has resulted in
network operators specifying closed door operation for operating earth switches and
racking breakers. Many European power companies have banned operators from switch
rooms while operating. Remote racking systems are available which allow an operator to
rack switchgear from a remote location without the need to wear a protective arc flash
hazard suit.

245 kV circuit breaker in air insulated substation 420 kV gas insulated switchgear

2.3 HT Yard understanding

Substations Electric power is produced at the power generating stations, which are
generally located far away from the load centres. High voltage transmission lines are used
to transmit the electric power from the generating stations to the load centres. Between the
power generating station and consumers a number of transformations and switching
stations are required. These are generally known as substations. Substations are important
part of power system and form a link between generating stations, transmission systems
and distribution systems. It is an assembly of electrical components such as bus-bars,
switchgear apparatus, power transformers etc. Their main functions are to receive power
transmitted at high voltage from the generating stations and reduce the voltage to a value
suitable for distribution. Some substations provide facilities for switching operations of
transmission lines, others are converting stations. Substations are provided with safety
devices to disconnect equipment or circuit at the time of faults. Substations are the
convenient place for installing synchronous condensers for the purpose of improving power
factor and it provide facilities for making measurements to monitor the operation of the
various parts of the power system. The substations may be classified in according to service
requirements and constructional features. According to service requirements it is classified
in to transformer substations, switching substations and converting substations.

(1) Transformer substations:

Majority of the substations in the power system are in the type. They are used to
transform power from one voltage level to another voltage level. Transformer is the
main component in such substations. Transformer substations are further classified
into Step-up substations, Primary grid substations, Secondary substations and
Distribution substations.

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(a) Step-up substations: These substations are usually located at the generating
stations. Generating voltage of the order of 11kV needs to be stepped up to a
primary transmission voltage level of the order of 220kV or 400kV.

(b) Primary grid substations: These substations are located at the end of primary
transmission lines and the primary voltage is stepped down to suitable secondary
voltages of the order of 66kV or 33kV.

(c) Secondary substations: The voltage is further stepped down to 11kV. Large
consumers are supplied power at 11kV.

(d) Distribution substations: These substations are located near the consumer
localities to supply power at 400V, three phase or 230V, single phase to the
consumers.

(2) Switching substations:

These substations are meant for switching operations of power lines without
transforming the voltage. Different connections are made between the various
transmission lines. (3) Converting substation: Such substations are meant for either
converting AC to DC or vice versa. Some are used to change the frequency from
higher to lower or vice versa for industry utilisations.

According to constructional features substations are classified into Indoor

substations, Outdoor substations, Underground substations and Pole mounted
substations.

(1) Indoor substations: All equipments of the substation are installed within the
station buildings. (2) Outdoor substations: All equipments such as
transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, etc., are installed outdoors. (3)
Underground substations: In thickly populated areas where the space is the
major constraint, and cost of land is higher, under such situation the
substations are laid underground. (4) Pole mounted substations: This is an
outdoor substation with equipments installed overhead on a H pole or 4 pole
structure.

Single Line Diagram Any complex power system even though they are three phase
circuits, can be represented by a single line diagram, showing various electrical
components of power system and their interconnection. In single line representation
of substation the electrical components such as power transformers, incoming and
outgoing lines, bus-bars, switching and protecting equipments, are represented by
standard symbols and their interconnections between them are shown by lines.
Single line diagrams are useful in planning a substation layout. Some of the standard
symbols used to represent substation components are given in Table below -

1. AC Generator
2. Bus Bar
3. Power transformer -Two winding
4. Three winding transformer
5. Current Transformers (CT)
6. Voltage transformer or Potential transformer (PT)

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7. Circuit Breaker (CB)

8. Circuit breaker with isolator
9. Isolator or Group Operating Switch (GOS)
10. Lighting Arrestor (LA)
11. Earth Switch (ES)
12. Wave or Line trap
13. Coupling Capacitor (CC)

(3) Converting substations :

Power transformers: Power transformers are used generation and transmission

network for stepping-up the voltage at generating station and stepping-down the
voltage for distribution. Auxiliary transformers supply power to auxiliary equipments at
the substations.

Current transformers (CT): The lines in substations carry currents in the order of
thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments are designed for low value of
currents. Current transformers are connected in lines to supply measuring instruments
and protective relays. For example a 100/1A CT is connected in a line carrying 100A,
and then the secondary current of CT is 1A.

Potential transformers (PT): The lines in substations operate at high voltages. The
measuring instruments are designed for low value of voltages. Potential transformers
are connected in lines to supply measuring instruments and protective relays. These
transformers make the low voltage instruments suitable for measurement of high
voltages. For example a 11kV/110V PT is connected to a power line and the line voltage
is 11kV then the secondary voltage will be 110V.

Circuit breaker (CB): Circuit breakers are used for opening or closing a circuit under
normal as well as abnormal (faulty) conditions. Different types of CBs which are
generally used are oil circuit breaker, air-blast circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker
and SF6 circuit breaker.

Isolators or Isolating switches: Isolators are employed in substations to isolate a part of

the system for general maintenance. Isolator switches are operated only under no load
condition. They are provided on each side of every circuit breaker.

Lightning arresters (LA): Lightning arresters are the protective devices used for
protection of equipment from lightning strokes. They are located at the starting of the
substation and also provided near the transformer terminals.

Earth switch: It is a switch normally kept open and connected between earth and
conductor. If the switch is closed it discharges the electric charge to ground, available
on the uncharged line.

Wave trap: This equipment is installed in the substation for trapping the high
frequency communication signals sent on the line from remote substation and diverting
them to the telecom panel in the substation control room.

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Coupling capacitor: A coupling capacitor is used in substations where communication

is done by AC power line. It offers very low impedance to high frequency carrier signal
and allows them to enter the line matching unit and blocks the low frequency signal.

Bus-bar: When number of lines operating at the same voltage levels needs to be
connected electrically, bus-bars are used. Bus-bars are conductors made of copper or
aluminium, with very low impedance and high current carrying capacity. Different types
of bus-bar arrangements are single bus bar arrangements, single bus-bar with
sectionalisation, double bus-bar arrangements, sectionalised double bus-bar
arrangement, double main and auxiliary bus-bar arrangement, breaker and a half
scheme/1.5 Breaker scheme, and ring bus-bar scheme.

Single bus-bar arrangement: It consists of single bus-bar. Both incoming

and outgoing lines are connected to the single bus-bar. The advantages of
this arrangement are low maintenance, low initial cost and simple operation.
The drawback of this arrangement is if any repair work is to be done on bus-
bar, complete system get interrupted. Figure below shows that three incoming
and three outgoing line are connected to the single bus arrangement.

Single bus-bar with sectionalisation: Single bus-bar is divided into sections.

Any two sections are connected by circuit breaker and isolators. During fault
or maintenance particular section can be de-energised. This eliminates
complete shutdown of the system. Figure below shows that two incoming and
two outgoing lines are connected bus section 1 and other two incoming and
two outgoing lines are connected bus section 2.

Double bus-bar arrangements: This arrangement is also known as duplicate

bus-bar system. It consists of two bus-bars ‘main’ and ‘spare’ of same capacity.
Incoming line and outgoing lines can be connected to either bus by means of
bus coupler breaker and isolators. Continuity of supply to the circuit can be
maintained during maintenance of main bus-bar or fault occurring on it.
Figure below shows that three incoming lines and three outgoing lines are
connected to either bus by a bus coupler.

2.4 Maintenance Practices in HT side

Major Components of a Transmission and Distribution System

The major components of a transmission and distribution system typically include

transmission lines, distribution lines, substations, and switch- yards. Transmission lines carry
electricity from the generating plant where it is produced, and distribution lines carry
electricity to the houses, offices, and industries where it is used.

The distances between generating plants and consumers are often too great to allow
electricity to be carried directly from the plants to the consumers. To carry electricity over
long distances, transmission and distribution systems need voltage changing substations,
which are referred to in this program as substations. At substations, voltage is increased for
efficient transmission over long distances or decreased for distribution to nearby customers.

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Besides changing voltage for transmission or distribution, a transmission and distribution

system must also be able to ensure that users will continue to receive electricity even if part
of the system fails.

Substations and Switchyards

Shunt reactors are used to improve substation efficiency by adding inductive load to
counterbalance capacitive loads. A shunt reactor, like the one shown in Figure 1-33, looks
like a power trans- former, except that the bushings on a shunt reactor are connected with
the source circuit; there are no major connections leading out of a shunt reactor (such as
the secondary connections on a power transformer).

Monitoring Equipment Monitoring equipment is used to provide a means of “watching”

substation equipment and systems for problems so that they can be limited and corrected.
Commonly used types of monitoring equipment include potential transformers, current
transformers, meters, and relays.

Potential transformers Potential transformers are devices that reduce line voltage to a
proportionally lower and safer voltage for metering and relaying. A potential transformer
normally has a large porcelain bushing that insulates the higher voltage conductor going
into the transformer. The transformer itself is usually enclosed in a metal housing. The
output wires of the transformers are enclosed in conduit to protect them. These wires
connect to meters or relaying equipment in a control house.

Potential transformers come in many shapes and sizes. They are sometimes difficult to
distinguish from other devices such as some current transformers and surge arrestors. For
this reason, potential transformers are often identified in substations.

Current Transformers In contrast to potential transformers, which reduce line voltage,

current transformers reduce line current to a proportionally lower current for metering or
relaying. Current transformers can look like potential transformers or surge arrestors. One
identifying feature on the current transformer is a large canister on top of the bushing with
a conductor is not always forced-oil/forced-air cooled. Power transformers with other kinds
of cooling systems can also be gas sealed. A gas-sealed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
power transformer. The cooling system is recognizable by the combination of the radiator
and the fan.

Regardless of the type of cooling system that a gas-sealed power transformer has, the gas
seal system works in basically the same way. The simplified illustration represents the
sealing system of a gas-sealed power transformer. The components of the sealing system
are a gas cylinder, two pressure regulators, two gauges, and a pressure relief device.

The windings in a gas-sealed power transformer are completely covered by oil. The rest of
the enclosure is filled with gas, which is supplied through tubing from the cylinder. The
regulators ensure that gas is supplied at a pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure.
This slight positive pressure keeps air and moisture from leaking into the enclosure.

When the transformer is operating, the windings heat the oil, causing it to expand. As the
expanding oil compresses the gas, the pressure inside the enclosure increases. If the

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pressure rises enough to exceed a predetermined high value, the relief device releases gas
from the transformer enclosure to atmosphere. The release of gas continues until pressure
returns to an acceptable value.

When the transformer becomes cooler, for example, during a period of reduced load, the oil
also becomes cooler, and it contracts. As the oil contracts, the pressure inside the
transformer enclosure drops. If the pressure falls below a predetermined low value, a
regulator adds gas from the cylinder to the enclosure until the pressure returns to an
acceptable value.

3. Electrical Knowledge- LT

3.1 Understanding LT side of the plant

In electrical power systems low voltage most commonly refers to mains voltage as used by
lighting and portable appliances. "Low voltage" in this context still presents a risk of electric
shock, but only a minor risk of electric arcs through the air. The International Electro
technical Commission (IEC) defines supply system low voltage as voltage in the range 50–
1000 V AC or 120–1500 V DC.

The role of switchgear is:

• Electrical protection
• Safe isolation from live parts
• Local or remote switching

National and international standards define the manner in which electric circuits of LV
installations must be realized, and the capabilities and limitations of the various switching
devices which are collectively referred to as switchgear. The main functions of switchgear
are: Electrical protection, Electrical isolation of sections of an installation, Local or remote
switching. Electrical protection at low voltage is (apart from fuses) normally incorporated in
circuit-breakers, in the form of thermal-magnetic devices and/or residual-current- operated
tripping devices (less-commonly, residual voltage- operated devices - acceptable to, but
not recommended by IEC). Other functions, namely: Over-voltage protection, Under-voltage
protection are provided by specific devices (lightning and various other types of voltage-
surge arrester, relays associated with contactors, remotely controlled circuit-breakers, and
with combined circuit-breaker/isolator and so on)

3.2 Basics of LT switchgears and components

In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnects
switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment.
Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear

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faults downstream. This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability of the
electricity supply.

Switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be insulated by some other
substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is the gas insulated
switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur
hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil or vacuum insulated switchgear.

The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to interrupt
fault currents of thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within a switchgear enclosure) is the
primary component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching of the arc when the circuit
breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects the circuit) requires careful design.
Circuit breakers fall into these five types:

Oil

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil along the
path of the arc. The vapor released by the arcing consists of hydrogen gas.

Air

Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) or the magnetic force of the arc itself to
elongate the arc. As the length of the sustainable arc is dependent on the available voltage,
the elongated arc will eventually exhaust itself. Alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung
into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly: typically between
30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of the device.

Gas

Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely
upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 gas to quench the stretched arc.

Hybrid

Hybrid switchgear is one that combines the components of traditional air-insulated

switchgear (AIS) and SF6 gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) technologies. It is characterized by a
compact and modular design, which encompasses several different functions in one
module.

Vacuum

Circuit breakers with vacuum interrupters have minimal arcing characteristics (as there is
nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched
by a small amount (<2–8 mm). Near zero current the arc is not hot enough to maintain
plasma, and current ceases; the gap can then withstand the rise of voltage. Vacuum circuit

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breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 40,500 volts. Unlike
the other types, they are inherently unsuitable for interrupting DC faults.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Breakers that use carbon dioxide as the insulating and arc extinguishing medium work on
the same principles as an SF6 breaker. Because SF6 is a more potent greenhouse gas than
CO2, by switching from SF6 to CO2 it is possible to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions by
10 tons during the product life cycle.

3.3 Losses in LT side

Distribution Losses in Industrial Facilities

There is a dramatic difference in an AC power distribution system between the simple DC

resistance values of the various conducting elements, and the actual apparent AC resistance,
under heavy current load, of these same elements. Motors, lighting systems, wiring,
mechanical terminations, distribution panels, protective devices, transformers, switchgear,
and all end of circuit equipment experience a variety of resistance increasing inefficiencies
that combine to create an average wattage loss in a typical industrial facility of from 10% to
25% of total demanded power. Identifying and calculating the sum of the individual
contributing loss components is a challenging engineering specialty, requiring extensive
experience and knowledge of all the factors impacting the operating efficiencies of each of
these components.

The following list is a simplified overview of several of the more important loss factors in an
industrial facility, including a broad range estimate of reasonable loss values attributable to
each stated effect. Note that all of these are current dependent, and can be readily
mitigated by any technique that reduces facility current load.

Hysteresis Losses

Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties of the armature in an AC
motor. When an armature core is in a magnetic field, the magnetic particles of the core tend
to line up with the magnetic field. When the armature core is rotating, its magnetic field
keeps changing direction. The continuous movement of the magnetic particles, as they try
to align themselves with the magnetic field, produces molecular friction. This, in turn,
produces heat. This heat is transmitted to the armature windings. The heat causes armature
resistances to increase.

• Typical hysteresis losses as a percentage of building demand: 2% to 5%

Skin Effect Losses

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The apparent resistance of a conductor is always higher for AC than for DC the alternating
magnetic flux created by an alternating current interacts with the conductor, generating a
back EMF which tends to reduce the current in the conductor. The centre portions of the
conductor are affected by the greatest number of lines of force, the number of line linkages
decreasing as the edges are approached. The electromotive force produced in this way by
self-inductance varies both in magnitude and phase through the cross-section of the
conductor, being larger in the centre and smaller towards the outside. The current therefore
tends to crowd into those parts of the conductor in which the opposing EMF is a minimum;
that is, into the skin of a circular conductor or the edges of a flat strip, producing what is
known as 'skin' or 'edge' effect. The resulting non- uniform current density has the effect of
increasing the apparent resistance of the conductor and gives rise to increased losses.

Harmonic loading increases skin effect losses by the square of the increase in frequency
above nominal line frequency, and so is responsible for a substantial lost wattage in any
facility with large populations of nonlinear equipment loads, such as VFDs, DC drives,
rectifiers, induction heating or other arcing or switching power supply devices.

• Typical skin effect losses as a percentage of building demand: 2% to 8%

Proximity Effect Losses

Proximity effect is a property existing when conductors are close together, particularly in
low voltage equipment, where a further distortion of current density results from the
interaction of the magnetic fields of other conductors.

In the same way as an EMF may be induced in a conductor by its own magnetic flux, so may
the magnetic flux of one conductor produce an EMF in any other conductor sufficiently near
for the effect to be significant.

If two such conductors carry currents in opposite directions, their electromagnetic fields are
opposed to one another and tend to force one another apart. This results in a decrease of
flux linkages around the adjacent parts of the conductors and an increase in the more
remote parts, which leads to a concentration of current in the adjacent parts where the
opposing EMF is a minimum. If the currents in the conductors are in the same direction the
action is reversed and they tend to crowd into the more remote parts of the conductors.

This effect, known as the 'proximity effect' (or 'shape effect'), increases the apparent AC
resistance. If the conductors are arranged edgewise to one another proximity effect
increases. In most cases the proximity effect also tends to increase the stresses set up under
short-circuit conditions and this may therefore have to be taken into account.

• Typical proximity effect losses as a percentage of building demand: 1.5% to 3%

Transformer Losses

The two primary types of transformer losses are core losses and load losses. The core loss of
a transformer arises because the core must be taken through its alternating cycles of
magnetization. Core losses occur because there must exist a magnetizing current in the
primary winding of a transformer which is additional to that current which flows to balance
the current in the secondary winding. The magnetizing current is required to take the core

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through the alternating cycles of flux at the rate determined by system frequency. In doing
so, energy is absorbed. This is known as the core-loss. The core-loss is present whenever
the transformer is energized.

Transformer load losses occur because the flow of a current in any electrical system also
generates loss dependent upon the magnitude of that current. Transformer windings are no
exception and these give rise to the load loss of the transformer. Load loss is, of course,
present only when the transformer is loaded and its magnitude is proportional to the load
squared.

There are three categories of load loss which occur in transformers:

Resistive losses often referred to as I2R losses. Eddy-current winding losses due to the
alternating leakage-fluxes. So-called stray losses in leads, core-framework and tank due to
the action of load- dependent stray alternating fluxes.

Resistive losses, as the term implies, are due to the fact that the windings cannot be
manufactured without electrical resistance (at least, until commercial superconductors are
successfully developed) and are therefore a "fact of life" which cannot be eliminated for the
transformer designer.

The leakage-flux occurring in transformer windings is greatest at the winding ends, but is
present throughout the entire winding body. Consequential eddy currents are set up that
oppose the natural direction of current flow and greatly increase the transformer’s apparent
AC resistance.

Stray losses exist in all transformers, but present more of a problem on larger transformers,
because the physical size of the leads and the currents they carry are greater.

In addition to I²R losses and dielectric losses, cables have other losses such as skin-affect
and proximity-effect developed by magnetic induction. For single conductor cables,
however, where conductors are not operating close to each other, proximity effect is
negligible. Skin-effect loss is caused by the reversing magnetic field, about the cable, which
tends to concentrate the current toward the periphery of the conductor. This affect then
reduces the effective carrying capacity of a conductor in its central portions. Proximity-
effect loss is caused by the opposing force of magnetic fields set up by neighbouring
conductors. This displaces the points of maximum reactance to a maximum distance from
each other, resulting in maximum current density at the nearest surfaces of the two
conductors. Operating together in a typical industrial conduit enclosed distribution system;
these various loss factors can sufficiently increase the building wiring’s apparent AC
resistance to more than an order of magnitude above nominal DC resistance values. Thus,
typical I²R wiring losses are often far greater than simple chart-based values.

With the above, recall that I²R losses occur in all distribution system conducting
components, not only the wire.

• Typical line losses as a percentage of building demand: 1% to 3%

Eddy-Current Losses

With any electrical system component comprising an iron or steel frame and an electrical
coil, flux will flow in the steel as a result of the alternating current in the coil. The flux in the

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steel will itself induce an EMF in the material following the basic laws of induction. Since the
material is essentially an electrical circuit closed on it, the induced EMF will cause a
l8circulating electrical current called an eddy-current. Its value is dependent on the value of
EMF and on the resistivity of the path of current. As in any other electrical circuit the power
loss is the product of the square of the current times the resistance. In a similar manner to
hysteresis losses, the eddy-current loss manifests itself as heat, contributing to the
maximum operating temperature limit of the device.

Eddy current losses occur in protective circuit breakers, lighting ballasts, power supply
transformers, magnetic motor starters, voltage reducing or isolation transformers, current
overload relays, control contactors and relays, all motor windings, and even building wiring,
when the wiring is in circular proximity to steel or iron structures, such as electrical
enclosures, distribution panels, or terminal or distribution blocks.

• Typical eddy current losses as a percentage of building demand: 1.5% to 4%

3.4 Maintenance practices in LT side

3.4.1 Switchgear

 Enclosures

Ensure that all enclosure panels, doors, and structures are well- maintained in
accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. During de-energized
maintenance, enclosures are to be vacuum cleaned of all loose dirt and debris — use
of compressed air is not recommended since this may cause foreign particles to
become embedded in the insulation or damage insulators. Any build up of dirt or
other contaminates that will not come off with vacuuming should be cleaned with
lint free rags using cleaning solvents recommended by the manufacturer.

All vents and fan grills are to be cleaned of all dust and/or dirt accumulations. Ensure
that ventilation openings are not obstructed. Where seals and/or gaskets are
installed, these should be examined and repaired or replaced as necessary. All doors
and access panels should be properly secured during operation. Where heater
elements are installed, these should be cleaned, examined for damage and/or
deterioration, and tested. Repair or replace heater elements as necessary.

In environments where there is an extreme exposure to adverse conditions, the

frequency of maintenance for enclosures should be increased as conditions warrant.

Electrical equipment rooms or vaults should be kept cleaned of dirt and/or dust
accumulations on a regular basis. Doors and windows should be maintained in
proper working order and kept closed during routine operation. Access doors should
be clearly marked to alert personnel that live electrical equipment is in use. Where
ventilation and/or air conditioning is used, all fan motors should be cleaned and
examined for signs of wear and deterioration. Fan blades should be cleaned of dirt
and dust and bearings should be properly lubricated. Vent openings should be
cleaned of all dust and dirt accumulations. Filters should be cleaned and/or changed

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as recommended by the manufacturer, or more often if conditions warrant. Electrical

equipment rooms should never be used as storage areas.

Electrical equipment rooms or vaults should be examined for evidence of water

seepage. The tops of electrical equipment enclosures should be examined for
evidence of water since this is a common entryway that often goes undetected until
a failure occurs. The source of the water should be immediately identified and
corrective measures taken to permanently correct the condition.

 Insulators, Supports, and Connectors

Inspect insulators and conductor supports for signs of cracking, broken pieces, and
other physical damage or deterioration. Clean all loose dirt with lint free rags. For
contaminates that will not remove easily, solvents approved by the manufacturer
may be used. Examine for evidence of moisture that may lead to tracking or flashover
while in operation. Examine surrounding areas for signs of tracking, arcing, or
overheating. Repair or replace damaged insulators and supports as necessary.

Examine all bolts and connecting devices for signs of deterioration, corrosion, or
overheating. Ensure that bolts and connecting devices are tight, according to
manufacturer’s specifications. Be careful not to over- torque bolts and connecting
devices since insulators are easy to damage and difficult to replace. Where copper
and aluminium conductors and/or connectors are used together, examine
connections for signs of galvanic action. Ensure that the connectors are properly
used and installed in accordance with manufacturer’s specifications. Apply an
antioxidant compound to all aluminium-to copper connections.

 Conductors

Examine insulation for signs of deterioration, cracking, flaking, or overheating.

Examine all connections for signs of overheating, cracked or broken connectors, and
signs of tracking or arcing. Ensure that conductors are clean and dry. Examine and
clean all connections, and torque to manufacturer’s recommendations.

3.4.2 Air Circuit Breakers

 Insulation

Remove and clean inter-phase barriers. Clean all insulating materials with vacuum
and/or clean lint free rags. If it is necessary to use cleaning solvents, use only
solvents recommended by the manufacturer. Inspect for signs of corona, tracking,
arcing, or thermal or physical damage. Ensure that insulation is left clean and dry.

 Contacts

Ensure that all contacts are clean, smooth, and in proper alignment. Ensure that
spring pressures are maintained according to manufacturer’s specifications. On silver
contacts, discoloration is not usually harmful unless caused by insulating deposits.
Clean silver contacts with alcohol or silver cleaner using non-abrasive cloths.

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Manually close breaker to check for proper wipe, contact pressure, contact
alignment, and to ensure that all contacts make at approximately the same time. If
possible, a contact resistance test should be performed to determine the quality of
the contacts.

Older breakers equipped with carbon contactors generally require very little
maintenance. Examine for proper pressure, deterioration, or excessive dressing which
may interfere with their proper operation.

Draw-out contacts on the circuit breaker and the stationary contacts in the cubicle
should be cleaned and inspected for overheating, alignment, and broken or weak
springs. Coat contact surfaces with contact lubricant to ease mating (see
manufacturer’s recommendations).

 Arc Interrupters

Clean all ceramic materials of loose dirt and examine for signs of moisture, make
sure the assemblies are clean and dry. Examine for cracked or broken pieces. Dirt and
arcing deposits may be removed by light sanding — do not use emery cloth or wire
brushes which may leave conductive residue behind. Repair or replace as necessary.

Examine arc chutes for dirt and/or dust accumulations and clean as necessary.
Dielectric testing of arc shields may be recommended by the manufacturer. Check air
puffer for proper operation.

 Operating Mechanism

Inspect for loose, broken, worn, or missing parts (consult manufacturer’s schematics
for required parts). Examine for excessive wear of moving parts. Observe that
operating mechanisms function properly without binding, hanging, or without
delayed action. Ensure any lubrication is done according to the manufacturer’s
specifications. Ensure mechanisms are clean, properly lubricated, and all bolts and
screws are properly secured. Repair or replace as necessary.

 Auxiliary Devices

Inspect operating devices for proper operation and general condition. Ensure all
indicating devices are fully functional and properly set. Protective relays and circuit
breaker trip devices should be inspected and tested according to manufacturers’
specifications and applicable industry standards such as those issued by the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA).

3.4.3 Vacuum Circuit Breakers

All maintenance is similar to that performed on air circuit breakers. As always, it is

recommended that the manufacturer be consulted for specific maintenance and testing
procedures.

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The integrity of the vacuum chamber is often tested by applying a test voltage across the
open contacts of the breaker. However, this can be a destructive test and is therefore not
recommended by Hartford Steam Boiler.

Caution: This procedure can produce x ray emissions, so personnel should maintain a safe
distance from the breaker if this test is performed. It is important to closely follow
manufacturer’s recommended procedures if conducting this test in order to ensure that
proper results are obtained. The breaker vapour shield can accumulate an electrostatic
charge during this test. Ensure that it is discharged immediately following the test.

3.4.4 Air Disconnect Switches

Inspect and clean insulators and conductors as with circuit breakers. Tighten connections in
accordance with manufacturer’s specifications. Do not over-tighten as this may result in
damage to connectors.

If cleaning solvents are used, ensure that they are as recommended by the manufacturer.
Where abnormal environmental conditions exist, more frequent inspection and cleaning
may be required.

Check the operation of the arc blades, if applicable, and ensure proper wipe of the main
contacts. Inter-phase linkages and operating rods should be inspected to make sure that
the linkage has not been bent or distorted and that all fastenings are secure. The position of
the toggle latch to the switch operating linkage should be observed on all closed switches
to verify the switch is mechanically locked in a closed position. Operate switch manually
several times to ensure proper operation, and then by motor if power-operated. Ensure that
all moving parts are properly secured and lubricated as specified by the manufacturer.

Contact resistance testing of each phase contact should be performed. The results should
be recorded and analyzed to ensure proper contact is being made. If the contact resistance
of the switch exceeds recommended minimums, repair or replace the switch immediately.

3.4.5 Oil Circuit Breakers

 External

Inspect the enclosure for signs of oil leakage. Clean external bushings assemblies and
examine for signs of deterioration, tracking, and loose or broken parts. Observe oil
gauge to ensure device is operating properly and measuring the oil level accurately.

 Insulating Oil Test

Conduct a dielectric screen test of the insulating fluid. Based on the results of this
test, filter or replace oil as required. Heavy carbon content can indicate potential
contact wear and should be investigated further.

 Internal

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Since the contacts for oil circuit breakers are not readily accessible for inspection, the
contact resistance should be tested as a minimum.

More extensive maintenance on the contacts might be require draining the oil and
dropping the tank, and is therefore performed less frequently. Follow manufacturer’s
recommended schedule for examination of internal components such as contact
inspections. Open breaker and examine contacts for wear and/or excessive
deterioration. Examine linkages for loose, broken, or missing parts; repair or replace
as necessary.

 Auxiliary Devices

Operating mechanisms should be maintained as with air circuit breakers. Where

applicable, examine oil level indicators, sight glasses, oil lines, gaskets, and tank
lifters for proper conditions. Repair or replace as necessary and in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations.

3.4.6 Molded-Case Circuit Breakers

Molded-case circuit breakers should be kept clean for proper ventilation of the breakers.
These types of breakers are usually tripped by a thermal element that senses an increase in
temperature due to excessive current draw. However, if dirt accumulates on the surrounding
of the breaker, the heat build-up may not be permitted to dissipate properly and result in
nuisance tripping.

Clean the breaker housing and inspect it for cracks or signs of overheating. Tighten all
connections. Exercise the breaker several times to ensure the mechanism has freedom of
movement and to allow contact wiping.

In addition, larger duty circuit breakers (225 amps or above) should be electrically trip
tested to ensure proper operation of the trip elements and trip linkages. Refer to the latest
edition of the National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association (NEMA) Standard AB4,
Procedures for Verifying Field Inspections and Performance Verification of Molded- Case
Circuit Breakers. If possible, test contact resistance to ensure quality of breaker contacts. All
molded-case circuit breaker panels should be cleaned of all dirt, dust, and debris using a
vacuum.

3.4.7 Battery Stations / Chargers

 Batteries

Thoroughly clean all battery surfaces of dust and/or dirt accumulations. Clean and
tighten all terminal connections. Remove any corrosion on battery terminals with
bicarbonate of soda.

Clean battery studs and cable ends. On stranded cable, if ends are corroded, cut off
ends or separate strands and clean internally. Check electrolyte levels and specific

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gravity. Variations of more than fifty (50) points between cells may indicate a bad
cell.

 Charger

Clean all dust and/or dirt accumulations from charger. Clean all vent openings and
ensure that they are free from obstructions.

Check terminals and connections for tightness. Check all relays, lights, and other
indicating devices for proper operation.

If all cells consistently read low, check charger for proper operation. If electrolyte
levels are low, check charger rate settings against the manufacturer’s specifications.
Consistently low levels may indicate the charge rate is too fast.

 Safety

While charging, batteries emit explosive gases. Allow no open flames or sparks
permitted near charging batteries. Battery rooms should be well ventilated and
smoking should not be permitted.

3.4.8 Cables and Bus De-energize

 Cables in Manholes

Caution: Check for dangerous gases using a properly calibrated test meter before
entering any confined space such as a manhole.

Inspect for sharp bends, physical damage, excessive tension, oil leaks, pits, cable
movement, soft spots, cracked jackets, damaged fireproofing, poor ground
connections, deteriorated and corroded or weakened cable supports. Inspect for
wear at entrance point and at supports. Inspect manhole for spelled concrete, proper
ventilation and excessive moisture. Inspect potheads for oil or compound leakage
and for cracked / chipped porcelain.

Examine the manhole and cable grounding system to ensure its integrity. If cathodic
protection has been installed in the manhole, it too should be evaluated. Corrective
action should be taken as appropriate to maintain the integrity of these systems.

 Aerial Cables

Check supports for excessive wear or deterioration, check cables for wear at support
points, inspect for mechanical damage from vibration. At dead-ends, check cable for
worn insulation, sharp bends, or cracks.

 Raceways

Check raceways for proper mechanical support of raceway and cables as well as
check insulation for abrasion or cracks at support points. Examine raceway joints for
clean and tight connections.

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 Bus Duct

Bus duct joint covers should be removed to allow access for a thermo graphic survey
of the energized bus under load. After de-energizing and grounding the bus duct,
connections should be checked for proper tightness as well as evidence of
overheating, corrosion, arcing, or other forms of deterioration. All loose or dirty
connections should be cleaned and properly torque — be careful not to over torque
the bolts. Consult the manufacturer for recommended maintenance practices and
torque values. The tops of the bus duct enclosure should be inspected for evidence
of water or other foreign matter that may contaminate the bus duct.

 Testing

Suggested cable or bus tests include insulation resistance testing and polarization
index testing. These tests should be recorded to track trends that may indicate a
deterioration of the cable’s insulation.

3.4.9 Transformers

Transformer data (such as, voltage, current, and temperature readings) should be recorded
on a regular basis in order to determine operating conditions of the transformer. Peak, or
redline, indicators should be recorded and reset. Readings taken on a weekly basis can
provide important information about the loading of the transformer that is needed before
additional loads can be added to the transformer.

 Dry Type Transformers

After de-energizing and grounding the transformer, clean all coils, connections, and
insulators of loose dust or dirt deposits with a vacuum cleaner. Examine the
transformer for signs of overheating, deterioration, arcing, loose or broken parts, or
other abnormal conditions. Ensure all connections are tightened according to
manufacturer’s specifications. Clean enclosure of any dust and dirt accumulations
and ensure that vent openings are free from obstruction. If cooling fans are installed,
examine for proper operations and lubricate as necessary.

Additional suggested testing includes an insulation resistance test, a dielectric

absorption test, and a power factor test. These are non- destructive tests which can
be performed to track the condition of the insulation over time. Detailed records
should be maintained and analyzed to identify undesirable trends that may indicate
the onset of an insulation failure.

 Liquid-Filled Transformer

Insulating liquid samples should be taken annually and screen tested for dielectric
breakdown, acidity, color, power factor, and interfacial tension. A Fault gas analysis
or a Dissolved- Gas-in-Oil (DGA) test conducted by a qualified testing laboratory
should be performed annually. The results should be trended to track conditions and
schedule maintenance as necessary.

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Examine the transformer tank and bushings for evidence of leakage. Inspect the
bushings, insulators, and surge arrestors for broken or damaged parts, signs of
overheating or arcing, or tracking. Clean all bushings, insulators, and surge arrestors
of any dirt or dust accumulation. Tighten all conductor connections in accordance
with manufacturer’s recommendations.

If applicable, perform a ground resistance test to ensure a value of 25 ohms or less.

3.4.10 Surge Arrestors

Clean and inspect porcelain for signs of damage or deterioration. Repair or replace as
necessary. Examine arrestor leads for damage and/or deterioration.

Other suggested tests are 60 cycles spark over and hold tests, watts-loss and leakage
current tests, insulation resistance tests, and grounding electrode circuit resistance tests.
These should be conducted according to manufacturer’s recommendations.

3.4.11 Protective Relays

Inspection, maintenance and testing of protective relays should be done on an annual basis
in order to ensure proper and reliable operation. All necessary precautions should be taken
while working with protective devices to ensure personnel safety and to avoid any
unplanned interruption of service. In particular, when working on control circuits, all current
transformer (CT) secondaries should be shorted to ground and never left open-circuited in
order to avoid serious injury to maintenance personnel.

 Visual and Mechanical Inspection

Inspect relays for physical damage and deterioration. Inspect gaskets and covers for
damage and/or excessive wear, and repair or replace as necessary. Examine and
clean the relay and enclosure of foreign materials, such as dust, dirt, and moisture
contamination. Examine the condition of the spiral spring, disc clearances, contacts,
and case shorting contacts (if present). Check mechanism for freedom of movement,
proper travel and alignment, and tightness of mounting hardware and plugs.

 Electrical Testing

Using an appropriate testing instrument, suitable for the relays being tested, conduct
electrical testing of the relays in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations
and IEEE testing standards. For over current relays, test the following functions of the
relay at the established settings specified by the system engineer or manufacturer:

Pickup contacts should close when a current equal to the relay tap setting is applied
to the induction coil. Adjust the spring as needed to allow for proper operation.
−Timing tests should be performed corresponding to two (2) or more points on the
relay’s time current curves. One of the tests should be done at the specified time dial
setting. −Instantaneous pickup test should be performed for the specified
instantaneous setting, if applicable. −Seal-in units should be tested to ensure that

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the contacts hold closed with the minimum specified current applied. −Relay target
should indicate when the relay has operated. −If possible, the relays should be tested
to ensure that operation of the relay will in fact cause a tripping action of the
respective circuit breaker. Relays that do not test satisfactorily or are found to be
defective should be replaced immediately to maintain the integrity of the protection
systems.

3.4.12 UPS Systems

This section provides general recommended maintenance guidelines for Uninterruptible

Power Supply (UPS) systems. Since there is a wide variety of systems and equipment
available, the manufacturer’s instructions and recommendations should be consulted for
more complete and detailed maintenance requirements.

UPS systems are categorized in two basic ways: static and rotary. For the purposes of this
standard, only static systems will be addressed.

When performing any maintenance and/or testing of UPS systems, follow all recommended
safety procedures as indicated by the manufacturer and required by OSHA. Only fully
trained and qualified persons with proper test equipment should perform UPS maintenance.

Clean interior and exterior of cabinets and enclosures, ensuring that any areas of corrosion
and/or deterioration are repaired as necessary. Clean all vent and air circulation openings
and ensure freedom from obstructions. If installed, clean cooling fan blades and motor
housings. Ensure that motor bearings are properly lubricated and that fan blades are
properly secured to drive shafts. Examine for signs of moisture contamination and correct if
necessary.

Clean and examine all electrical connections for signs of corrosion or deterioration, repair or
replace as necessary. Ensure all connections are tightened according to manufacturer’s
specifications. As applicable, clean and test all breakers, disconnects, and relays as
prescribed elsewhere in these standards and as specified by the manufacturer. Check all
system alarms and indicating lights for proper operation.

Check inverters for fluid leaks from wave-forming capacitors. Check capacitors for signs of
bulging or discoloration. Examine transformers and heat sinks for signs of overheating.

3.4.13 Electric Motors

A maintenance program for electric motors should utilize proven and well understood
testing and inspecting methods performed by qualified knowledgeable personnel to
identify and evaluate conditions.

Recommended Maintenance Practices and Frequencies

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Installed and running – Actions typically performed with the motor installed and coupled to
the driven load.

Installed and offline – Actions which require the motor to be electrically disconnected but
can be performed with the motor installed and coupled.

Overhaul – Actions typically completed during a routine overhaul. Additional testing /

activities may be required based on the individual situation.

Post Overhaul – After completion of maintenance, the insured should review work report,
ensure all parts sent with the motor(i.e. terminal box, couplings) were returned and perform
basic testing of the motor before placing it in the stock system.

Level II: Major Electrical Equipment

1. Transformer

1.1 Basics of Transformer

One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in our homes and
workplace’s is that it can be easily generated at a convenient voltage, transformed into a
much higher voltage and then distributed around the country using a national grid of
pylons and cables over very long distances. The reason for transforming the voltage is that
higher distribution voltage implies lower currents and therefore lower losses along the grid.

These high AC transmission voltages and currents are then reduced to a much lower, safer
and usable voltage level were it can be used to supply electrical equipment in our homes
and workplaces, and all this is possible thanks to the basic Voltage Transformer.

A Typical Voltage Transformer

The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component rather than an

electronic component. A transformer basically is very simple static (or stationary) electro-
magnetic passive electrical device that works on the principle of Faraday’s law of induction
by converting electrical energy from one value to another.

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The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a
common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself. A
transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in the form of
Mutual Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into
another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the
“magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name from the fact that they “transform”
one voltage or current level into another.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current levels
of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of Electrical Power.

A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one called the
“Primary Winding” and another called the “Secondary Winding”. For this tutorial we will define the
“primary” side of the transformer as the side that usually takes power, and the “secondary” as the
side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer the primary is usually the side
with the higher voltage.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead wrapped
together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the “core”. This soft iron core
is not solid but made up of individual laminations connected together to help reduce the
core’s losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are magnetically linked
through the common core allowing electrical power to be transferred from one coil to the
other. When an electric current passed through the primary winding, a magnetic field is
developed which induces a voltage into the secondary winding as shown.

Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two coil
windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally, the primary
winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and converts or transforms the
electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the secondary winding is to convert this
alternating magnetic field into electrical power producing the required output voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

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 Where:
o VP - is the Primary Voltage
o VS - is the Secondary Voltage
o NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
o NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
o (phi) - is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked
magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the
voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to “increase” the
voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up
transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding with
respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.

However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on its
secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its output is identical with
respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This type of transformer is called an
“Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation of
adjoining electrical circuits.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by
changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of
coil turns on the secondary winding ( NS ).

As the transformer is a linear device, a ratio now exists between the numbers of turns of the
primary coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio
of transformation, more commonly known as a transformers “turns ratio”, (TR). This turns
ratio value dictates the operation of the transformer and the corresponding voltage
available on the secondary winding.

It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding
compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two
windings in order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this example, that if
there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3-to-1. Then
we can see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages must also
change by the same ratio, and this is true.

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A transformer is all about “ratios”, and the turns ratio of a given transformer will be the same as its
voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: “turns ratio = voltage ratio”. The actual number of
turns of wire on any winding is generally not important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is
given as:

A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: P ≡ S

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing transformers turns ratio value is very important
as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship and output voltage than one
in which the turns ratio is given as: 1:3.

Transformer Action

We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared to the
primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage available from the secondary
coil. But if the two windings are electrically isolated from each other, how is this secondary
voltage produced?

We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound around a
common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil,
current flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself, called
mutual inductance, by this current flow according to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic
induction. The strength of the magnetic field builds up as the current flow rises from zero to
its maximum value which is given as d /dt.

As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil
the soft iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux
links the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite directions under
the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends upon
the amount of current and the number of turns in the winding. When current is reduced, the
magnetic field strength reduces.

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When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the
secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil. The amount of
voltage induced will be determined by: N.d /dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is the number of
coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the primary winding voltage.

Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both windings
because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings together. As a result,
the total induced voltage in each winding is directly proportional to the number of turns in
that winding. However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on the
secondary winding will be reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.

If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the cores
magnetic losses, we can either send a larger current through the coil, or keep the same
current flowing, and instead increase the number of coil turns ( NP ) of the winding. The
product of amperes times turns is called the “ampere-turns”, which determines the
magnetising force of the coil.

So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only one turn in
the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary coil, assuming no losses,
enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux generated to induce one volt in the
single turn of the secondary. That is, each winding supports the same number of volts per
turn.

As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, = max sin t, then the basic relationship between
induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:

emf = turns x rate of change

 Where:
 ƒ - is the flux frequency in Hertz, = /2π
 - is the number of coil windings.
 - is the flux density in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding emf, N will be the
number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the number of
secondary turns, ( NS ).

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Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate correctly,
transformers cannot therefore be used to transform or supply DC voltages or currents, since the
magnetic field must be changing to induce a voltage in the secondary winding. In other words,
Transformers DO NOT Operate on DC Voltages, ONLY AC.

If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive reactance of the
winding would be zero as DC has no frequency, so the effective impedance of the winding will
therefore be very low and equal only to the resistance of the copper used. Thus the winding will
draw a very high current from the DC supply causing it to overheat and eventually burn out, because
as we know I = V/R.

Electrical Power in a Transformer

Transformers are rated in Volt-amperes, ( VA ), or in larger units of Kilo Volt-amperes,

( kVA ). In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power available in the secondary
winding will be the same as the power in the primary winding, they are constant wattage
devices and do not change the power only the voltage to current ratio. Thus, in an ideal
transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one (unity) as the voltage, V multiplied by the
current, I will remain constant.

That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is “transformed” into
electric power, at the same frequency, to the same voltage/current level on the secondary
side. Although the transformers can step-up (or step-down) voltage, it cannot step-up
power. Thus, when a transformer steps-up a voltage, it steps-down the current and vice-
versa, so that the output power is always at the same value as the input power. Then we can
say that primary power equals secondary power, ( PP = PS ).

Power in a Transformer

Where: P is the primary phase angle and S is the secondary phase angle.

Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current being transmitted,
that is: I2R, increasing the voltage, let’s say doubling ( ×2 ) the voltage would decrease the
current by the same amount, ( ÷2 ) while delivering the same amount of power to the load
and therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If the voltage was increased by a factor of 10,
the current would decrease by the same factor reducing overall losses by factor of 100.

Transformer Efficiency

A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy. This means that there
are no friction or windage losses associated with other electrical machines. However,
transformers do suffer from other types of losses called “copper losses” and “iron losses”
but generally these are quite small.

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Copper losses, also known as I2R loss are the electrical power which is lost in heat as a result
of circulating the currents around the transformers copper windings, hence the name.
Copper losses represent the greatest loss in the operation of a transformer. The actual watts
of power lost can be determined (in each winding) by squaring the amperes and
multiplying by the resistance in ohms of the winding (I2R).

Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetic molecules within the
core, in response to the alternating magnetic flux. This lagging (or out-of-phase) condition
is due to the fact that it requires power to reverse magnetic molecules; they do not reverse
until the flux has attained sufficient force to reverse them.

Their reversal results in friction and friction produce heat in the core which is a form of
power loss. Hysteresis within the transformer can be reduced by making the core from
special steel alloys.

The intensity of power loss in a transformer determines its efficiency. The efficiency of a
transformer is reflected in power (wattage) loss between the primary (input) and secondary
(output) windings. Then the resulting efficiency of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the
power output of the secondary winding, PS to the power input of the primary winding, PP
and is therefore high.

An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy it receives. Real
transformers on the other hand are not 100% efficient and at full load, the efficiency of a
transformer is between 94% to 96% which is quiet good. For a transformer operating with a
constant voltage and frequency with a very high capacity, the efficiency may be as high as 98%. The
efficiency, of a transformer is given as:

Transformer Efficiency

Where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.

Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called “volt-amps”, VA to
differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the efficiency equation above can be modified to:

It is sometimes easier to remember the relationship between the transformers input, output and
efficiency by using pictures. Here the three quantities of VA, W and have been superimposed into
a triangle giving power in watts at the top with volt-amps and efficiency at the bottom. This
arrangement represents the actual position of each quantity in the efficiency formulas.

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Transformer Efficiency Triangle

and transposing the above triangle quantities gives us the following combinations of the same
equation:

Then, to find Watts (output) = VA x eff., or to find VA (input) = W/eff., or to find Efficiency, eff. =
W/VA, etc.

1.2 Protections of transformer

There are different kinds of transformers such as two winding or three winding electrical
power transformers, auto transformer, regulating transformers, earthing transformers,
rectifier transformers etc. Different transformers demand different schemes of transformer
protection depending upon their importance, winding connections, earthing methods and
mode of operation etc.

It is common practice to provide Buchholz relay protection to all 0.5 MVA and above
transformers. While for all small size distribution transformers, only high voltage fuses are
used as main protective device. For all larger rated and important distribution transformers,
over current protection along with restricted earth fault protection is applied. Differential
protection should be provided in the transformers rated above 5 MVA.

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Depending upon the normal service condition, nature of transformer faults, degree of
sustained over load, scheme of tap changing, and many other factors, the suitable
transformer protection schemes are chosen.

Nature of Transformer Faults :

Although an electrical power transformer is a static device, but internal stresses

arising from abnormal system conditions, must be taken into consideration. A
transformer generally suffers from 4 types of transformer faults as over current due
to overloads and external short circuits, Terminal faults, Winding faults, Incipient
faults.

All the above mentioned transformer faults cause mechanical and thermal stresses
inside the transformer winding and its connecting terminals. Thermal stresses lead to
overheating which ultimately affect the insulation system of transformer.
Deterioration of insulation leads to winding faults. Some time failure of transformer
cooling system, leads to overheating of transformer. So the transformer protection
schemes are very much required.

The short circuit current of an electrical transformer is normally limited by its

reactance and for low reactance, the value of short circuit current may be excessively
high. The duration of external short circuits which a transformer can sustain without
damage as given in BSS 171:1936.

Transformer % reactance Permitted fault duration in seconds

4% 2

5% 3

6% 4

7 % and over 5

The general winding faults in transformer are either earth faults or inter-turns faults.
Phase to phase winding faults in a transformer is rare. The phase faults in an
electrical transformer may be occurred due to bushing flash over and faults in tap
changer equipment. Whatever may be the faults, the transformer must be isolated
instantly during fault otherwise major breakdown may occur in the electrical power
system.

Incipient faults are internal faults which constitute no immediate hazard. But it these
faults are over looked and not taken care of, these may lead to major faults. The
faults in this group are mainly inter-lamination short circuit due to insulation failure
between core lamination, lowering the oil level due to oil leakage, blockage of oil
flow paths. All these faults lead to overheating. So transformer protection scheme is

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required for incipient transformer faults also. The earth fault, very nearer to neutral
point of transformer star winding may also be considered as an incipient fault.

Influence of winding connections and earthing on earth fault current magnitude.

There are mainly two conditions for earth fault current to flow during winding to
earth faults,

A current exists for the current to flow into and out of the winding.

Ampere-turns balance is maintained between the windings.

The value of winding earth fault current depends upon position of the fault on the
winding, method of winding connection and method of earthing. The star point of
the windings may be earthed either solidly or via a resistor. On delta side of the
transformer the system is earthed through an earthing transformer. Grounding or
earthing transformer provides low impedance path to the zero sequence current and
high impedance to the positive and negative sequence currents.

Star Winding with Neutral Resistance Earthed

In this case the neutral point of the transformer is earthed via a resistor and the value of
impedance of it, is much higher than that of winding impedance of the transformer. That
means the value of transformer winding impedance is negligible compared to impedance of
earthing resistor. The value of earth current is, therefore, proportional to the position of the
fault in the winding. As the fault current in the primary winding of the transformer is
proportional to the ratio of the short circuited secondary turns to the total turns on the
primary winding, the primary fault current will be proportional to the square of the
percentage of winding short circuited. The variation of fault current both in the primary and
secondary winding is shown below.

Star Winding with Neutral Solidly Earthed

In this case the earth fault current magnitude is limited solely by the winding impedance
and the fault is no longer proportional to the position of the fault. The reason for this non
linearity is unbalanced flux linkage.

1.3 Maintenance Practices of transformers

Maintenance of Power Transformer

A power transformer is most costly and essential equipment of an electrical transformer. So

for getting high performance and long functional life of the transformer, it is desired to
perform various maintenance activities. Not only that, a power transformer also requires
various maintenance actions including measurement and testing of different parameters of
the transformer.

There are mainly two types of maintenance of transformer. We perform one group is in
routine basis, and second group is as when required.

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That means for getting smooth performance from a transformer we have to perform some
maintenance actions in regular basis. Some other type of maintenance of transformer we
perform as when they are required.

But if one performs regular maintenance properly, he may not have any provision of
performing emergency maintenance. The regular checking and maintenance of transformer
is also known as condition maintenance. Hence by proper condition maintenance one can
avoid emergency and breakdown maintenance.

That is why one technical personnel should mainly concentrate on condition maintenance.
As 100% condition maintenance causes 0% breakdown of equipment.

There are many different maintenance actions, to be performed on a power transformer.

Some of them in yearly basis, some of them are monthly basis, some other are quarterly,
some are half-yearly basis. These are mainly transformer maintenance action, which to be
performed in 3 to 4 years interval.

• Monthly Basis Maintenance of Transformer

Let us first discuss about the action to be taken on power transformer in monthly basis.
1. The oil level in oil cap under silica gel breather must be checked in one month
interval. If it is found the transformer oil inside the cup comes below the specified level,
oil to be top up as per specified level.

2. Breathing holes in silica gel breather should also be checked monthly and properly
cleaned if required, for proper breathing action.

3. If the transformer has oil filled bushing the oil level of transformer oil inside the
bushing must be visually checked in the oil gage attached to those bushing. This action
also to be done monthly basis.

If it is required, the oil to be filled in the bushing up to correct level. Oil filling to be
done under shutdown condition.

• Daily Basis Maintenance and Checking

There are three main things which to be checked on a power transformer in daily basis
and they are:
1. Reading of MOG (Magnetic Oil Gauge) of main tank and conservator tank.

2. Color of silica gel in breather.

3. Leakage of oil from any point of a transformer.

In case of unsatisfactory oil level in the MOG, oil to be filled in transformer and also the
transformer tank to be checked for oil leakage. If oil leakage is found take required
action to plug the leakage. If silica gel becomes pinkish, it should be replaced.

• Yearly Basis Transformer Maintenance Schedule

1. The auto, remote, manual function of cooling system that means, oil pumps, air fans,
and other items engaged in cooling system of transformer, along with their control

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circuit to be checked in the interval of one year. In the case of trouble, investigate
control circuit and physical condition of pumps and fans.

2. All the bushings of the transformer to be cleaned by soft cotton cloths yearly. During
cleaning the bushing should be checked for cracking.

3. Oil condition of OLTC to be examined in every year. For that, oil sample to be taken
from drain valve of diverter tank, and this collected oil sample to be tested for dielectric
strength (BDV) and moisture content (PPM). If BDV is low and PPM for moisture is found
high compared to recommend values, the oil inside the OLTC to be replaced or filtered.

4. Mechanical inspection of Buchholz relays to be carried out on yearly basis.

5. All marshalling boxes to be cleaned from inside at least once in a year. All
illumination, space heaters, to be checked whether they are functioning properly or not.
If not, required maintenance action to be taken. All the terminal connections of control
and relay wiring to be checked a tighten at least once in a year.

6. All the relays, alarms and control switches along with their circuit, in R&C panel (Relay
and Control Panel) and RTCC (Remote Tap Changer Control Panel) to be cleaned by
appropriate cleaning agent.

7. The pockets for OTI, WTI (Oil Temperature Indicator & Winding Temperature
Indicator) on the transformer top cover to be checked and if required oil to be
replenished.

8. The proper function of Pressure Release Device and Buchholz relay must be checked
annually. For that, trip contacts and alarm contacts of the said devices are shorted by a
small piece of wire, and observe whether the concerned relays in remote panel are
properly working or not.

9. Insulation resistance and polarization index of transformer must be checked with

battery operated megger of 5 KV range.

10. Resistive value of earth connection and riser must be measured annually with clamp
on earth resistance meter.

• The Action to be taken once in 2 years:

DGA or Dissolve Gas Analysis of transformer Oil should be performed, annually for 132
KV transformers, once in 2 years for the transformer below 132 KV transformers and in 2
years interval for the transformer above 132 KV transformers.

1.The calibration of OTI and WTI must be carried once in two years.
2. Tan & delta; measurement of bushings of transformer also to be done once in two
years.

• Maintenance of Transformer on Half Yearly Basis

The transformer oil must be checked half yearly basis that means once in 6 months, for
dielectric strength, water content, acidity, sludge content, flash point, DDA, IFT, resistivity
for transformer oil.

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In case of distribution transformer, as they are operating light load condition all the time
of day remaining peak hours, so there is no maintenance required.

Maintenance of Current Transformer

A Current Transformer or CT is very essential equipment installed in an electrical substation

for electrical measurement and protection purpose. If a current transformer does not
perform properly, there may be huge disturbance in the system due to malfunctioning of
protection relays. So far accurate measurement and smooth operation of electrical power
system, CTs must be properly maintained. A schedule of such maintenance of Current
Transformer is preferred below for ready reference. Let us first discuss about the
maintenance of CT which to be performed in one year interval.

1) Insulation resistance of the CT must be checked in yearly basis.

During insulation resistance measurement, it must be remembered that, in current

transformer there are two level of insulation. The insulation level of primary of CT is quite
high as it has to withstand full system voltage. But the secondary of the CT has low
insulation level generally 1.1 KV. So primary to secondary and primary to earth of a current
transformer are measured with 2.5 or 5 KV megger. But this high voltage megger cannot be
used for secondary measurement, as here insulation level is quite low in the view of
economy of the design. So secondary insulation is measured with 500 V megger.

Hence, primary terminals to earth, primary terminals to secondary measuring core, primary
terminals to secondary protection cores are measured by 2.5 or 5 KV megger. In between
secondary cores and secondary to earth resistances are measured by 500V megger.

2) Thermo vision scanning of primary terminals and top dome of a live CT should be
performed at least once in a year.
This scanning can be done with help of infra-red Thermo-vision Camera.

3) All the CT secondary connections in CT secondary box and CT junction box must be
checked cleaned and tighten every year to ensure maximum possible low resistance path
for CT secondary currents. It should also be ensured that CT junction box is properly
cleaned.

There are some other maintenance of Current Transformer which to be performed in half
yearly basis, such as,

1) The porcelain housing of CTs should be checked for hire crack if any crack is
observed on insulator, necessary advice to be obtained from manufacturer.

2) The porcelain insulator housing of current transformer, to be cleaned properly by

cotton clothes.

Now we will discuss about monthly basis maintenance of current transformer.

1) Oil leakage from any joint should be visually inspected if leakage found, it must be
plugged by taking shutdown.

2) The secondary terminals are also checked for oil leakage, if leakage found,
immediate action to be taken to plug the leakage.

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In addition to these, tans or loss factor measurement to be performed on a current

transformer, preferably above 66 KV class, once in two years.

Dissolve Gas Analysis of oil also to be done preferably once in 4 years. If the results are
found unsatisfactory as per standard, the insulating oil must be replaced.

Maintenance of Voltage Transformer and Capacitor Voltage Transformer

Construction wise a voltage transformer and a capacitor voltage transformer are same.
Hence basis scheme of maintenance of both voltage transformer and capacitor voltage
transformer are more or less same. As heavy current does not flow through PT and CVT, the
defect and fault generally very low.

That is why monthly maintenance of voltage transformer and maintenance of capacitor

voltage transformer may not be required. Moreover very frequent maintenance of bus PT or
CVT may not also be possible as far taking shutdown of such PT or CVT total bus section
would be out of protection and metering. Only yearly maintenance of such equipments is
sufficient.

Yearly Maintenance of Voltage Transformer or Capacitor Voltage Transformer

1) The porcelain housing must be cleaned with cotton clothes.

2) The spark gap assembly to be checked on yearly basis. Remove the moveable part
of spark gap as assembly, clean the braes electrode with emery paper and fix it back
in position.

3) The high frequency earthing point should be visually checked yearly in the case,
the point is not used for PLCC.

4) Thermo vision camera to be used for checking any hot spots in the capacitor
stacks to ensure pro action of rectification.

5) The terminal connections PT junction box including earth connections to be

checked for tightness once in a year. In addition to that, the PT junction box also to
be cleaned properly once in a year.

6) The health of all gaskets joint also to be visually checked and replaced if any
damaged gasket found.

1.4 Losses in Transformers

Losses in Transformer

As the electrical transformer is a static device, mechanical loss in transformer normally does
not come into picture. We generally consider only electrical losses in transformer. Loss in
any machine is broadly defined as difference between input power and output power.
When input power is supplied to the primary of transformer, some portion of that power is
used to compensate core losses in transformer i.e. Hysteresis loss in transformer and Eddy

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current loss in transformer core and some portion of the input power is lost as I2R loss and
dissipated as heat in the primary and secondary windings, because these windings have
some internal resistance in them. The first one is called core loss or iron loss in transformer
and the later is known as ohmic loss or copper loss in transformer. Another loss occurs in
transformer, known as Stray Loss, due to Stray fluxes link with the mechanical structure and
winding conductors.

Copper Loss in Transformer

Copper loss is I2R loss, in primary side it is I12R1 and in secondary side it is I22R2 loss,
where I1 & I2 are primary & secondary current of transformer and R1 & R2 are resistances
of primary & secondary winding. As the both primary & secondary currents depend upon
load of transformer, copper loss in transformer vary with load.

Core Losses in Transformer

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss both depend upon magnetic properties of the
materials used to construct the core of transformer and its design. So these losses in
transformer are fixed and do not depend upon the load current. So core losses in
transformer which is alternatively known as iron loss in transformer can be considered as
constant for all range of load.

Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as,

Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,

Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant.

Ke = Eddy current constant.

Kf = form constant.

Copper loss can simply be denoted as,

IL2R2′ + Stray loss

Where, IL = I2 = load of transformer, and R2′ is the resistance of transformer referred to

secondary.

Now we will discuss Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss in little bit more details for better
understanding the topic of losses in transformer

Hysteresis Loss in Transformer

Hysteresis loss in transformer can be explained in different ways. We will discuss two of
them, one is physical explanation and the other is mathematical explanation.

Physical Explanation of Hysteresis Loss

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The magnetic core of transformer is made of ′Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Silicon Steel′. Steel
is very good ferromagnetic material. This kind of materials is very sensitive to be
magnetized. That means, whenever magnetic flux would pass through, it will behave like
magnet. Ferromagnetic substances have numbers of domains in their structure. Domains
are very small regions in the material structure, where all the dipoles are paralleled to same
direction. In other words, the domains are like small permanent magnets situated randomly
in the structure of substance. These domains are arranged inside the material structure in
such a random manner, that net resultant magnetic field of the said material is zero.
Whenever external magnetic field or mmf is applied to that substance, these randomly
directed domains get arranged themselves in parallel to the axis of applied mmf. After
removing this external mmf, maximum numbers of domains again come to random
positions, but some of them still remain in their changed position. Because of these
unchanged domains, the substance becomes slightly magnetized permanently. This
magnetism is called “Spontaneous Magnetism". To neutralize this magnetism, some
opposite mmf is required to be applied. The magneto motive force or mmf applied in the
transformer core is alternating. For every cycle due to this domain reversal, there will be
extra work done. For this reason, there will be a consumption of electrical energy which is
known as Hysteresis loss of transformer.

Mathematical Explanation of Hysteresis Loss in Transformer

Determination of Hysteresis Loss

Consider a ring of ferromagnetic specimen of circumference L meter, cross – sectional area

a m2 and N turns of insulated wire as shown in the picture beside,

Let us consider, the current flowing through the coil is I amp,

Magnetizing force,

Let, the flux density at this instant is B,

Therefore, total flux through the ring, Φ = BXa Wb

As the current flowing through the solenoid is alternating, the flux produced in the iron ring
is also alternating in nature, so the emf (e′) induced will be expressed as,

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According to Lenz’s law this induced emf will oppose the flow of current, therefore, in order
to maintain the current I in the coil, the source must supply an equal and opposite emf.
Hence applied emf,

Energy consumed in short time dt, during which the flux density has changed,

Thus, total work done or energy consumed during one complete cycle of magnetism,

Now aL is the volume of the ring and H.dB is the area of elementary strip of B – H curve
shown in the figure above,

= total area enclosed by Hysteresis Loop.

Therefore, Energy consumed per cycle = volume of the ring X area of hysteresis loop.

In the case of transformer, this ring can be considered as magnetic core of transformer.
Hence, the work done is nothing but the electrical energy loss in transformer core and this
is known as hysteresis loss in transformer.

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What is Eddy Current Loss?

In transformer, we supply alternating current in the primary, this alternating current

produces alternating magnetizing flux in the core and as this flux links with secondary
winding, there will be induced voltage in secondary, resulting current to flow through the
load connected with it. Some of the alternating fluxes of transformer; may also link with
other conducting parts like steel core or iron body of transformer etc. As alternating flux
links with these parts of transformer, there would be a locally induced emf. Due to these
emfs, there would be currents which will circulate locally at that part of the transformer.
These circulating current will not contribute in output of the transformer and dissipated as
heat. This type of energy loss is called eddy current loss of transformer. This was a broad
and simple explanation of eddy current loss. The detail explanation of this loss is not in the
scope of discussion in that chapter.

2. Diesel generators

2.1 Basics of Diesel Generator

Generators are useful appliances that supply electrical power during a power outage and
prevent discontinuity of daily activities or disruption of business operations. Generators are
available in different electrical and physical configurations for use in different applications.
In the following sections, we will look at how a generator functions, the main components
of a generator, and how a generator operates as a secondary source of electrical power in
residential and industrial applications.

How does a generator work?

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy obtained from an external
source into electrical energy as the output.

It is important to understand that a generator does not actually ‘create’ electrical energy.
Instead, it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force the movement of electric
charges present in the wire of its windings through an external electric circuit. This flow of
electric charges constitutes the output electric current supplied by the generator. This
mechanism can be understood by considering the generator to be analogous to a water
pump, which causes the flow of water but does not actually ‘create’ the water flowing
through it.

The modern-day generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction discovered

by Michael Faraday in 1831-32. Faraday discovered that the above flow of electric charges
could be induced by moving an electrical conductor, such as a wire that contains electric
charges, in a magnetic field. This movement creates a voltage difference between the two
ends of the wire or electrical conductor, which in turn causes the electric charges to flow,
thus generating electric current.

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Main components of a generator

The main components of an electric generator can be broadly classified as follows (refer to
illustration above):

1. Engine
2. Alternator
3. Fuel System
4. Voltage Regulator
5. Cooling and Exhaust Systems
6. Lubrication System
7. Battery Charger
8. Control Panel
9. Main Assembly / Frame

A description of the main components of a generator is given below.

(1) Engine
The engine is the source of the input mechanical energy to the
generator. The size of the engine is directly proportional to the
maximum power output the generator can supply. There are several
factors that you need to keep in mind while assessing the engine of
your generator. The manufacturer of the engine should be consulted
to obtain full engine operation specifications and maintenance
schedules.

(a) Type of Fuel Used – Generator engines operate on a variety of fuels such as diesel,
gasoline, propane (in liquefied or gaseous form), or natural gas. Smaller engines usually
operate on gasoline while larger engines run on diesel, liquid propane, propane gas, or

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natural gas. Certain engines can also operate on a dual feed of both diesel and gas in a bi-
fuel operation mode.

(b) Overhead Valve (OHV) Engines versus non-OHV Engines – OHV engines differ from
other engines in that the intake and exhaust valves of the engine are located in the head of
the engine’s cylinder as opposed to being mounted on the engine block. OHV engines have
several advantages over other engines such as:

• Compact design
• Simpler operation mechanism
• Durability
• User-friendly in operations
• Low noise during operations
• Low emission levels

However, OHV-engines are also more expensive than other engines.

(c) Cast Iron Sleeve (CIS) in Engine Cylinder – The CIS is a lining in the cylinder of the
engine. It reduces wear and tear, and ensures durability of the engine. Most OHV-
engines are equipped with CIS but it is essential to check for this feature in the
engine of a generator. The CIS is not an expensive feature but it plays an important
role in engine durability especially if you need to use your generator often or for
long durations.

(2)Alternator
The alternator, also known as the ‘genhead’, is the part of the generator that produces the
electrical output from the mechanical input supplied by the engine. It contains an assembly
of stationary and moving parts encased in a housing. The components work together to
cause relative movement between the magnetic and electric fields, which in turn generates
electricity.

(a) Stator – This is the stationary component. It contains a set of electrical conductors
wound in coils over an iron core.

(b) Rotor / Armature – This is the moving component that produces a rotating magnetic
field in any one of the following three ways:

(i) By induction – These are known as brushless alternators and are usually used in
large generators.

(ii) By permanent magnets – This is common in small alternator units.

(iii) By using an exciter – An exciter is a small source of direct current (DC) that
energizes the rotor through an assembly of conducting slip rings and brushes.

The rotor generates a moving magnetic field around the stator, which induces a voltage
difference between the windings of the stator. This produces the alternating current (AC)
output of the generator. The following are the factors that you need to keep in mind while
assessing the alternator of a generator:

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(a) Metal versus Plastic Housing – An all-metal design ensures durability of the alternator.
Plastic housings get deformed with time and cause the moving parts of the alternator to be
exposed. This increases wear and tear and more importantly, is hazardous to the user.

(b) Ball Bearings versus Needle Bearings – Ball bearings are preferred and last longer.

(c) Brushless Design – An alternator that does not use brushes requires less maintenance
and also produces cleaner power.

(3)Fuel system

The fuel tank usually has sufficient capacity to keep the generator operational for 6 to 8
hours on an average. In the case of small generator units, the fuel tank is a part of the
generator’s skid base or is mounted on top of the generator frame. For commercial
applications, it may be necessary to erect and install an external fuel tank. All such
installations are subject to the approval of the City Planning Division. Click the following
link for further details regarding fuel tanks for generators.

Common features of the fuel system include the following:

(a) Pipe connection from fuel tank to engine – The supply line directs fuel from the tank to
the engine and the return line directs fuel from the engine to the tank.

(b) Ventilation pipe for fuel tank – The fuel tank has a ventilation pipe to prevent the build-
up of pressure or vacuum during refilling and drainage of the tank. When you refill the fuel
tank, ensure metal-to-metal contact between the filler nozzle and the fuel tank to avoid
sparks.

(c) Overflow connection from fuel tank to the drain pipe – This is required so that any
overflow during refilling of the tank does not cause spillage of the liquid on the generator
set.

(d) Fuel pump – This transfers fuel from the main storage tank to the day tank. The fuel
pump is typically electrically operated.

(e) Fuel Water Separator / Fuel Filter – This separates water and foreign matter from the
liquid fuel to protect other components of the generator from corrosion and contamination.

(f) Fuel Injector – This atomizes the liquid fuel and sprays the required amount of fuel into
the combustion chamber of the engine.

(4) Voltage Regulator

As the name implies, this component regulates the output voltage of the generator. The
mechanism is described below against each component that plays a part in the cyclical
process of voltage regulation.

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(1) Voltage Regulator: Conversion of AC Voltage to DC Current – The voltage regulator

takes up a small portion of the generator’s output of AC voltage and converts it into DC
current. The voltage regulator then feeds this DC current to a set of secondary windings in
the stator, known as exciter windings.

(2) Exciter Windings: Conversion of DC Current to AC Current – The exciter windings now
function similar to the primary stator windings and generate a small AC current. The exciter
windings are connected to units known as rotating rectifiers.

(3) Rotating Rectifiers: Conversion of AC Current to DC Current – These rectify the AC

current generated by the exciter windings and convert it to DC current. This DC current is
fed to the rotor / armature to create an electromagnetic field in addition to the rotating
magnetic field of the rotor / armature.

(4) Rotor / Armature: Conversion of DC Current to AC Voltage – The rotor / armature now
induces a larger AC voltage across the windings of the stator, which the generator now
produces as a larger output AC voltage.

This cycle continues till the generator begins to produce output voltage equivalent to its full
operating capacity. As the output of the generator increases, the voltage regulator produces
less DC current. Once the generator reaches full operating capacity, the voltage regulator
attains a state of equilibrium and produces just enough DC current to maintain the
generator’s output at full operating level.

When you add a load to a generator, its output voltage dips a little. This prompts the
voltage regulator into action and the above cycle begins. The cycle continues till the
generator output ramps up to its original full operating capacity.

(5) Cooling & Exhaust Systems

(a) Cooling System Continuous usage of the generator causes its various components to get
heated up. It is essential to have a cooling and ventilation system to withdraw heat
produced in the process.

Raw/fresh water is sometimes used as a coolant for generators, but these are mostly
limited to specific situations like small generators in city applications or very large units
over 2250 kW and above. Hydrogen is sometimes used as a coolant for the stator windings
of large generator units since it is more efficient at absorbing heat than other coolants.
Hydrogen removes heat from the generator and transfers it through a heat exchanger into a
secondary cooling circuit that contains de-mineralized water as a coolant. This is why very
large generators and small power plants often have large cooling towers next to them. For
all other common applications, both residential and industrial, a standard radiator and fan is
mounted on the generator and works as the primary cooling system.

It is essential to check the coolant levels of the generator on a daily basis. The cooling
system and raw water pump should be flushed after every 600 hours and the heat
exchanger should be cleaned after every 2,400 hours of generator operation. The generator
should be placed in an open and ventilated area that has adequate supply of fresh air. The

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National Electric Code (NEC) mandates that a minimum space of 3 feet should be allowed
on all sides of the generator to ensure free flow of cooling air.

(b) Exhaust System Exhaust fumes emitted by a generator are just like exhaust from any
other diesel or gasoline engine and contain highly toxic chemicals that need to be properly
managed. Hence, it is essential to install an adequate exhaust system to dispose of the
exhaust gases. This point cannot be emphasized enough as carbon monoxide poisoning
remains one of the most common causes for death in post hurricane affected areas because
people tend to not even think about it until it’s too late.

Exhaust pipes are usually made of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel. These need to be
freestanding and should not be supported by the engine of the generator. Exhaust pipes
are usually attached to the engine using flexible connectors to minimize vibrations and
prevent damage to the generator’s exhaust system. The exhaust pipe terminates outdoors
and leads away from doors, windows and other openings to the house or building. You
must ensure that the exhaust system of your generator is not connected to that of any other
equipment. You should also consult the local city ordinances to determine whether your
generator operation will need to obtain an approval from the local authorities to ensure you
are conforming to local laws a protect against fines and other penalties.

(6) Lubricating System

Since the generator comprises moving parts in its engine; it requires lubrication to ensure
durability and smooth operations for a long period of time. The generator’s engine is
lubricated by oil stored in a pump. You should check the level of lubricating oil every 8
hours of generator operation. You should also check for any leakages of lubricant and
change the lubricating oil every 500 hours of generator operation.

(7) Battery Charger

The start function of a generator is battery-operated. The battery charger keeps the
generator battery charged by supplying it with a precise ‘float’ voltage. If the float voltage is
very low, the battery will remain undercharged. If the float voltage is very high, it will
shorten the life of the battery. Battery chargers are usually made of stainless steel to
prevent corrosion. They are also fully automatic and do not require any adjustments to be
made or any settings to be changed. The DC output voltage of the battery charger is set at
2.33 Volts per cell, which is the precise float voltage for lead acid batteries. The battery
charger has an isolated DC voltage output that does interfere with the normal functioning
of the generator.

(8) Control Panel

This is the user interface of the generator and contains provisions for electrical outlets and
controls. The following article provides further details regarding the generator control

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panel. Different manufacturers have varied features to offer in the control panels of their
units. Some of these are mentioned below.

(a) Electric start and shut-down – Auto start control panels automatically start your
generator during a power outage, monitor the generator while in operation, and
automatically shut down the unit when no longer required.

(b) Engine gauges – Different gauges indicate important parameters such as oil
pressure, temperature of coolant, battery voltage, engine rotation speed, and
duration of operation. Constant measurement and monitoring of these parameters
enables built-in shut down of the generator when any of these cross their respective
threshold levels.

(c) Generator gauges – The control panel also has meters for the measurement of
output current and voltage, and operating frequency.

(d) Other controls – Phase selector switch, frequency switch, and engine control
switch (manual mode, auto mode) among others.

(9) Main Assembly / Frame

All generators, portable or stationary, have customized housings that provide a structural
base support. The frame also allows for the generated to be earthed for safety.

2.2 Maintenance practices of DG

Diesel generator is a sought after source for standby power supply. The durability, reliability
and the sturdiness of the diesel generator makes it ideal to run for long hours continuously
as a power supply source – as a standby or during emergency power needs. It can withstand
heavy load for long hours and start off the power supply on full load within minutes.

Maintenance Tips for Diesel Generator

Just like any other equipment, a diesel engine also requires proper maintenance for a
longer life and sustained working. It is advisable to strike an Annual Maintenance Contract
(AMC) with a reliable service provider to ensure regular preventive and corrective
maintenance. The preventive maintenance tips for the diesel generator include the
following aspects.

1. Routine General Inspection

During the running of the diesel generator, few parts have to be monitored for
safety. It includes the exhaust system, fuel system, DC electrical system and engine.

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Any leaks, if present, must be fixed immediately to prevent any hazardous

occurrences.

2. Lubrication Service

The engine oil must be checked while shutting down the generator at regular
intervals. The oil and filter must also be changed at the recommended time intervals.
The disposal is also to be done appropriately so as to prevent any environmental
hazards.

3. Cooling System

The coolant levels must be regularly checked. After shutting down the engine,
remove the radiator cap for the engine to cool down. The exterior of the coolant
must be inspected for any kind of obstruction, dirt or grime.

4. Fuel System

The fuel in the diesel generator is best used up within a year; before it starts
degrading or getting contaminated. The fuel filter is also to be drained at frequent
intervals to allow the water vapour and accumulated dust to be drained off from the
reservoir.

5. Testing Batteries

The battery must be kept fully charged and well-maintained to avoid deterioration.
Regular testing and inspection is essential to know the current status of the battery
and avoid any start-up problems of the diesel generator. They must also be cleaned;
and the specific gravity and electrolyte levels of the battery checked often.

6. Routine Engine Exercise

The engine parts may be under intense stress owing to the load. Routine exercise is
necessary to keep them lubricated, preventing the oxidation of the electrical parts as
well as use of the fuel without letting it deteriorate. On the whole, the engine
exercise ensures prompt starting of the engine without any hitches.

Proper preventive maintenance tips help to keep the engine working efficiently for
longer times and cut down costs on the running or repairs of the equipment. It is
thus mandatory to utilize the diesel generator as a reliable standby power supply
source.

2.3 Efficiency of DG set

With the steady development of the Diesel Engine, the specific fuel consumption has come
down from the value of 220 g/kWh in the 1970 to a value of around 160 g/kWh in present
times. With the arrival of modern high efficiency turbochargers, it is possible to use an

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exhaust gas driven turbine generator to further increase the engine rated output. The net
result would be lower fuel consumption per kWh and further increase in overall thermal
efficiency. The diesel engine is able to burn the poorest quality fuel oils, unlike gas turbine,
which is able to do so with only costly fuel treatment equipment.

Unbalanced Load Effects

It is always recommended to have the load as much balanced as possible, since unbalanced
loads can cause heating of the alternator, which may result in unbalanced output voltages.
The maximum unbalanced load between phases should not exceed 10% of the capacity of
the DG Sets.

Load Pattern

In many cases, the load will not be constant throughout the day. If there is substantial
variation in load, then consideration should be given for parallel operation of DG Sets. In
such a situation, additional DG Sets are to be switched on when load increases. The typical
case may be an establishment demanding substantially different powers in first, second and
third shifts. By parallel operation, DG Sets can be run at Optimum Operating Points or near
about, for Optimum fuel consumption and additionally, flexibility is built into the system.
This scheme can also be applied where loads can be segregated as critical and non-critical
loads to provide standby power to critical load in the captive power system.

Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets

Routine energy efficiency assessment of DG sets involves following typical steps:

1. Ensure reliability of all instruments used for trial.

2. Collect technical literature, characteristics, and specifications of the plant.
3. Conduct a 2 hour trial on the DG set, ensuring a steady load, wherein the following
measurements are logged at 15 minutes intervals.
 Fuel consumption (by dip level or by flow meter)
 Amps, volts, PF, kW, kWh
 Intake air temperature, Relative Humidity (RH)
 Intake cooling water temperature
 Cylinder-wise exhaust temperature (as an indication of engine loading)
 Turbocharger RPM (as an indication of loading on engine)
 Charge air pressure (as an indication of engine loading)
 Cooling water temperature before and after charge air cooler (as an indication of
cooler performance)
 Stack gas temperature before and after turbocharger (as an indication of
turbocharger performance)
4. The fuel oil/diesel analysis is referred to from an oil company data. Analysis - The
trial data is to be analysed with respect to:
 Average alternator loading.
 Average engine loading.
 Percentage loading on alternator.
 Percentage loading on engine.
 Specific power generation kWh/litre.

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 Comments on Turbocharger performance based on RPM and gas temperature

difference.
 Comments on charge air cooler performance.
 Comments on load distribution among various cylinders (based on exhaust
temperature, the temperature to be ± 5% of mean and high/low values indicate
disturbed condition).
 Comments on housekeeping issues like drip leakages, insulation, vibrations, etc

The following table format can be used for monitoring the performance of DG Set:

Diesel Generator Diesel Generator (DG) Sets Overview

2.4 Statutory requirements of DG set

1. The Diesel Engine shall be Turbo charged, water cooled, 4 stroke, and 1500 rpm, with
electronic governor and should be of BHP suitable for DG rating (250 KVA) with 10% over
load capacity or 310 BHP, whichever is higher.

2. The Diesel Engine should sustain 10% overload for one hour at standard operating
conditions during 12 hours of continuous operation.

3. The fuel tank of Diesel engine should be provided with air breather & drain plug and
have capacity for 08 hrs of continuous running at full load or 990 litres, whichever is less.

4. Safety control to shut down engine in event of over speed, low lube oil pressure and high
engine water temperature.

5. Starting system of 12 or 24VDC with complete charging alternator or dynamo and cut-
out.

6. The DG Set shall be supplied with rechargeable Lead Acid/ semi-maintenance free
batteries of suitable ratings with connecting cables. The batteries shall be supplied dry
and in uncharged condition and shall conform to relevant IS. The accepted make of
batteries are Exide/Amron/Cummins Pulselite/Standard Furukawa.

7. Anti vibration mountings (AVM) for complete DG Set and vibrations below AVM’s should
not exceed 100 microns.

8. The fuel level should be indicated with the help of fuel gauge meter.

9. Engine instrument panel shall consist of start/stop switch with key, lube oil temperature
& pressure gauges, water temperature gauge, RPM indicator and Hour meter.

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10. There should be provision for filling the fuel from outside of canopy with lock/key
arrangement.

11. The Alternator shall be of 250 KVA, 3-Phase,415V, 50Hz ,1500 rpm, 0.8 Pf lag, self
excited, self regulated and brushless excitation with VG-2 Grade of voltage regulation.

12. The alternator should be suitable to take unbalanced load & 10% overload for one hour
and 50% over current for 15 Seconds.

13. DG Set should have protection against under voltage, overvoltage, under frequency,
over frequency, low battery voltage, over current, earth fault, short circuit and phase
sequence change etc.

14. Manual Control Panel- The manual control panel 250KVA, 3-Ph, 415V, 50Hz, shall be
fabricated from MS sheet of min. 1.5mm thickness with min. dimensions 1325x500x250mm,
duly pre-treated & powder coated. The manual control panel shall be dust & vermin proof;
floor mounted with IP-53 degree of protection and should have 10% overload capacity for
one hour.

15. Acoustic Enclosure- The DG Set should be provided with inbuilt acoustic enclosure and
the same shall consist of:

a. The acoustic enclosure shall be fabricated out of CRCA sheet of min 1.6mm
thickness, suitably pre-treated & powder coated.

b. Sound proofing of acoustic enclosure shall be done with high quality rock
wool/mineral wool/ foam/ fibre glass wool of 40mm thickness. This wool shall be
covered with fibre glass cloth and perforated & powder coated sheet.

c. The door handle should be lockable type.

d. There should be provision of drain plugs for draining lube oil & diesel.

e. The doors should be gasket with quality gaskets and the enclosure be provided
with residential silencer & specially designed louvers at air entry & exit to control
noise level to specified limits.

f. There should be separate tray in the enclosure to accommodate batteries.

g. A see through transparent window of glass or high quality acrylic type, in front of
engine panel shall be provided for performance monitoring.

h. There should be provision for emergency STOP from outside the enclosure.

i. All material used should be of reputed make.

j. The acoustic enclosure should meet all applicable norms and statutory
requirements regarding noise and inner temperature.

16. Testing of DG Set: The party shall give an inspection call to the customer before
dispatching the DG Set and the following tests shall be conducted on the same.

a. Alignment of DG Set should be done with tolerance of 0.01mm.

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b. Voltage regulation test at 0.8 pf lag.

c. Full load test for 04 hrs. At rated KW at 0.8 pf lag.

d. Overload (10%) test shall be conducted for one hour at 0.8 pf lag. DG set should
be capable of running at full-load test for one hour, after the overload test.

e. High voltage test at 1.6KV for one minute should be conducted on alternator as
well as control panel after the load test.

f. Insulation resistance test should be conducted on alternator as well as control

panel after the load test.

g. Checking for the trouble free starting and oil leakage.

h. Vibration test: Vibration below AVM's should not exceed 100 microns.

17. Test Certificates: The party shall provide all relevant test certificates of diesel engine,
alternator, acoustic enclosure and all other components of DG Set for the tests conducted
by itself as well as from their original manufacturer, wherever applicable.

18. DG set and diesel engine shall meet the specified norms of Central Pollution
Control Board(CPCB) and Punjab pollution control board(PPCB). The party shall submit
certificate in this regard. DG set shall also meet all the other statutory requirements as
notified by the Government from time to time. In case, any deficiency pointed out by any
statutory body like CPCB or PPCB, same should be rectified free of cost.

19. Party shall confirm that DG set shall meet the requirements of
Environmental (Protection) rules 1986 as laid down by Ministry of Environment and
Forest read with GSR 371(E) dated 17.05.2002, GSR 520(E)dated 01.07.2003 and GSR
448(E) dated 12.07.2004 in respect of emission norms for engine & noise norms for
DG Sets. The latest amendments to above GSRs shall be applicable.

20. DG Set and other accessories should be supplied on “DOOR DELIVERY” basis including
cost of loading, transportation, unloading. Placement of DG Set on foundation will also be
in party’s scope.

21. The party shall have to furnish foundation details of the DG Set to facilitate the process
of installation and erection of the DG Set.

22. The responsibility for installing and commissioning of DG sets shall be that of the party.
The party shall complete installation and commissioning within 3 months of receipt of DG
sets by customer. The party shall depute trained engineers and technicians for the same.

23. First fill of lube oil and all filters shall be provided by the party. The party shall also
provide 100 litres of diesel.

24. The party shall conduct trial run of the DG set with the available electrical load at site
after successful commissioning of the same. The trial run shall be for ONE hour. The
available electrical load shall be less than or equal to the rated capacity of the DG set. The
consumables provided by the party will cover the trial run of DG set as well.

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25. All installation and commissioning works should be executed as per the norms of Indian
electricity rules 1956 and other related statutory requirements.

26. The party shall have to furnish operation & maintenance manual and other relevant
technical documents & literatures for diesel engine, alternator, control panel and other
components of the DG Set, wherever applicable. The technical documents and drawings
required for obtaining the approval from the any of statutory bodies, if applicable shall be
prepared by the party.

27. The party shall specify the warranty/guarantee period for the DG Set as a whole or for its
different components like Diesel engine, alternator, acoustic enclosure & batteries etc as
applicable, which should be minimum 12 months. The party should rectify/replace the
defective parts, if any, within warrantee period without any delay and without any additional
cost to HIL. The party shall clearly specify the parts covered under replacement warranty
and details of service provided during warranty.

3. Motors

3.1 Basic principles of motors

An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy
into a mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC operation, most widely used motor is
three phase induction motor as this type of motor does not require any starting device or
we can say they are self starting induction motor.

For better understanding the principle of three phase induction motor, the basic
constructional feature of this motor must be known to us. This Motor consists of two major
parts:

Stator: Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to construct a
3 phase winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source. The three phase winding
are arranged in such a manner in the slots that they produce a rotating magnetic field after
AC is given to them.

Rotor: Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with
parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper or aluminum bars
which fits in each slots & they are short circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly
made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this
arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

Working of Three Phase Induction Motor

 Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

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The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical angle of 120°.
When the primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes
a rotating magnetic field which rotates at the synchronous speed.

 Secrets behind the rotation:

According to Faraday’s law an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage through the circuit. As the rotor winding in an induction motor are
either closed through an external resistance or directly shorted by end ring, and cut the
stator rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the rotor copper bar and due to this emf
a current flows through the rotor conductor.

Here the relative velocity between the rotating flux and static rotor conductor is the cause
of current generation; hence as per Lenz’s law the rotor will rotate in the same direction to
reduce the cause i.e. the relative velocity.

Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor it may observed that the
rotor speed should not reach the synchronous speed produced by the stator. If the speeds
equals, there would be no such relative velocity, so no emf induction in the rotor, & no
current would be flowing, and therefore no torque would be generated. Consequently the
rotor cannot reach at the synchronous speed. The difference between the stator
(synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is called the slip. The rotation of the magnetic field in
an induction motor has the advantage that no electrical connections need to be made to
the rotor.

Thus the three phase induction motor is:

• Self-starting.

• Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of commutators
and brushes that may cause sparks.

• Robust in construction.

• Economical.

• Easier to maintain.

3.2 Types of Motor application

Choosing and Dimensioning Electric Motors Electric motors are energy converters for
kinematic processes as they occur in the technology of most driven machines. Examples are:

• Motor applications: - machine tools - cranes, elevators, vehicles - pumps, fans,

compressors - presses, bending machines, rolling mills, calendars, etc.

• Actuator processes: -slides and valves - feed devices, robot applications -

kinematic processes in control linkages

All kinematic processes involve the quantities force - torque - power - energy and time.
Solids, liquids, or gases change their location as a function of time. But other concepts such

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as velocity, acceleration, efficiency, etc., also play a part. Electric motors draw energy from a
utility supply and convert it into mechanical energy. Auxiliary devices such as clutches,
transmissions, gears, brakes and driven machines can be located between the motor and
the actual load, i.e., the moving solid, liquid, or gas. To choose and dimension a motor the
relevant parameters of all elements in the chain of energy flow, starting with the actual load,
must be determined with relative accuracy. Proper selection is therefore important. For
proper selection of a motor it is necessary to find an ideal motor for the kinematic task at
hand. Even more important than the appropriate motor type with accessories such as gears,
brakes, clutches, etc., is the proper sizing of the motor. An undersized motor will fail in
continuous duty. An oversized motor causes unnecessary expenses, runs uneconomically
(greater procurement costs, poorer operating efficiency and higher losses, requires more
reactive power) and may load the machine with an excessively high acceleration torque.

Three-phase Induction Motors

In any case, the basic application conditions will have to be defined, whereby the following
factors are significant: • power transmission: As a single drive the motor can be coupled to
the load directly or via a transmission, or it can be used as a central motor connected to
intermediate shafts, belt and chain drives, etc. • operating conditions such as overload
capacity, frequency of starting, operating mode, peak torques, ambient temperature, etc.,
affect not only the motor size requirement, but also the selection of motor accessories. •
Space conditions and the layout possibilities of the entire system affect mainly the choice of
motor accessories.

3.3 Maintenance Practices of Motors

Visual and mechanical inspections

An important aspect of large machine maintenance is the visual and mechanical inspection.

1. Inspect the machine's physical and mechanical condition.

 Check for signs of oil or water leakage.

 Verify that air inlets are not plugged.
 Check for abnormal sounds or smells.
 Check the water and oil supply piping.
 Check the drain piping.
 Look at the condition of the foundation, grout, bed plates, anchor bolts, shaft
extensions, couplings and guards.
 Check the surroundings for any environmental issues that may affect performance or
service life.

2. Inspect anchorage, alignment and grounding of the motor, driven equipment and base.

3. Inspect air baffles, filter media, cooling fans, slip rings, brushes and brush rigging.

4. Inspect bolted electrical connections for high resistance.

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5. While the unit is under full load, perform a thermo graphic survey.

6. Perform special tests such as air-gap spacing and machine alignment, if applicable.

7. Verify the application of appropriate lubrication and lubrication systems.

 Verify the bearing oil level.

 Check for improper lubrication, oil of the wrong type, viscosity that is too heavy or
too light.
 Verify that there is sufficient oil in bearing bracket to cover bottom of rings.
 Look for dirty oil or old oil (should be replaced and/or tested).
 Verify that the oil rings are turning (especially at low temperatures).
 Check for water or other contamination within the lubrication system.
 Verify that the feed oil is connected to the correct ports When the bearing and seals
are inspected the following should be considered:
 Check for excessive bearing clearance.
 Verify seal clearance and condition.
 Make sure there is not improper seating of shaft journal in bearing or a bent shaft.

8. Verify the absence of unusual mechanical or electrical noise or signs of overheating.

 Check for pitting of bearing and journal surfaces due to bearing currents.
 Verify integrity of bearing insulation.
 Make sure there are no rough bearing surfaces due to corrosion or careless handling.
 Verify that there is not excessive end thrust from the mechanical load.
 Check for poor alignment.
 Make sure that the bearing Babbitt has not been fractured or damaged due to
impact or shock loading of the bearing journal.

9. Verify that resistance temperature detector (RTD) circuits conform to drawings and are
functioning properly.

Electrical tests for AC induction motors

Electrical tests performed on large motors can yield significant information as to the overall
health of the machine.

Some of the more common electrical tests and procedures include:

1. Resistance measurements taken through bolted connections with a low-resistance

ohmmeter;

2. Insulation-resistance tests in accordance with ANSI/IEEE Standard 43;

3. DC over potential tests on machines rated at 2300 volts and greater in accordance
with ANSI/IEEE Standard 95;

4. Phase-to-phase stator resistance tests on machines 2300 volts and greater;

5. Insulation power-factor or dissipation-factor tests;

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6. Power-factor tip-up tests;

7. Surge comparison tests;

8. Insulation-resistance tests on insulated bearings;

9. Testing and inspection of surge protection devices;

10. Testing and inspection of motor starters;

11. Resistance tests on resistance temperature detector (RTD) circuits;

12. Verification of machine space heater operation, if applicable;

13. Vibration testing of motor after it has started running.

4. Circuit Breakers

4.1 Basic Principle

Definition of circuit breaker: – Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be
operated manually as well as automatically for controlling and protection of electrical
power system respectively. As the modern power system deals with huge currents, the
special attention should be given during designing of circuit breaker to safe interruption of
arc produced during the operation of circuit breaker. This was the basic definition of circuit
breaker.

Introduction to Circuit Breaker

The modern power system deals with huge power network and huge numbers of associated
electrical equipment. During short circuit fault or any other types of electrical fault these
equipment as well as the power network suffer a high stress of fault current in them which
may damage the equipment and networks permanently. For saving these equipment and
the power networks the fault current should be cleared from the system as quickly as
possible. Again after the fault is cleared, the system must come to its normal working
condition as soon as possible for supplying reliable quality power to the receiving ends. In
addition to that for proper controlling of power system, different switching operations are
required to be performed. So for timely disconnecting and reconnecting different parts of
power system network for protection and control, there must be some special type of
switching devices which can be operated safely under huge current carrying condition.
During interruption of huge current, there would be large arcing in between switching
contacts, so care should be taken to quench these arcs in circuit breaker in safe manner. The
circuit breaker is the special device which does all the required switching operations during
current carrying condition. This was the basic introduction to circuit breaker.

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Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal “on”
condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due
to applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts. There is an arrangement stored
potential energy in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker which is realized if switching
signal given to the breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by
different ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air, or by hydraulic pressure.
But whatever the source of potential energy, it must be released during operation. Release
of potential energy makes sliding of the moving contact at extremely fast manner. All circuit
breaker have operating coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever these coils are
energized by switching pulse, and the plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil
plunger is typically attached to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result the
mechanically stored potential energy in the breaker mechanism is released in forms of
kinetic energy, which makes the moving contact to move as these moving contacts
mechanically attached through a gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism.
After a cycle of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence
the potential energy again stored in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means
of spring charging motor or air compressor or by any other means. Till now we have
discussed about mechanical working principle of circuit breaker. But there are electrical
characteristics of a circuit breaker which also should be considered in this discussion of
operation of circuit breaker.

The circuit breaker has to carry large rated or fault power. Due to this large power there is
always dangerously high arcing between moving contacts and fixed contact during
operation of circuit breaker. Again as we discussed earlier the arc in circuit breaker can be
quenching safely if the dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts of circuit
breaker increases rapidly during every current zero crossing of the alternating current. The
dielectric strength of the media in between contacts can be increased in numbers of ways,
like by compressing the ionized arcing media since compressing accelerates the
deionization process of the media, by cooling the arcing media since cooling increase the
resistance of arcing path or by replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses. Hence a
numbers of arc quenching processes should be involved in operation of circuit breaker.

4.2 Types of circuit breaker and application

According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker.
According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as-

 Oil circuit breaker.

 Air circuit breaker.
 SF6 circuit breaker.
 Vacuum circuit breaker.

According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as-

 Outdoor circuit breaker

 Indoor breaker.

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According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can be divided as-

 Spring operated circuit breaker.

 Pneumatic circuit breaker.
 Hydraulic circuit breaker.

According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit breaker are referred as-

 High voltage circuit breaker.

 Medium voltage circuit breaker.
 Low voltage circuit breaker.

4.3 Application

Circuit Breakers for Use in Particular

To upgrade a electrical equipment by using products suitable for the particular application
or in special environmental conditions.

If it is considered as proper when the standard MCCB/ELCB is not chosen to use in a special
characteristic of the load, or various environment conditions, the special breaker is needed.

For the sales availability of the products, check each country's.

 Bus bar Plug-in Breakers

 Fire Resistance Breakers for Emergency Power Supply
 Circuit Breakers for Use in Special Purpose
 DSN Switches
 Circuit Breakers for Use in Particular Environmental Conditions

Bus bar Plug-in Breakers

This kind of breaker is named as the plug-in breaker for switchboards. This can be
connected to the main bus bar of the switchboard directly to assist with the standardization
design, the safety, the enlargement of circuits, and the time saving of power outage at the
maintenance of a equipment.

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Fire Resistance Breakers for Emergency Power Supply

This kind of breaker is named as a fire resistance breaker for using within the emergency
power switchboards.

Circuit Breakers for Use in Special Purpose

These breakers include various types. In case of depending on a kind and a characteristic of
the load, no standard MCCBs or ELCBs are used.

DSN Switches

As a result of making a DSN switch by omitting the over current tripping device of a MCCB,
it is used as a switching device having high operating capacities.

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Circuit Breakers for Use in Particular Environmental Conditions

The breaker is used in the varied environment. For using in the environment different from
standard conditions, several types of breakers are provided to each special environment.

4.4 Maintenance Practices

Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker Maintenance

For bulk oil circuit breaker, we should check contact burning. If burning is very light, remove
the burn beads and polish the surface. If burning is quite heavy, replace the tips and arcing
ring by new set. We should loose and tight the tips few times before final tightening is
done.

In addition to that we should also check the extinguishing chamber. It must be removed
from the breaker unit and after washing the chamber by insulating oil it is kept as upside
down. If the condition of any part indicates severe burning, we should dismantle the
chamber and replace the burned/ damaged parts.

Next point is cleaning and lubricating CB mechanism. The rust on the mechanism and also
from metal mechanism box surface should be removed by non fluffy cotton cloths. The
mechanism including gear wheel should be lubricated by high grade grease. But it should
be remembered that the friction clutch must be lubricated. In case of minimum oil circuit
breaker, insulator must be cleaned and carbon deposition if any should be removed by
Trichloro Ethylene or Acetone. The manual provided by manufacturer for greasing and
lubricating should also be followed beside this general instruction.

The locking pins of tie rods should be checked half yearly.

All the foundation bolts electrical terminal connections at CB power circuit must be tighten
properly after removing oxide coating if nay. This must be done half yearly.

The proper adjustment of auxiliary switch by ensuring correct NO NC contacts at breaker

OFF and ON condition must be checked half yearly and in addition to that the auxiliary
switch’s contacts should be clean properly with help of hard brushes.

The spring charging motor and mechanism should also be cleaned and associated bearing
should also be lubricated half yearly.

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Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker Maintenance

In case of MOCB, the breaker should be checked monthly for oil leakage and oil level. If oil
leakage is found it must be attended and for low oil level top up oil up to desire level.
Visual inspection of circuit breaker and its operating mechanism along with quality of
painting, mechanism kiosk door gasket should be carried out quarterly if any damaged
found take proper action.

The oil dash pot in operating mechanism must be checked for oil leakage quarterly if
leakage found replaces the defective and damaged O – rings.

It is also highly recommended to ensure the prescribed duty cycle of operation of the
breaker including reclosing annually.

Maintenance of Air Blast Circuit Breaker

For air blast circuit breaker there are some special cares to be taken in addition to general
instruction of maintenance of operating mechanism. Actually for operating mechanisms and
for other some features the maintenance processes and schedules are same for all oil circuit
breaker, air circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker and vacuum circuit breaker.
In air circuit breaker, the air leakage should be checked as and when it is required. If
leakage found, plug the leakage.

The grading capacitors must be checked for oil leakage monthly. If leakage found plug it.

Yearly, dew point of the operating air at the outlet of air dryer should be measured with the
help of Dew Point Meter or Hygro Meters

5. Electrical Panels

5.1 Standard Installation and requirements

General Requirements - The main electrical service shall be installed with rigid conduit.
Electrical metallic tubing may be used where the service drop is attached to the building.
The service entrance cable may be used, provided the approved fittings are used with the
cable, such as a rain-tight service head or forming the cable goose-neck, taped or painted,
and held securely in place by a fitting approved for the purpose.
The minimum size service conduit shall be 1-1/4”. The minimum size service entrance wire
shall be rated 100 amperes minimum for single family dwellings. For single family homes,
the service disconnect means shall have a rating of less than 100 amperes, 3-wire. A larger
service may be required for new homes or additions to existing homes based on the actual
load calculations.

Service Entrance Conductors (Wires) – Conductors that extend across a roof shall have a
minimum vertical clearance of 3’ above the roof surface for roofs sloped 4:12 or more (18”
clearance required when conductors enter through the roof overhang/eave). The service

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head shall be located so that the service drops, together with the open wires between the
service head and service drop, will have a minimum clearance of 10’ vertically above ground
and 3’ radius from doors and windows. The neutral (grounded) conductor must be
identified with white tape at both terminals. Service entrance conductors and cables shall be
approved for a wet location and, when exposed to direct sunlight, shall be listed and
marked as “sunlight resistant.” Service entrance conductors and conduit shall be sized
according to the following table

SERVICE ENTRANCE CONDUCTORS SIZE AND RATING

Service or Aluminium or Copper- Minimum

Copper
Feeder Clad Conduit
Conductors
Rating Aluminium Size

100 Amps #4 AWG #2 AWG 1 ¼ inch

125 Amps #2 AWG #1/0 AWG 1 ¼ inch

150 Amps #1 AWG #2/0 AWG 1 ¼ inch

200 Amps #2/0 AWG #4/0 AWG 1 ½ inch

The grounding conductors must be identified by white or grey tape at both ends

Meter location - The height of the meter shall be between 48” and 66” above the ground.
Note: PG&E prohibits new meters on exterior walls adjacent to bedrooms or bedroom
closets. A minimum horizontal clearance of 36” from the gas meter and piping is required.

Working space - The clear working space in front of the panel shall be 30” wide by 36”
deep with a minimum headroom clearance of 6’-6”.

Grounding of Services - Grounding shall consist of a continuous grounding electrode

conductor run from the panel to a ground rod (grounding electrode) and to the cold water
pipe. Grounding of the electrical service at the main water line must be within the first 5’ of
water piping into the building. The underground water service shall not be used as the
grounding electrode without supplemental electrode.

For new structures and additions to existing structures, a concrete encased ground
electrode shall be installed. This shall consist of 20’ of ½” bare or zinc-coated rebar or bare
copper wire in the portion of the footing in contact with earth.

For existing structures, the grounding electrode shall be nonferrous (copper), listed, and not
be less than ½” in diameter. The electrode shall be installed such that at least 8’ of length is
in contract with the soil. The upper end of the electrode shall be flush with or below ground
level unless the above-ground end and the grounding electrode conductor attachment is
protected against physical damage.

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The required grounding electrode conductor (from electrode to panel) size is listed in the
following table:

GROUNDING ELECTRODE CONDUCTOR SIZING

Size of Main Copper Aluminium or Copper-Clad

Panel Conductors Aluminium

100 Amps #8 AWG #6 AWG

125 Amps #8 AWG #6 AWG

150 Amps #6 AWG #4 AWG

200 Amps #4 AWG #2 AWG

Bonding - Bonding of the hot, cold, and gas lines is required when the electrical panel is
replaced. Bonding of the hot, cold, and gas lines is required with water service replacements
(if using a less conductive material than is existing) and for all re-pipes. Bonding shall
consist of a continuous bond jumper installed at the water heater between the hot, cold,
and gas lines. The bonding jumper shall be sized based on the following table:

BONDING JUMPER SIZING

Size of Main Copper Aluminium or Copper-Clad

Panel Conductors Aluminium

100 Amps #8 AWG #6 AWG

125 Amps #6 AWG #4 AWG

150 Amps #6 AWG #4 AWG

200 Amps #6 AWG #4 AWG

Inspections

A minimum of two inspections are required, a utility release and a final. The utility release
inspection should be scheduled when the new panel is installed and ready to be hooked up.
The building inspector will provide a utility release form which will need to be provided to
PG&E to have the supply hooked up to the new panel. A wire lath inspection is required for
stucco repairs. A final inspection should be scheduled after all of the work is complete.

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Level III: Measurement Analysis and Improvement

1. Losses Measurement

1.1 Types of losses in electrical system

After electric power is generated, it is sent through the transmission lines to the many
distribution circuits that the utility operates. The purpose of .the distribution system is to
take that power from the transmission system and deliver it to the consumers to serve their
needs. However, a significant portion of the power that a utility generates is lost in the
distribution process. These losses occur in numerous small components in the distribution
system, such as transformers and distribution lines. Due to the lower power level of these
components, the losses inherent in each component are lower than those in comparable
components of the transmission system. While each of these components may have
relatively small losses, the large number of components involved makes it important to
examine the losses in the distribution system. These losses typically account for
approximately four percent of the total system load. There are two major sources of losses
in power distribution systems. These are the transformers and power lines. Additionally,
there are two major types of losses that occur in these components. These losses are often
referred to as core losses and copper, or I~R, losses. Core losses in transformers account for
the majority of losses at low power levels. As load increases, the copper losses become
more significant, until they are approximately equal to the core losses at peak load. The
economic implications of these losses are far reaching. In addition to the excess fuel cost
needed to cover .the lost energy, added generating capacity may be needed. Also, the
power lost in the distribution system must still be transmitted through the transmission
system which further adds to the loss in that system. It is very important for electric power
suppliers to consider these losses and reduce them wherever practical.

Transmission and Distribution loss are the amounts that are not paid for by users.

T&D Losses= (Energy Input to feeder (Kwh)-Billed Energy to Consumer (Kwh)) / Energy
Input kwh x100

Distribution Sector considered as the weakest link in the entire power sector. Transmission
Losses is approximate 17% while Distribution Losses is approximate 50%. There are two
types of Transmission and Distribution Losses

 Technical Losses
 Non Technical Losses (Commercial Losses)

(1) Technical Losses:

The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors, equipment used for
transmission Line, Transformer, sub- transmission Line and distribution Line and magnetic
losses in transformers.

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Technical losses are normally 22.5%, and directly depend on the network characteristics and
the mode of operation.

The major amount of losses in a power system is in primary and secondary distribution
lines. While transmission and sub-transmission lines account for only about 30% of the total
losses. Therefore the primary and secondary distribution systems must be properly planned
to ensure within limits.

The unexpected load increase was reflected in the increase of technical losses above the
normal level. Losses are inherent to the distribution of electricity and cannot be eliminated.
There are two Type of Technical Losses :

(a) Permanent / Fixed Technical losses:

Fixed losses do not vary according to current. These losses take the form of heat and
noise and occur as long as a transformer is energized.

Between 1/4 and 1/3 of technical losses on distribution networks are fixed losses.
Fixed losses on a network can be influenced in the ways set out below.

 Corona Losses.
 Leakage Current Losses.
 Dielectric Losses.
 Open-circuit Losses.
 Losses caused by continuous load of measuring elements
 Losses caused by continuous load of control elements.

(b) Variable Technical losses

Variable losses vary with the amount of electricity distributed and are, more
precisely, proportional to the square of the current. Consequently, a 1% increase in
current leads to an increase in losses of more than 1%.

Between 2/3 and 3/4 of technical (or physical) losses on distribution networks are
variable Losses.

By increasing the cross sectional area of lines and cables for a given load, losses will
fall. This leads to a direct trade-off between cost of losses and cost of capital
expenditure. It has been suggested that optimal average utilization rate on a
distribution network that considers the cost of losses in its design could be as low as
30 per cent.

 Joule losses in lines in each voltage level

 Impedance losses
 Losses caused by contact resistance.

Main Reasons for Technical Losses:

(1) Lengthy Distribution lines:

In practically 11 KV and 415 volts lines, in rural areas are extended over long
distances to feed loads scattered over large areas. Thus the primary and secondary

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distributions lines in rural areas are largely radial laid usually extend over long
distances. This results in high line resistance and therefore high I2R losses in the line.

Haphazard growths of sub-transmission and distribution system in to new areas.

Large scale rural electrification through long 11kV and LT lines.

(2) Inadequate Size of Conductors of Distribution lines:

The size of the conductors should be selected on the basis of KVA x KM capacity of
standard conductor for a required voltage regulation but rural loads are usually
scattered and generally fed by radial feeders. The conductor size of these feeders
should be adequate.

(3) Installation of Distribution transformers away from load centres.

Distribution Transformers are not located at Load centre on the Secondary

Distribution System.

In most of case Distribution Transformers are not located centrally with respect to
consumers. Consequently, the farthest consumers obtain an extremity low voltage
even though a good voltage levels maintained at the transformers secondary. This
again leads to higher line losses. (The reason for the line losses increasing as a result
of decreased voltage at the consumers end Therefore in order to reduce the voltage
drop in the line to the farthest consumers, the distribution transformer should be
located at the load center to keep voltage drop within permissible limits.

(4) Low Power Factor of Primary and secondary distribution system:

In most LT distribution circuits normally the Power Factor ranges from 0.65 to 0.75. A
low Power Factor contributes towards high distribution losses.

For a given load, if the Power Factor is low, the current drawn in high And the losses
proportional to square of the current will be more. Thus, line losses owing to the
poor PF can be reduced by improving the Power Factor. This can be done by
application of shunt capacitors.

Shunt capacitors can be connected either in secondary side (11 KV side) of the 33/11
KV power transformers or at various point of Distribution Line.

The optimum rating of capacitor banks for a distribution system is 2/3rd of the
average KVAR requirement of that distribution system.

The vantage point is at 2/3rd the length of the main distributor from the transformer.

A more appropriate manner of improving this PF of the distribution system and

thereby reduce the line losses is to connect capacitors across the terminals of the
consumers having inductive loads.

By connecting the capacitors across individual loads, the line loss is reduced from 4
to 9% depending upon the extent of PF improvement.

(5) Bad Workmanship:

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Bad Workmanship contributes significantly role towards increasing distribution

losses.

Joints are a source of power loss. Therefore the number of joints should be kept to a
minimum. Proper jointing techniques should be used to ensure firm connections.

Connections to the transformer bushing-stem, drop out fuse, isolator, and LT switch
etc. should be periodically inspected and proper pressure maintained to avoid
sparking and heating of contacts.

Replacement of deteriorated wires and services should also be made timely to avoid
any cause of leaking and loss of power.

(6) Feeder Phase Current and Load Balancing:

One of the easiest loss savings of the distribution system is balancing current along
three-phase circuits.

Feeder phase balancing also tends to balance voltage drop among phases giving
three-phase customers less voltage unbalance. Amperage magnitude at the
substation doesn’t guarantee load is balanced throughout the feeder length. Feeder
phase unbalance may vary during the day and with different seasons. Feeders are
usually considered “balanced” when phase current magnitudes are within
10.Similarly, balancing load among distribution feeders will also lower losses
assuming similar conductor resistance. This may require installing additional switches
between feeders to allow for appropriate load transfer.

(7) Load Factor Effect on Losses:

Power consumption of Customer varies throughout the day and over seasons.
Residential customers generally draw their highest power demand in the evening
hours. Same commercial customer load generally peak in the early afternoon.
Because current level (hence, load) is the primary driver in distribution power losses,
keeping power consumption more level throughout the day will lower peak power
loss and overall energy losses. Load variation is Called load factor and It varies from 0
to 1.

Load Factor=Average load in a specified time period / peak load during that time
period.

For example, for 30 days month (720 hours) peak Load of the feeder is 10 MW. If the
feeder supplied a total energy of 5,000 MWH, the load factor for that month is (5,000
MWh)/ (10MW x 720) =0.69.

Lower power and energy losses are reduced by raising the load factor, which, evens
out feeder demand variation throughout the feeder.

The load factor has been increase by offering customers “time-of-use” rates.
Companies use pricing power to influence consumers to shift electric-intensive
activities during off-peak times (such as, electric water and space heating, air
conditioning, irrigating, and pool filter pumping).

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With financial incentives, some electric customers are also allowing utilities to
interrupt large electric loads remotely through radio frequency or power line carrier
during periods of peak use. Utilities can try to design in higher load factors by
running the same feeders through residential and commercial areas

(8) Transformer Sizing and Selection:

Distribution transformers use copper conductor windings to induce a magnetic field

into a grain-oriented silicon steel core. Therefore, transformers have both load losses
and no-load core losses.

Transformer copper losses vary with load based on the resistive power loss equation
(P loss = I²R).

For some utilities, economic transformer loading means loading distribution

transformers to capacity-or slightly above capacity for a short time-in an effort to
minimize capital costs and still maintain long transformer life.

However, since peak generation is usually the most expensive, total cost of
ownership (TCO) studies should take into account the cost of peak transformer
losses. Increasing distribution transformer capacity during peak by one size will often
result in lower total peak power dissipation-more so if it is over Loaded.

Transformer no-load excitation loss (iron loss) occurs from a changing magnetic field
in the transformer core whenever it is energized. Core loss varies slightly with voltage
but is essentially considered constant. Fixed iron loss depends on transformer core
design and steel lamination molecular structure. Improved manufacturing of steel
cores and introducing amorphous metals (such as metallic glass) have reduced core
losses.

(9) Balancing 3 phase loads

Balancing 3-phase loads periodically throughout a network can reduce losses

significantly. It can be done relatively easily on overhead networks and consequently
offers considerable scope for Cost effective loss reduction, given suitable incentives.

(10) Switching off transformers

One method of reducing fixed losses is to switch off transformers in periods of low
demand. If two transformers of a certain size are required at a substation during peak
periods, only one might be required during times of low demand so that the other
transformer might be switched off in order to reduce fixed losses.

This will produce some offsetting increase in variable losses and might affect security
and quality of supply as well as the operational condition of the transformer itself.
However, these trade-offs will not be explored and optimized unless the cost of
losses are taken into account.

(11) Other Reasons for Technical Losses:

Other reasons are - Unequal load distribution among three phases in L.T system
causing high neutral currents, leaking and loss of power, over loading of lines,

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abnormal operating conditions at which power and distribution transformers are

operated, low voltages at consumer terminals causing higher drawl of currents by
inductive loads, Poor quality of equipment used in agricultural pumping in rural
areas, cooler air-conditioners and industrial loads in urban areas.

(4) Losses in Distribution Lines

One of the major sources of losses in the distribution system is the power lines which
connect the substation to the loads. Virtually all real power that is lost in the distribution
system is due to copper losses. Since these losses are a function of the square of the current
flow through the line, it should be obvious that the losses in distribution lines are larger at
high power levels than they are at lower levels. Since power loss in the distribution lines can
be considered to be entirely due to copper losses,

P=I~R

From this, it is apparent that anything that changes either current or line resistance will
affect the amount of power lost in the line. The primary determining factor for the
magnitude of line current is the amount of real and reactive power loading at the end of the
line. As the power that is transmitted along the line increases, the current flow in .the line
becomes larger. Another factor which affects the level of current flow is the operating
voltage of the line. For a given real and reactive power load level, S, a high voltage line will
have a lower current than a low voltage line.

S=VI

Therefore, for a given power level, the higher voltage line will have lower copper losses.
Another factor which can result in higher line losses is unbalanced loading. If one of the
phases is loaded more heavily than the others, the loss will be larger than it would have
been in the balanced load case. This is due to the squaring of the current in Equation III.1.
For instance, if one line carries twice the current of, the other two and all other factors are
kept constant, an increase in copper loss of 12.5% occurs compared to the balanced load
case.

While the current level has the biggest effect on line loss, the resistance of the line cannot
be neglected. The line resistance depends on many factors, including the length of the line,
the effective cross-sectional area, and the resistivity of the metal of which the line is made.
The resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area and directly proportional
to both the length and resistivity., where R is the resistance, p is the resistivity, L is the
length of the line, and A is the effective cross-sectional area.

Therefore, a long line will have a higher resistance and larger losses than a short line with
the same current flow. Similarly, a large conductor size results in a smaller resistance and
lower losses than a small conductor. The resistivity is determined by the material of which
the line is constructed and the temperature of the material. A better conducting material
will result in lower resistivity and lower losses. The resistivity of the metal in the line will be
affected by the temperature. As the temperature of the metal increases, the line resistance
will also increase, causing higher copper losses in the distribution line.

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The letter rho, p, is the resistivity at a specific temperature. It is equal to 2.83~10-8 ohm
meters for aluminium and 1.77~ 10-8 ohm meters for copper at a temperature of 20°C. To
is a reference temperature and is equal to 228°C for aluminium and 241°C for copper. Pi
and p2 are the resistivities at temperatures T 1 and T2 respectively.

(5) Losses in Distribution Transformers

While losses in distribution lines are virtually all due to copper losses, transformer losses
occur due to both copper and core losses. The core losses are made up of eddy current and
hysteresis losses. The copper losses in transformers are essentially the same as those in the
power distribution lines. The copper losses in a transformer are smaller in magnihzde than
the core losses. These losses occur in the form of heat produced by the current, both
primary and secondary, through the windings of the transformer. Like the copper loss in the
distribution line, it is calculated using the I~R relationship of Equation III.1. Any factor which
affects either current or winding resistance will also affect the amount of copper loss in the
transformer. An increase in loading, either real or reactive, will result in an increase in
current flow and a correspondingly greater amount of loss in the transformer. Additionally,
an unbalanced system load will increase transformer loss due to the squared current
relationship. The winding resistance also has an effect on the amount of copper loss and is
mainly determined by the total length of the wire used, as well as the size of the wire. The
temperature of the winding will affect the resistivity of the wire, therefore affecting the
overall resistance and the copper loss. Since all but the smallest distribution transformers
have some type of cooling system, such as immersion in oil, the temperature effect on
losses is usually minimal. The core loss in a transformer is usually larger in magnitude than
the copper loss. It is made up of eddy current losses, which are due to magnetically induced
currents in the core, and hysteresis losses, which occur because of the less than perfect
permeability of the core material. These losses are relatively constant for an energized
transformer and can be considered to be independent of the transformer load. Transformer
core losses have been modelled in various ways, usually as a resistance in parallel with the
transformer's magnetizing reactance. Since the core loss is relatively independent of
loading, the most important factor when considering core loss is the manufacture of the
core. The physical construction of the core has serious consequences on the amount of core
loss occurring in the transformer. For instance, eddy currents are greatly reduced by using
laminated pieces to construct the core. These thin sheets are oriented along the path of
travel of the magnetic flux and restrict the amount of induced currents that occur. The
hysteresis loss occurs in the transformer core due to the energy required to provide the
magnetic field in the core as the direction of magnetic flux alternates with the alternating
current wave form. This energy is transformed into heat. Hysteresis loss can be reduced by
the use of higher quality materials in the core which have better magnetic permeability.
Many advanced core materials have been developed recently with claims of core loss
reductions in the range of 50 % and above. A final aspect of the distribution system that
increases losses in the transformers is the presence of harmonics in the system. The
harmonic currents only cause a small increase in copper losses throughout the system.
However, the high frequency harmonic voltages can cause large core losses in the
transformer. Frequently, utilities are forced to use an oversized transformer to compensate
when a large harmonic presence is indicated. The increased skin effect of larger conductors
combined with the high frequency harmonics can result in even greater losses.

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Methods of Lowering Distribution System Losses

Since distribution losses cost the utilities a sizable amount of profit, it is necessary to
examine the various methods of reducing these losses. While many ways of lowering losses
can be used on existing systems, other methods are easiest to use during the initial design
and installation of a new distribution system. An example of one of these methods is to
carefully select .the location of the substation so as to minimize the needed length of
distribution lines. Another way is to use as high as voltage as is practical for the lines to
limit the current in the lines and transformer windings. Also, the higher resistivity of
aluminium means it will have larger losses than an equivalent copper distribution line.
Therefore, copper should be used on lines where losses are abnormally high. Other
methods, such as high efficiency transformers and shunt capacitor banks, may be easier to
install during initial construction than they would be on an existing system.

High efficiency transformers, which use new core types, are beginning to see widespread
use in the United States. One example of a more efficient core is one that uses amorphous
metal. Amorphous metal is fonned by rapidly cooling liquid metal. Approximately 60,000 to
70,000 amorphous metal transformers are currently in use, mostly in the United States.
While amorphous metal transformers cost 25 to 50% more than silicon iron transformers,
they also claim 60 to 70% less losses. Therefore, utilities with high energy costs or that
facing new plant construction would do well to consider them. Perhaps the most common
method of reducing system losses is the use of shunt capacitor banks. Capacitors are used
to compensate for reactive loads in order to provide a highly resistive total load and a near
unity power factor. Hence there is less current flow in the line and lower losses. The
capacitors are strategically placed to provide the best voltage support and current
reduction. In one case, the use of shunt capacitors reduced distribution system losses by
approximately 20 %. However, care must be used when choosing the placement of the
capacitor banks. In the above example, the loss reduction was calculated to be less than 5%
when the capacitors were equally distributed throughout the system. Another method of
lowering system losses is by reducing the amount of harmonics present in the system. This
can be accomplished by placing filters at each load that produces major non sinusoidal
signals. However, these filters cost money and have inherent losses due to the imperfect
nature of the components which limit the loss reduction that is achieved. Utilities may also
reduce losses that occur in the distribution system by ensuring that the load is well
balanced on all three phases. This will keep the copper losses in the lines and transformers
to a minimum. A final method of reducing distribution system losses is demand-side
management (DSM). With DSM, a utility reduces the system loading, especially at peak
periods, by turning off certain loads or providing incentives for efficiency. Overall load is
reduced by encouraging improved efficiency by consumers with such things as rebates for
high efficiency motors, refrigerators, and lighting. Peak load can be reduced by direct load
control of such items as air conditioners, hot water heaters, and some industrial loads. DSM
has an added benefit in loss reduction because the primary load reduction occurs at peak
loading when system copper losses are greatest.

Conclusions

The losses that occur in distribution systems are large enough to make efforts to reduce
them worthwhile. Core losses in transformers, which account for the majority of distribution
losses at low power, can be reduced by improved core materials and by reducing
harmonics. Copper losses, which become more important at higher power levels, can be

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reduced by a number of means, including increased use of copper distribution lines, shunt
compensation, and demand-side management.

2. Energy consumption measurement

2.1 Metering system

An electricity meter, electric meter, or energy meter is a device that measures the amount
of electric energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device.

Electric utilities use electric meters installed at customer’s premises to measure electric
energy delivered to their customers for billing purposes. They are typically calibrated in
billing units, the most common one being the kilowatt hour [kWh]. They are usually read
once each billing period.

In settings when energy savings during certain periods are desired, meters may measure
demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. "Time of day" metering allows
electric rates to be changed during a day, to record usage during peak high-cost periods
and off-peak, lower-cost, periods. Also, in some areas meters have relays for demand
response load shedding during peak load periods.

the most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour[kWh],
which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of
one hour, or 3,600,000 joules.

Demand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a quarter or
half hour.

Reactive power is measured in "thousands of volt-ampere reactive-hours", (kvarh). By

convention, a "lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have positive reactive power.
A "leading", or capacitive load, will have negative reactive power.[14]

Volt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including reactive
and actual. This is equal to the product of root-mean-square volts and amperes.

Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. Factories the ratio of
resistive (or real power) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a leading power factor, and
an inductive load has a lagging power factor. A purely resistive load (such as a filament
lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a power factor of 1. Current harmonics are a measure of
distortion of the wave form. For example, electronic loads such as computer power supplies
draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their internal storage elements. This can lead to
a significant voltage drop near the supply voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the
voltage waveform. This flattening causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they
exceed specific limits, as they are not only wasteful, but may interfere with the operation of
other equipment. Harmonic emissions are mandated by law in EU and other countries to fall
within specified limits.

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Other units of measurement

In addition to metering based on the amount of energy used, other types of metering are
available.

Meters which measured the amount of charge (coulombs) used, known as ampere-hour
meters, were used in the early days of electrification. These were dependent upon the
supply voltage remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy usage, which was
not a likely circumstance with most supplies.

Some meters measured only the length of time for which charge flowed, with no
measurement of the magnitude of voltage or current is being made. These were only suited
for constant-load applications.

Neither type is likely to be used today.

Types of meters

Mechanism of electro mechanical induction meter -

1 - Voltage coil - many turns of fine wire encased in plastic, connected in parallel with load.
2 - Current coil - three turns of thick wire, connected in series with load.
3 - Stator - concentrates and confines magnetic field.
4 - Aluminium rotor disc.
5 - Rotor brake magnets.
6 - Spindle with worm gear.
7 - Display dials - note that the 1/10, 10 and 1000 dials rotate clockwise while the 1, 100
and 10000 dials rotate counter-clockwise.

Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage(volts)

and current (amperes) to give energy used (in joules, kilowatt-hours etc.). Meters for smaller
services (such as small residential customers) can be connected directly in-line between
source and customer. For larger loads, more than about 200 ampere of load, current
transformers are used, so that the meter can be located other than in line with the service
conductors. The meters fall into two basic categories, electromechanical and electronic.

Electromechanical meters

The most common type of electricity meter is the electromechanical induction watt-hour
meter.

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The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of a non-

magnetic, but electrically conductive, metal disc which is made to rotate at a speed
proportional to the power passing through the meter. The number of revolutions is thus
proportional to the energy usage. The voltage coil consumes a small and relatively constant
amount of power, typically around 2 watts which is not registered on the meter. The current
coil similarly consumes a small amount of power in proportion to the square of the current
flowing through it, typically up to a couple of watts at full load, which is registered on the
meter.

The disc is acted upon by two sets of coils, which form, in effect, a two phase induction. One
coil is connected in such a way that it produces a fluxing proportion to the voltage and the
other produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is
delayed by 90 degrees, due to the coil's inductive nature, and calibrated using a lag
coil. This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on
the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current, voltage and phase angle
(power factor) between them. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional
to the speed of rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opposing forces
results in the disc rotating at a speed proportional to the power or rate of energy usage.
The disc drives a register mechanism which counts revolutions, much like the odometer in a
car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy used.

The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply. Different phase
configurations use additional voltage and current coils.

Three-phase electromechanical induction meter, metering 100 A 240/415 V supply.

Horizontal aluminium rotor disc is visible in centre of meter

The disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the register. The
register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The dials may be of
the cyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read where for each dial a
single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the pointer type
where a pointer indicates each digit. With the dial pointer type, adjacent pointers generally
rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism.

The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the symbol
Kh which is given in units of watt-hours per revolution. The value 7.2 is commonly seen.

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Using the value of Kh one can determine their power consumption at any given time by
timing the disc with a stopwatch.

Where:

t = time in seconds taken by the disc to complete one revolution,

P = power in watts.

For example, if Kh = 7.2 as above, and one revolution took place in 14.4 seconds, the power
is 1800 watts. This method can be used to determine the power consumption of household
devices by switching them on one by one.

Most domestic electricity meters must be read manually, whether by a representative of

the power company or by the customer. Where the customer reads the meter, the reading
may be supplied to the power company by telephone, post or over the internet. The
electricity company will normally require a visit by a company representative at least
annually in order to verify customer-supplied readings and to make a basic safety check of
the meter.

In an induction type meter, creep is a phenomenon that can adversely affect accuracy, that
occurs when the meter disc rotates continuously with potential applied and the load
terminals open circuited. A test for error due to creep is called a creep test.

Two standards govern meter accuracy, ANSI C12.20 for North America and IEC 62053.

Electronic meters

Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and some can also
transmit readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used, electronic meters
can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as instantaneous and
maximum rate of usage demands, voltages, power factor and reactive power used etc. They
can also support time-of-day billing, for example, recording the amount of energy used
during on-peak and off-peak hours.

Solid-state design

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Solid state electricity meter used in a home in the Netherlands.

Basic block diagram of an electronic energy meter

As in the block diagram, the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, a processing and
communication engine (i.e. a microcontroller), and other add-on modules such as RTC, LCD
display, communication ports/modules and so on.

The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage reference,
samplers and quantizes followed by an ADC section to yield the digitised equivalents of all
the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a digital signal processor to calculate the
various metering parameters such as powers, energies etc.

The largest source of long-term errors in the meter is drift in the preamp, followed by the
precision of the voltage reference. Both of these vary with temperature as well, and vary
wildly because most meters are outdoors. Characterising and compensating for these is a
major part of meter design.

The processing and communication section has the responsibility of calculating the various
derived quantities from the digital values generated by the metering engine. This also has
the responsibility of communication using various protocols and interface with other addon
modules connected as slaves to it.

RTC and other add-on modules are attached as slaves to the processing and
communication section for various input/output functions. On a modern meter most if not
all of this will be implemented inside the microprocessor, such as the real time clock (RTC),
LCD controller, temperature sensor, memory and analog to digital converters.

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Applications

Multiple tariff (variable rate) meters

Electricity retailers may wish to charge customers different tariffs at different times of the
day to better reflect the costs of generation and transmission. Since it is typically not cost
effective to store significant amounts of electricity during a period of low demand for use
during a period of high demand, costs will vary significantly depending on the time of day.
Low cost generation capacity (base load) such as nuclear can take many hours to start,
meaning a surplus in times of low demand, whereas high cost but flexible generating
capacity (such as gas turbines) must be kept available to respond at a moment's notice
(spinning reserve) to peak demand, perhaps being used for a few minutes per day, which is
very expensive.

Some multiple tariff meters use different tariffs for different amounts of demand. These are
usually industrial meters.

Domestic usage

Domestic variable-rate meters generally permit two to three tariffs ("peak", "off-peak" and
"shoulder") and in such installations a simple electromechanical time switch may be used.
Historically, these have often been used in conjunction with electrical storage heaters or hot
water storage systems.

Multiple tariffs are made easier by time of use (TOU) meters which incorporate or are
connected to a time switch and which have multiple registers.

Switching between the tariffs may happen via a radio-activated switch rather than a time
switch to prevent tampering with a sealed time switch to obtain cheaper electricity.

Radio-activated switching is common in the UK, with a nightly data signal sent within the
long wave carrier of BBC Radio 4, 198 kHz. The time of off-peak charging is usually seven
hours between midnight and 7.00am GMT, and this is designed to power storage
heaters and immersion heaters. In the UK, such tariffs are branded Economy 7 or White
Meter. The popularity of such tariffs has declined in recent years, at least in the domestic
market, because of the (perceived or real) deficiencies of storage heaters and the
comparatively low cost of natural gas(although there remain many without the option of
gas, whether they are outside the gas supply network or cannot afford the capital cost of a
radiator system). An Economy 10 meter is also available, which gives 10 hours of cheap off-
peak heating spread out over three timeslots throughout a 24-hour period. This allows
multiple top-up boosts to storage heaters, or a good spread of times to run a wet electric
heating system on a cheaper electricity rate.[18]

Most meters using Economy 7 switch the entire electricity supply to the cheaper rate during
the 7 hour night time period,[19]not just the storage heater circuit. The downside of this is
that the daytime rate will be significantly higher, and standing charges may be a little
higher too. For instance, normal rate electricity may be 9p per kWh, whereas Economy 7's
daytime rate might be 14 to 17 p per kWh, but only 5.43p per kWh at night. Timer switches
installed on washing machines, tumble dryers, dishwashers and immersion heaters may be
set so that they switch on only when the rate is lower.

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Commercial usage

Large commercial and industrial premises may use electronic meters which record power
usage in blocks of half an hour or less. This is because most electricity grids have demand
surges throughout the day, and the power company may wish to give price incentives to
large customers to reduce demand at these times. These demand surges often correspond
to meal times or, famously, to advertisements interrupting popular television programmes.

Appliance energy meters

Plug in electricity meters (or "Plug load" meters) measure energy used by individual
appliances. There are a variety of models available on the market today but they all work on
the same basic principle. The meter is plugged into an outlet, and the appliance to be
measured is plugged into the meter. Such meters can help in energy conservation by
identifying major energy users, or devices that consume excessive standby power. Web
resources can also be used, if an estimate of the power consumption is enough for the
research purposes.[20] A power meter can often be borrowed from the local power
authorities or a local public library. In-home energy use displays.

Home energy monitor

A potentially powerful means to reduce household energy consumption is to provide

convenient real-time feedback to users so they can change their energy using behaviour.
Recently, low-cost energy feedback displays have become available. A study using a
consumer-readable meter in 500 Ontario homes by Hydro One showed an average 6.5%
drop in total electricity use when compared with a similarly sized control group. Hydro
One subsequently offered free power monitors to 30,000 customers based on the success of
the pilot.[24] Projects such as Google Power Meter, take information from a smart meter
and make it more readily available to users to help encourage conservation.[25]

Smart meters

Main article: Smart meter Smart meters go a step further than simple AMR (automatic meter
reading). They offer additional functionality including a real-time or near real-time
reads, power outage notification, and power quality monitoring. They allow price setting
agencies to introduce different prices for consumption based on the time of day and the
season.

These price differences can be used to reduce peaks in demand (load shifting or peak
lopping), reducing the need for additional power plants and in particular the higher
polluting and costly to operate natural gas powered peaker plants. The feedback they
provide to consumers has also been shown to cut overall energy consumption.

Another type of smart meter uses nonintrusive load monitoring to automatically determine
the number and type of appliances in a residence, how much energy each uses and when.
This meter is used by electric utilities to do surveys of energy use. It eliminates the need to
put timers on all of the appliances in a house to determine how much energy each uses.

Prepayment meters

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Prepayment meter and magnetic stripe tokens, from a rented accommodation in the UK.
The button labeled a displays information and statistics such as current tariff and remaining
credit. The button labeled Activates a small amount of emergency credit should the
customer run out

A prepayment key

The standard business model of electricity retailing involves the electricity company billing
the customer for the amount of energy used in the previous month or quarter. In some
countries, if the retailer believes that the customer may not pay the bill, a prepayment
meter may be installed. This requires the customer to make advance payment before
electricity can be used.[citation needed]If the available credit is exhausted then the supply
of electricity is cut off by a relay.

In the UK, mechanical prepayment meters used to be common in rented accommodation.

Disadvantages of these included the need for regular visits to remove cash, and risk of theft
of the cash in the meter.

Modern solid-state electricity meters, in conjunction with smart cards, have removed these
disadvantages and such meters are commonly used for customers considered to be a
poor credit risk. In the UK, customers can use organisations such as the Post Office or Pay
Point network, where rechargeable tokens (Quantum cards for natural gas, or plastic "keys"
for electricity) can be loaded with whatever money the customer has available.

Recently smartcards are introduced as much reliable tokens that allows two way data
exchange between meter and the utility.

In South Africa, Sudan and Northern Ireland prepaid meters are recharged by entering a
unique, encoded twenty digit number using a keypad. This makes the tokens, essentially a
slip of paper, very cheap to produce.

Around the world, experiments are going on, especially in developing countries, to test pre-
payment systems. In some cases, prepayment meters have not been accepted by customers.
There are various groups, such as the Standard Transfer Specification (STS) association,
which promote common standards for prepayment metering systems across manufacturers.
Prepaid meters using the STS standard are used in many countries.

Time of day metering

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Time of Day metering (TOD), also known as Time of Usage (TOU) or Seasonal Time of Day
(SToD), metering involves dividing the day, month and year into tariff slots and with higher
rates at peak load periods and low tariff rates at off-peak load periods. While this can be
used to automatically control usage on the part of the customer (resulting in automatic
load control), it is often simply the customers responsibility to control his own usage, or pay
accordingly (voluntary load control). This also allows the utilities to plan their transmission
infrastructure appropriately. See also Demand-side Management (DSM).

TOD metering normally splits rates into an arrangement of multiple segments including on-
peak, off-peak, mid-peak or shoulder, and critical peak. A typical arrangement is a peak
occurring during the day (non-holiday days only), such as from 1 pm to 9 pm Monday
through Friday during the summer and from 6:30 am to 12 noon and 5 pm to 9 pm during
the winter. More complex arrangements include the use of critical peaks which occur during
high demand periods. The times of peak demand/cost will vary in different markets around
the world.

Large commercial users can purchase power by the hour using either forecast pricing or real
time pricing. Prices range from we pay you to take it (negative) to $1000/MWh (100
cents/kWh).

Some utilities allow residential customers to pay hourly rates, such as Illinois, which uses
day ahead pricing.

Power export metering

Many electricity customers are installing their own electricity generating equipment,
whether for reasons of economy, redundancy or environmental reasons. When a customer
is generating more electricity than required for his own use, the surplus may be exported
back to the power grid. Customers that generate back into the "grid" usually must have
special equipment and safety devices to protect the grid components (as well as the
customer's own) in case of faults (electrical short circuits) or maintenance of the grid (say
voltage on a downed line coming from an exporting customer’s facility).

This exported energy may be accounted for in the simplest case by the meter running
backwards during periods of net export, thus reducing the customer's recorded energy
usage by the amount exported. This in effect results in the customer being paid for his/her
exports at the full retail price of electricity. Unless equipped with a detent or equivalent, a
standard meter will accurately record power flow in each direction by simply running
backwards when power is exported. Where allowed by law, utilities maintain a profitable
margin between the price of energy delivered to the consumer and the rate credited for
consumer-generated energy that flows back to the grid. Lately, upload sources typically
originate from renewable sources (e.g., wind turbines, photovoltaic cells), or gas or
steam turbines, which are often found in cogeneration systems. Another potential upload
source that has been proposed is plug-in hybrid car batteries (vehicle-to-grid power
systems). This requires a "smart grid," which includes meters that measure electricity via
communication networks that require remote control and give customers timing and
pricing options. Vehicle-to-grid systems could be installed at workplace parking lots and
garages and at park and rides and could help drivers charge their batteries at home at night
when off-peak power prices are cheaper, and receive bill crediting for selling excess
electricity back to the grid during high-demand hours.

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Ownership

Following the deregulation of electricity supply markets in many countries (e.g., UK), the
company responsible for an electricity meter may not be obvious. Depending on the
arrangements in place, the meter may be the property of the meter Operator, electricity
distributor, the retailer or for some large users of electricity the meter may belong to the
customer.

The company responsible for reading the meter may not always be the company which
owns it. Meter reading is now sometimes subcontracted and in some areas the same person
may read gas, water and electricity meters at the same time.

Communication methods

It has been suggested that KYZ relay be merged into this section.
(Discuss) Proposed since November 2014.

Remote meter reading is a practical example of telemetry. It saves the cost of a human
meter reader and the resulting mistakes, but it also allows more measurements, and remote
provisioning. Many smart meters now include a switch to interrupt or restore service.

Historically, rotating meters could report their metered information remotely, using a pair
of electrical contacts attached to aKYZ line.

A KYZ interface is a Form C contact supplied from the meter. In a KYZ interface, the Y and Z
wires are switch contacts, shorted to K for a measured amount of energy. When one contact
closes the other contact opens to provide count accuracy security.[32] Each contact change
of state is considered one pulse. The frequency of pulses indicates the power demand. The
number of pulses indicates energy metered.[33]

KYZ outputs were historically attached to "totaliser relays" feeding a "totaliser" so that many
meters could be read all at once in one place.

KYZ outputs are also the classic way of attaching electricity meters to programmable logic
controllers, HVACs or other control systems. Some modern meters also supply a contact
closure that warns when the meter detects a demand near a higher electricity tariff, to
improve demand side management.

Some meters have an open collector or IR LED output that give 32-100 ms pulses for each
metered amount of electrical energy, usually 1000-10000 pulses per kWh. Output is limited
to max 27 V DC and 27 mA DC. These outputs usually follow the DIN 43864 standard.

Often, meters designed for semi-automated reading have a serial port on that
communicates by infrared LED through the faceplate of the meter. In some multi-unit
buildings, a similar protocol is used, but in a wired bus using a serial current loop to
connect all the meters to a single plug. The plug is often near a more easily accessible
point. In the European Union, the most common infrared and protocol is "FLAG", a
simplified subset of mode C of IEC 61107. In the U.S. and Canada, the favoured infrared
protocol is ANSI C12.18. Some industrial meters use a protocol for programmable logic
controllers (Modbus or DNP3).

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One protocol proposed for this purpose is DLMS/COSEM which can operate over any
medium, including serial ports. The data can be transmitted by Zigbee, WiFi, telephone
lines or over the power lines themselves. Some meters can be read over the internet. Other
more modern protocols are also becoming widely used.

Electronic meters now use low-power radio, GSM, GPRS, Bluetooth, IrDA, as well as RS-
485 wired link. The meters can now store the entire usage profiles with time stamps and
relay them at a click of a button. The demand readings stored with the profiles accurately
indicate the load requirements of the customer. This load profile data is processed at the
utilities for billing and planning purposes.

AMR (Automatic Meter Reading) and RMR (Remote Meter Reading) describe various systems
that allow meters to be checked without the need to send a meter reader out. An electronic
meter can transmit its readings by telephone line or radio to a central billing office.
Automatic meter reading can be done with GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) modems, one is attached to each meter and the other is placed at the
central utility office.

Location

Current transformers used as part of metering equipment for three-phase400 A electricity

supply. The fourth neutral wire does not require a current transformer because current
cannot flow in the neutral without first flowing in metered phase wires. (Blondel's theorem)

A commercial power meter

Electricity meters placed outside the homes of residents in a common place, which is
accessible only for the department staff and concerned residents

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A Duke Energy technician removes the tamper-proof seal from an electricity meter at a
residence in Durham, North Carolina

The location of an electricity meter varies with each installation. Possible locations include
on a utility pole serving the property, in a street-side cabinet (meter box) or inside the
premises adjacent to the consumer unit / distribution board. Electricity companies may
prefer external locations as the meter can be read without gaining access to the premises
but external meters may be more prone to vandalism.

Current transformers permit the meter to be located remotely from the current-carrying
conductors. This is common in large installations. For example a substation serving a single
large customer may have metering equipment installed in a cabinet, without bringing heavy
cables into the cabinet.

Customer drop and metering equation

Since electrical standards vary in different regions, "customer drops" from the grid to the
customer also vary depending on the standards and the type of installation. There are
several common types of connections between a grid and a customer. Each type has a
different metering equation. Blondel's theorem states that for any system with N current-
carrying conductors, that N-1 measuring elements are sufficient to measure electrical
energy. This indicates that different metering is needed, for example, for a three-phase
three-wire system than for a three-phase four-wire (with neutral) system.

In Europe, Asia, Africa and most other locations, single phase is common for residential and
small commercial customers. Single phase distribution is less-expensive, because one set of
transformers in a substation normally serve a large area with relatively high voltages
(usually 220V) and no local transformers. These have a simple metering
equation: Watts = Volts x Amps, with Volts measured from the neutral to the phase wire. In
the United States, Canada, and parts of Central and South America similar customers are
normally served by three-wire single phase. Three-wire single-phase requires local
transformers, as few as one per ten residences, but provides lower, safer voltages at the
socket (usually 120V), and provides two voltages to customers: neutral to phase (usually
120V), and phase to phase (usually 240v). Additionally, three-wire customers normally have
neutral wired to the zero side of the generator's windings, which gives earthing that can be

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easily measured to be safe. These meters have a metering equation of Watts = 0.5 x Volts x
(Amps of phase A - Amps of phase B), with Volts measured between the phase wires.

Industrial power is normally supplied as three phase power. There are two forms: three wire,
or four wire with a system neutral. In "three wire" or "three wire delta," the generator is
wired as a triangle (or "delta"), and an earth ground is the safety ground. The three phases
have voltage only relative to each other. This distribution method has one fewer wire, is less
expensive, and is common in Asia, Africa, and many parts of Europe. In regions that mix
residences and light industry, it is common for this to be the only distribution method. A
meter for this type normally measures two of the windings relative to the third winding, and
adds the watts. One disadvantage of this system is that if the safety earth fails, it is difficult
to discover this by direct measurement, because no phase has a voltage relative to earth.

In the four-wire three-phase system, sometimes called "four-wire wye", the safety ground is
connected to a neutral wire that is physically connected to the zero-voltage side of the
three windings of the generator. Since all power phases are relative to the neutral in this
system, if the neutral is disconnected, it can be directly measured. In the U.S., the National
Electrical Code requires neutrals to be of this type. In this system, power meters measure
and sum all three phases relative to the neutral.

In North America, it is common for electricity meters to plug into a standardised socket
outdoors, on the side of a building. This allows the meter to be replaced without disturbing
the wires to the socket, or the occupant of the building. Some sockets may have a bypass
while the meter is removed for service. The amount of electricity used without being
recorded during this small time is considered insignificant when compared to the
inconvenience which might be caused to the customer by cutting off the electricity supply.

In many other countries the supply and load terminals are in the meter housing itself.
Cables are connected directly to the meter. In some areas the meter is outside, often on a
utility pole. In others, it is inside the building in a niche. If inside, it may share a data
connection with other meters. If it exists, the shared connection is often a small plug near
the post box. The connection is often EIA-485 or infra-red with a serial protocol such as IEC
62056.

In 2014, networking to meters is rapidly changing. The most common schemes seem to
combine an existing national standard for data (e.g. ANSI C12.19 or IEC 62056) operating
via the internet protocol with a small circuit board for power line communication, or a
digital radio for a mobile phone network, or an ISM band.

Tampering and security

Meters can be manipulated to make them under-register, effectively allowing power use
without paying for it. This theft or fraud can be dangerous as well as dishonest.

Power companies often install remote-reporting meters specifically to enable remote

detection of tampering, and specifically to discover energy theft. The change to smart
power meters is useful to stop energy theft.

When tampering is detected, the normal tactic, legal in most areas of the USA, is to switch
the subscriber to a "tampering" tariff charged at the meter's maximum designed current. At
US$ 0.095/kWh, a standard residential 50 A meter causes a legally collectible charge of

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about US$ 5,000.00 per month. Meter readers are trained to spot signs of tampering, and
with crude mechanical meters, the maximum rate may be charged each billing period until
the tamper is removed, or the service is disconnected.

A common method of tampering on mechanical disk meters is to attach magnets to the

outside of the meter. Strong magnets saturate the magnetic fields in the meter so that the
motor portion of a mechanical meter does not operate. Lower power magnets can add to
the drag resistance of the internal disk resistance magnets. Magnets can also saturate
current transformers or power-supply transformers in electronic meters, though
countermeasures are common.

Rectified DC loads cause mechanical (but not electronic) meters to under-register. DC

current does not cause the coils to make eddy currents in the disk, so this causes reduced
rotation and a lower bill.

Some combinations of capacitive and inductive load can interact with the coils and mass of
a rotor and cause reduced or reverse motion.

All of these effects can be detected by the electric company, and many modern meters can
detect or compensate for them.

The owner of the meter normally secures the meter against tampering. Revenue meters'
mechanisms and connections are sealed. Meters may also measure VAR-hours (the reflected
load), neutral and DC currents (elevated by most electrical tampering), ambient magnetic
fields, etc. Even simple mechanical meters can have mechanical flags that are dropped by
magnetic tampering or large DC currents.

Newer computerised meters usually have counter-measures against tampering. AMR

(Automated Meter Reading) meters often have sensors that can report opening of the meter
cover, magnetic anomalies, extra clock setting, glued buttons, inverted installation, reversed
or switched phases etc.

Some tampers bypass the meter, wholly or in part. Safe tampers of this type normally
increase the neutral current at the meter. Most split-phase residential meters in the United
States are unable to detect neutral currents. However, modern tamper-resistant meters can
detect and bill it at standard rates.

Disconnecting a meter's neutral connector is unsafe because shorts can then pass through
people or equipment rather than a metallic ground to the generator or earth.

A phantom loop connection via an earth ground is often much higher resistance than the
metallic neutral connector. Even if an earth ground is safe, metering at the substation can
alert the operator to tampering. Substations, inter-ties, and transformers normally have a
high-accuracy meter for the area served. Power companies normally investigate
discrepancies between the total billed and the total generated, in order to find and fix
power distribution problems. These investigations are an effective method to discover
tampering.

Privacy issues

The introduction of advanced meters in residential areas has produced additional privacy
issues that may affect ordinary customers. These meters are often capable of recording

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energy usage every 15, 30 or 60 minutes. In some meters real time usage is transmitted on
an IR light that can be viewed with Night Vision viewers. These can be used for surveillance,
revealing information about people's possessions and behaviour. For instance, it can show
when the customer is away for extended periods. Nonintrusive load monitoring gives even
more detail about what appliances people have and their living and use patterns.

2.2 Standard formulae

1. Electric Power Formulas

P=VI (1a)

P = R I2 (1b)

P = V 2/ R (1c)

Where

P = power (watts, W)

V = voltage (volts, V)

I = current (amperes, A)

R = resistance (ohms, )

2. Electric Current Formulas

I=V/R

I=P/V

I = (P / R)1/2

3. Electric Resistance Formulas

R=V/I

R = V2/ P

R = P / I2

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4. Electrical Potential Formulas - Ohms Law

Ohms law can be expressed as:

V=RI

V=P/I

V = (P R)1/2

5. Electrical Motor Formulas

Electrical Motor Efficiency

= 746 Php / Pinput_w

Where

= efficiency

Php = output horsepower (hp)

Pinput_w = input electrical power (watts)

or alternatively

= 746 Php / (1.732 V I PF)

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Electrical Motor - Power

P3-phase = (V I PF 1.732) / 1,000

where

P3-phase = electrical power 3-phase motor

PF = power factor electrical motor

Electrical Motor - Amps

I3-phase = (746 Php) / (1.732 V PF)

Where

I3-phase = electrical current 3-phase motor (amps)

PF = power factor electrical motor

3. Power Factor and improvement

3.1 Basics of power factor

In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as
the ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit, and is
a dimensionless number in the closed interval of -1 to 1. Real power is the capacity of the
circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the
current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the
source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from
the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. A negative power factor
occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates power, which then flows back
towards the device which is normally considered the generator.[3][4][5]

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load
with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher
currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and
other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical
utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there
is a low power factor.

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may
be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction

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of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or
built into power-consuming equipment.

Linear circuits

Instantaneous and average power calculated from AC voltage and current with a zero power
factor ( , ). The blue line shows all the power is stored temporarily in the
load during the first quarter cycle and returned to the grid during the second quarter cycle,
so no real power is consumed.

Instantaneous and average power calculated from AC voltage and current with a lagging
power factor ( , ). The blue line shows some of the power is returned
to the grid during the part of the cycle labelled .

In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase),
changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle. All the power entering the load is
consumed (or dissipated). Where active loads are present, such as
with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads results in a time difference
between the current and voltage waveforms. During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra
energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load
in electric or magnetic fields, and then returned to the power grid a fraction of a second
later in the cycle. The "ebb and flow" of this non productive power increases the current in
the line. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will use higher currents to transfer a given
quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor. A linear load does not change
the shape of the waveform of the current, but may change the relative timing (phase)
between voltage and current.

Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements (filament lamps, cooking stoves, etc.)
have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive elements (electric
motors, solenoid valves, lamp ballasts, and others) often have a power factor below 1.0.

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Definition and calculation

AC power flow has three components: real power (also known as active power) (P),
measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in volt amperes (VA); and reactive
power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes (var)

The power factor is defined as:

In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as vectors that
form a vector triangle such that:

If is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to
the cosine of the angle, , and:

Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless
number between −1 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely
reactive, and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power
factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are
usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle. Capacitive
loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags
voltage).

If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change
polarity in step, the power factor will be unity (1), and the electrical energy flows in a single
direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as transformers and motors
(any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with current waveform lagging the
voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate reactive power
with current phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part
of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this
energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle.

For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent
power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more
apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real
power at 0.2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0.2 =
5 kVA). This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load in the
conventional fashion, and is subject to the usual distributed losses in the production and
transmission processes.

Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive
power. The vector sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of
reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the
electric load has a power factor of less than 1.

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3.2 Power factor correction

A high power factor is generally desirable in a transmission system to reduce transmission
losses and improve voltage regulation at the load. It is often desirable to adjust the power
factor of a system to near 1.0. When reactive elements supply or absorb reactive power near
the load, the apparent power is reduced. Power factor correction may be applied by an
electric utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission network. Individual
electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low power factor may install
correction equipment to reduce those costs.

Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by
supplying reactive power of opposite sign, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel
the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect
of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors. If a load had
a capacitive value, inductors (also known as reactors in this context) are connected to
correct the power factor. In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive
power and capacitors are said to supply it, even though the energy is just moving back and
forth on each AC cycle.

The reactive elements can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on
or off. They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a
corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses. In the worst
case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant
conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations. As such,
reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering analysis.

1. Reactive Power Control Relay

2. Network connection points

3. Slow-blow Fuses

4. Inrush Limiting Contactors

5. Capacitors (single-phase or three-phase units, delta-connection)

6. Transformer (for controls and ventilation fans)

An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a number of capacitors that are
switched by means of contactors. These contactors are controlled by a regulator that
measures power factor in an electrical network. Depending on the load and power factor of

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the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in
steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value.

Instead of using a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply
reactive power. The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field
excitation. This is referred to as a synchronous condenser. It is started and connected to
the electrical network. It operates at a leading power factor and puts vars onto the network
as required to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a
specified level.

The condenser's installation and operation are identical to large electric motors. Its principal
advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like
an electrically variable capacitor. Unlike capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is
proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large
networks. Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high-voltage direct-
current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills.

For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial
loads, power electronic devices such as the Static VAR compensator or STATCOM are
increasingly used. These systems are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor
much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor banks, and being solid-state require
less maintenance than synchronous condensers.

Non-linear loads

A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply),
or some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric welding machine,
or arc furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the
current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency.
Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current
decreases the average power transferred to the load.

Sinusoidal voltage and non-sinusoidal current give a distortion power factor of 0.75 for this
computer power supply load.

Non-sinusoidal components

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Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other
form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental
frequency) AC current. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent
harmonic currents from entering the supplying system.

In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power
factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is
"displacement power factor". The concept can be generalized to a total, distortion, or true
power factor where the apparent power includes all harmonic components. This is of
importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some
forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power
supplies and other devices.

A typical multimeter will give incorrect results when attempting to measure the AC current
drawn by a non-sinusoidal load; the instruments sense the average value of a rectified
waveform. The average response is then calibrated to the effective, RMS value. An RMS
sensing multimeter must be used to measure the actual RMS currents and voltages (and
therefore apparent power). To measure the real power or reactive power, a watt
meter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used.

Distortion power factor

The distortion power factor describes how the harmonic distortion of a load current
decreases the average power transferred to the load.

is the total harmonic distortion of the load current. is the fundamental

component of the current and is the total current – both are root mean square-values
(distortion power factor can also be used to describe individual order harmonics, using the
corresponding current in place of total current). This definition with respect to total
harmonic distortion assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without
harmonics). This simplification is often a good approximation for stiff voltage sources (not
being affected by changes in load downstream in the distribution network). Total harmonic
distortion of typical generators from current distortion in the network is on the order of 1–
2%, which can have larger scale implications but can be ignored in common practice.[7]

The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true
power factor or just power factor (PF):

Distortion in three-phase networks

In practice, the local effects of distortion current on devices in a three-phase distribution

network rely on the magnitude of certain order harmonics rather than the total harmonic
distortion.

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For example, the triple, or zero-sequence, harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) have the property
of being in-phase when compared line-to-line. In a delta-wye transformer, these harmonics
can result in circulating currents in the delta windings and result in greater resistive heating.
In a wye-configuration of a transformer, triple harmonics will not create these currents, but
they will result in a non-zero current in the neutral wire. This could overload the neutral wire
in some cases and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing
revenue.[8][9] The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy
currents in the magnetic core of the transformer. Eddy current losses generally increase as
the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional
heat, and reducing its service life.

Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc.) combine 120 degrees out of phase,
similarly to the fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence. In generators and
motors, these currents produce magnetic fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and
sometimes result in damaging mechanical vibrations.

Switched-mode power supplies

A particularly important class of non-linear loads is the millions of personal computers that
typically incorporate switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with rated output power
ranging from a few watts to more than 1 kW. Historically, these very-low-cost power
supplies incorporated a simple full-wave rectifier that conducted only when
the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage on the input capacitors. This leads to
very high ratios of peak-to-average input current, which also lead to a low distortion power
factor and potentially serious phase and neutral loading concerns.

A typical switched-mode power supply first makes a DC bus, using a bridge rectifier or
similar circuit. The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus. The problem with this is
that the rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly non-linear. That means
that the input current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage.

This presents a particular problem for the power companies, because they cannot
compensate for the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they
could for the reactive power drawn by a linear load. Many jurisdictions are beginning to
legally require power factor correction for all power supplies above a certain power level.

Regulatory agencies such as the EU have set harmonic limits as a method of improving
power factor. Declining component cost has hastened implementation of two different
methods. To comply with current EU standard EN61000-3-2, all switched-mode power
supplies with output power more than 75 W must include passive power factor correction,
at least. 80 Plus power supply certification requires a power factor of 0.9 or more.

Power factor correction in non-linear loads

Passive PFC

The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to design a
filter that passes current only at line. This filter reduces the harmonic current, which means

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that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the power factor can be
brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter requires large-
value high-current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive.

A passive PFC requires an inductor larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but costs less.

This is a simple way of correcting the nonlinearity of a load by using capacitor banks. It is
not as effective as active PFC. One example of this is a valley-fill circuit.

Active PFC

An active power factor corrector (active PFC) is a power electronic system that changes the
wave shape of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor. The purpose is to make
the load circuitry that is power factor corrected appear purely resistive (apparent
power equal to real power).[21] In this case, the voltage and current are in phase and
the power consumption is zero. This enables the most efficient delivery of electrical power
from the power company to the consumer

3.3 Improvement techniques and Benefits

Methods for Power Factor Improvement

The following devices and equipments are used for Power Factor Improvement.

1. Static Capacitor
2. Synchronous Condenser
3. Phase Advancer

1. Static Capacitor

We know that most of the industries and power system loads are inductive that take
lagging current which decrease the system power factor . For Power factor improvement
purpose, Static capacitors are connected in parallel with those devices which work on low
power factor. These static capacitors provide leading current which neutralize (totally or
approximately) the lagging inductive component of load current (i.e. leading component
neutralize or eliminate the lagging component of load current) thus power factor of the
load circuit is improved. These capacitors are installed in Vicinity of large inductive load e.g.
Induction motors and transformers etc, and improve the load circuit power factor to
improve the system or devises efficiency.

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Suppose, here is a single phase inductive load which is taking lagging current (I) and the
load power factor is Cos as shown in fig-1.

In fig-2, a Capacitor (C) has been connected in parallel with load. Now a current (Ic) is
flowing through Capacitor which lead 90° from the supply voltage ( Note that Capacitor
provides leading Current i.e., In a pure capacitive circuit, Current leading 90° from the
supply Voltage, in other words, Voltage are 90° lagging from Current). The load current is
(I). The Vectors combination of (I) and (Ic) is (I’) which is lagging from voltage at 2 as
shown in fig 3.
It can be seen from fig 3 that angle of 2 < 1 i.e. angle of 2 is less than from angle of 2.
Therefore Cos 2 is less than from Cos 1 (Cos 2> Cos 1). Hence the load power factor is
improved by capacitor.

Also note that after the power factor improvement, the circuit current would be less than
from the low power factor circuit current. Also, before and after the power factor
improvement, the active component of current would be same in that circuit because
capacitor eliminates only the re-active component of current. Also, the Active power (in
Watts) would be same after and before power factor improvement.

Advantages:

 Capacitor bank offers several advantages over other methods of power factor
improvement.
 Losses are low in static capacitors
 There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance
 It can work in normal air conditions (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions)
 Do not require a foundation for installation

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 They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed

Disadvantages:
 The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 – 10 years)
 With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes
switching surges on the system
 If the rated voltage increases, then it causes damage it
 Once the capacitors spoiled, then repairing is costly

2. Synchronous Condenser
When a Synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over-exited then it’s called a
synchronous Condenser. Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides
leading current and works like a capacitor. When a synchronous condenser is connected
across supply voltage (in parallel) then it draws leading current and partially eliminates the
re-active component and this way, power factor is improved. Generally, synchronous
condenser is used to improve the power factor in large industries.

Advantages:

 Long life (almost 25 years)

 High Reliability
 Step-less adjustment of power factor.
 No generation of harmonics of maintenance
 The faults can be removed easily
 It’s not affected by harmonics.
 Require Low maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary)

Disadvantages:

 It is expensive (maintenance cost is also high) and therefore mostly used by large
power users.
 An auxiliary device has to be used for this operation because synchronous motor has
no self starting torque
 It produces noise

3. Phase Advancer

Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor
and operates with the motor’s rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is
used to improve the power factor of induction motor in industries. As the stator windings of
induction motor takes lagging current 90° out of phase with Voltage, therefore the power
factor of induction motor is low. If the exciting ampere-turns are excited by external AC
source, then there would be no effect of exciting current on stator windings. Therefore the
power factor of induction motor will be improved. This process is done by Phase advancer.

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Advantages:

 Lagging kVAR (Reactive component of Power or reactive power) drawn by the motor
is sufficiently reduced because the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip
frequency (fs).
 The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is
Unacceptable

Disadvantage:
 Using Phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW)

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