Microbial Genetics

Genes and Genomes

The Central Dogma
DNA Replication
Transcription
Translation
Gene Expression
Gene Transfer
Biotechnology microbes
Genes and Genome:
* The genome is all genetic instructions (genes) for development of cellular
structures, metabolic functions, and their regulation (organization of which,
when, where, and how much).

* Genes are located within chromosomes (linear or circular) or plasmids, as

specific regions of DNA (or RNA for some viruses).
 Genes: “The Basic Unit of Heredity”
• Genes represent the instructions for
making a particular product, which are
passed on to each new daughter cell
when a parent cell divides.
• Gene product refers to the actual
structures, enzymes or regulators.
• Most gene products will be a
polypeptide, which fold-up into
functions proteins.
• The instructions are manifest as a
unique sequence of nucleotide base
pairs within a larger DNA molecule.
• A universal genetic code is followed to
convert base pair sequence information
into the proper amino acid sequence of
the protein product.
• We can “map” the location of genes
on chromosomes, called loci. Escherichia coli chromosome map.
• The genotype of an individual refers to its particular genetic make-up. It’s the
potential for all characteristics we can observe. A particular gene may have
some variation in the sequence between individuals, called alleles.
• The phenotype is the actual characteristics observed for an individual, or
manifestation of genotype. Based on which allele(s) one individual has for a
given gene will cause variation in phenotype within a species (e.g. skin color).

genotype phenotype
The Central Dogma of Biology
Genetic Information Flow in Bacteria
 DNA Overview
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Two polymers of deoxynucleotides
(called strands) twisted into a helix
structure.
• Deoxynucleotides have 1 of 4 nitrogen
bases (thymine, cytosine, adenine,
guanine).
• DNA strands run antiparallel (oriented in
opposite directions. Stands held together
by H-bonds between complementary
base pairs.
• Base pair complementation between
antiparallel strands follows universal base
pairing rules:
- purine to pyrimidine:
• A to T (2 H-bonds)
•G to C (3 H-bonds)
DNA Replication
* New strands of DNA are
made by polymerizing
deoxynucleotides by an
enzyme, DNA Polymerase.
• DNA Polymerase requires a
parent DNA strand to serve as
a template to direct synthesis
of the new complementary
antiparallel daughter strand.
• In this regard, DNA
replication is semiconservative.
• Notice how the parent double
strands must break H-bonds
between complementary bases
at the replication fork so to
provide a single parent strand
for use as template.
 Action of DNA Polymerase:
• DNA Polymerase only adds deoxynucleotides to the 3’ end of a forming daughter
(new) strand; thereby, the two daughter strands form in opposite directions due to
the antiparallel orientation of the two parent (template) strands.
• DNA Polymerase has the ability to “proof reading” its work and to correct any
mismatched base pairs. It is so good that errors only happen once in about every
10 billion base pairs!

5’
3’ 5’
3’

3’

3’

5’ 5’
DNA Replication in Detail:
Circular DNA will have two replication forks moving
in opposite directions from the Origin of Replication.
 Transcription:
• Getting genetic information from DNA into a gene product requires synthesis of
RNA.

• RNA is synthesized by RNA polymerse, which added ribonucleotides to the 3’

end of the growing RNA polymer.

• RNA polymerase requires a DNA strand as a template for adding complementary

ribonucleotides (recall T is replaced by U).

• Transcription begins at a site on the DNA, called a promotor, located immediately

before a gene or a set of genes (operon). This is where the RNA Polymerase
first binds to the DNA.

• Transcription of RNA proceeds until RNA Polymerase reaches the terminator

DNA sequence at the end of the gene or operon. Both mRNA and RNA
Polymeraser are released.

• RNA used to direct protein synthesis by the ribosome (translation) is called a

message RNA (mRNA).

• Other RNA function as gene products themselves, as is the case for ribosomal
RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and small catalytic RNA.
Transcription:
 Eukaryote transcription is more complex than
prokaryote. The RNA produced in transcription
needs to be further processed prior to its function
as a mRNA in translation to a polypeptide.
The Genetic Code
• Every three mRNA nucleotides represent a
codon to be translated into a particular amino
acid based on the Genetic Code.
• Translation begins at the Start Codon (AUG)
and proceeds codon by codon there after until
a Stop Codon (one of three) is reached.
 Translation (Protein Synthesis):
• Codons are complementary to a region of three nucleotides, called anticodons, on
transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules.
• Start codon is first recognized by ribosome subunits, which sandwiches the mRNA
and allows the first tRNA to bind by base pair complementation between mRNA codon
and tRNA anticodon.
• tRNAs only bind if “charged” with its correct amino acid (methionine for start codon).
• The ribosome moves down the mRNA by one codon (3 nucleotides) to make
room for addition of the next charged tRNA in what is called the ribosome A-site.
• Once a second charged tRNA binds at the A-site, a peptide bond will form
between the amino acid in the P-site and that on the tRNA in the A-site.
• The “uncharged” tRNA will release from the P-site and, again, the ribosome will
move down the mRNA by one codon.
• The process continues, codon by codon, adding amino acids to a growing
polypeptide, until the ribosome reaches a Stop Codon.
• No new amino acid is added by the stop codon, rather it facilitates the
release of the last amino acid from its tRNA; thereby releasing the polypeptide.
• Again the polypeptide may now fold into a functional protein.
 Regulation of Gene Expression:
• Gene expression refers to the combined process of transcription and translation
of genetic information to a functional protein.

• Not all genes are expressed at any one time, nor are they always expressed at
the same level.

• Gene expression is tightly regulated, or controlled, so that the cell only makes
the gene products that it needs for efficient growth under its current
environmental conditions.

• What’s an operon? Regulatory protein binding region and downstream gene(s).

• Regulatory proteins called repressors or activators act as off and on switches

for transcription, respectively.

• Negative regulation involves repressor proteins that respond to cell conditions

so to actively repress (prevent) RNA Polymerase from beginning transcription of
the gene (or operon) by binding onto the DNA at the operator site.

• Positive regulation of transcription also can occur. Here, environmental

conditions in the cell causes an activator protein to bind to the promoter site for
a gene (or operon), which enables RNA Polymerase to begin transcription.
 Negative Regulation:
• Binding of a repressor to the operator site prevents RNA Polymerase from
transcribing the gene(s).
• A repressors ability to bind to DNA is determined by the presence or absence of
certain small molecules in the cell that bind to the repressor protein..
 E.g. E. coli Lactose Catabolism (lac) Operon

When no allolactose,
repressor binds to
operator. OFF!

With allolactose, it
prevents repressor from
binding to operator. ON!

However, glucose
must be absent for
transcription! Why?
 Positive Regulation:
E.g. E. coli Lactose Catabolism (lac) Operon

• E. coli growth using glucose

is more efficient than growth
on lactose.
• How is wasteful expression
of lac operon genes prevented
when glucose is present?
• lac operon needs an
activator bound to promoter
site for any chance of
transcription, regardless of the
repressor.
• The catabolic activator
protein (CAP) only binds in
the absence of glucose.
 The lac Operon in Action:
• E. coli growth is slower on lactose than on glucose.
• Glucose will be used before lactose given a choice. Here the repressor does not
stop transcription; however the CAP activator does by not binding to the promoter.)
• Once glucose runs out the CAP activator binds, and the lac operon is expressed in
the presence of lactose.
• Why is there a lag in growth when glucose runs out? This is called diauxic growth.
GENETIC TRANSFER
Transformation in microbial
biotechnology
Conjugation
TRANSDUCTION