CHEMISTRY ASPECT OF GENERAL SCIENCE

LECTURER – ANTHONY F. ADJIVON Tel: 3650097 / 63195`91/9994624

COURSE TITLE – GENERAL SCIENCE COURSE CODE – SCI 101
SEMESTER HOUR: 3 HOURS LEVEL OF COURSE: 100
SEMESTER: FIRST SESSION: 2018/2019
MODULE CONTENT

THIS MODULE CONTAINS SEVEN (7) UNITS

UNIT 1
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF SCIENCE
Learning Objectives.
After studying this unit, you should know
1. What is Chemistry and what does it study?
2. The basic terms used in chemistry.
Science is the orderly search for answers to our questions about the world we live in. Science is divided
into various groups. Science can be divided into two major groups.
One group consists of the biological sciences, which deal with the study of all living things.
The other group is made up of the physical sciences, which deal with matter, force and energy. The two
main branches of physical science are Chemistry and Physics. Physics is the study of energy and the
changes from one form of energy to another. Chemistry deals with the study of matter and its changes.
The term chemistry is very difficult to define precisely because the field is so diverse and because the
practitioners perform such an incredible variety of jobs. Chemistry deals with solutions in which the
nature of a substance is changed by altering its composition so that entirely new substances are synthesized
or particular properties of existing substances are enhanced.
BASIC TERMS IN CHEMISTRY
1. A pure substance is one with constant composition. Pure substances contain compounds (combination of
elements) or free elements.
2. A compound is a substance with constant composition that can be broken down into elements by chemical
processes.
3. A chemical change is one in which a given substance becomes a new substance or substances with
different properties or different composition.
4. Elements are substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical
means.
5. A chemical symbol identifies an element. Each element has a symbol. A symbol is a shorthand way of
writing the name of the element.
6. Chemical formulae. These are used to identify compounds by showing the kind and number of atoms that
are present.
7. Chemical equations. This is a better way of describing a chemical change. Such equations state what
elements or compounds enter into a chemical change and what elements or compounds are produced by
chemical change.
8. Solvent. A solvent is a liquid, which can be used to dissolve things.
9. Solute. A solute is a substance, which dissolves in a solvent to make a solution.

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10. Matter exists in 3 states a) Solid b) liquid and c) gas
Any substance can exist in each of these three states depending on the conditions of temperature and
pressure. When a solid is heated it melts and forms a liquid. The temperature at which both solid and
liquid can exist is called the melting point or freezing point. When a liquid is heated to its boiling point, it
boils and forms a gas (or vapour). Matter can be converted from one form to another by either heating or
cooling and also changing the pressure.
The properties of solids, liquids and gases are summarized in the following table.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape Definite shape No definite shape, takes the No definite shape
shape of the container
Volume Definite volume Definite volume No definite volume.
Occupies the entire
space available
Packing of particles Packed closely to each Not as closely packed as in Particles are far apart
other solids from each other
Movement of particles Only vibrate about their Particles slide over each Particles move freely
positions other
Compressibility Cannot be compressed Can be slightly compressed Can be easily
but with difficulty compressed

UNIT 2
Learning Objectives.
After studying this unit, you should know
1. what is an atom
2. the structure of an atom
3. what is the atomic theory all about?
4. wha4ht isotopes are and give some examples
5. Understand
ATOMIC THEORY
Dalton's Atomic Theory
In 1808 Dalton published A new system of chemical philosophy, in which he presented the theory of
atoms. He postulated that: -
1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
2. The atoms of a given element are identical.
3. The atoms of different elements are different in some fundamental way or ways.
4. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms combine with each other. A given compound always
has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.
5. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms - changes in the way they are bound together.
The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.
6. When elements combine together, their atoms join in fixed proportions.

The concept of atoms was clearly a good idea and this question arise; - what is an atom made of, and how
do the atoms of the various elements differ?

A MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

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The simplest view of the atom is that it consists of a tiny nucleus (with a diameter of about 10 -13 cm) and
electrons that move about the nucleus with an average distance of about 10-8cm from it.
The nucleus is assumed to contain protons, which have a positive charge equal in magnitude to the
electron's negative, and neutrons, which have virtually the same mass as a proton but no charge.

An important question to consider is - if all atoms are composed of these components why do different
atoms have different chemical properties?
The answer is - The atoms of different elements, which have different numbers of protons and electrons,
show different chemical behaviour because atoms greatly affect ability to interact with other atoms.

What are isotopes?

Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, i.e. they have the
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same atomic number but different masses. Examples include 17
Cl or Chlorine -35 and
37
17 Cl or Chlorine - 37
1 2 3
H H H
Hydrogen has three isotopes 1 or hydrogen, 1 or deuterium and 1 or tritium.
Since isotopes are alike chemically, no chemical method can be used to separate them. Instead, a method
that depends on their differences in mass (a physical property) is used.
A
E
In general an element is represented by Z , where the atomic number Z (number of protons) is written as
a subscript and the mass number A (the total number of protons and neutrons) written as a superscript. In
nature most elements are mixtures of isotopes.

THE NUCLEUS: This part of the atom is very small, spherical and very dense. It carries all the mass of
the atom and has a positive charge. It occupies the centre of the atom. The nucleus of an atom of any
element is made up of particles of two types: protons and neutrons. The only exception to this is an atom
of the commonest form (isotope) of the element hydrogen. Its nucleus contains a proton only.
The proton has a positive (+ ve) charge. The mass of a proton is almost equal to the mass of a neutron. A
proton is represented by the symbol p. In an atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons. Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons. It is the number of protons in
the atom of an element that indicates which element it is and gives the element its identity.
The neutron has no electrical charge, so it is neutral. It's mass is almost the same as that of the proton. A
neutron is represented by the symbol n.

The electron: This particle has a negative (- ve) charge, equal but opposite to the charge on a proton.
The atom is electrically neutral. The atom contains equal numbers of protons and electrons therefore the
numbers of positive and negative charges are equal. The symbol for the electron is e. Electrons occupy all
the space in the atom except the part occupied by the nucleus. They are said to revolve constantly around
the nucleus.
These paths are sometimes represented by a series of circles, or shell. Bohr developed this model.
When drawing the electronic configuration of an atom the following rules apply: -
1. Shells fill up in order starting with the one nearest the nucleus
2. The maximum number of electrons, which can be placed in a shell, is given by the formula 2n2 where
n is the number of the shell. The shells are numbered in sequence with the first shell (n=1) nearest to
the nucleus.
Atomic number is the special name given to the number of protons in the nucleus of a neutral atom of an

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element. Symbol is Z or proton number.
Mass number is the special name given to the mass of the atom. Mass number is equal to the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons. The symbol is A.

Note that electrons take part in chemical reactions and in doing so the elements taking part do not loose
their identities ie. the number of protons in each element remains the same. In nuclear reactions, the
nucleus is involved and elements usually change their identities, i.e. new elements are formed.

Radioactivity
Definition: Radioactive decay:
Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting particles
or electromagnetic waves. These emitted particles or electromagnetic waves are called radiation.
When a nucleus undergoes radioactive decay, it emits radiation and the nucleus is said to be radioactive.
We are exposed to small amounts of radiation all the time. Even the rocks around us emit radiation!
However some elements are far more radioactive than others. Even within a single element, there may
be some isotopes that are more radioactive than others simply because they contain a larger number of
neutrons. These radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes.
There are many sources of radiation. Some sources are natural and others are man-made.
 Natural sources of radiation include cosmic and terrestrial radiation.
 Man-made sources of radiation include televisions, smoke detectors, X-rays and radiation therapy.

Radiation can be emitted in different forms. There are three main types of radiation: alpha, beta and
gamma radiation. The properties of alpha & beta particles, and gamma rays are summarized in the
ifollowing Table:

Particle Mass charge Nature Change Penetrating Stopped Electric field Magnetic
or ray/ number in power by field
Field element
Alpha 4 +2 Helium Yes Low Air attracted Away from
nuclide towards field
α-particle Thin piece cathode: towards
of paper negative pole viewer
Beta 0 -1 Electron Yes Medium Thin attracted Away from
aluminium towards field from
β-particle foil anode: viewer
positive pole
Gamma 0 0 High No High Thick unaffected unaffected
energy concrete
γ- ray photon(ele or lead
ctromagnet
ic energy)
The Dangers of Radiation
Natural radiation comes from a variety of sources such as the rocks, sun and from space. However, when
we are exposed to large amounts of radiation, this can cause damage to cells. Radiation is particularly
dangerous because it is able to penetrate the body, unlike α- and β- particles whose penetration power is

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less. Some of the dangers of radiation are listed below:
• Damage to cells
Radiation is able to penetrate the body, and also to penetrate the membranes of the cells within our bodies,
causing massive damage. Radiation poisoning occurs when a person is exposed to large amounts of this
type of radiation. Radiation poisoning damages tissues within the body, causing symptoms such as
diarrhoea, vomiting, loss of hair and convulsions.
• Genetic abnormalities
When radiation penetrates cell membranes, it can damage chromosomes within the nucleus of the cell.
The chromosomes contain all the genetic information for that person. If the chromosomes are changed,
this may lead to genetic abnormalities in any children that are born to the person who has been exposed
to radiation with defects such as babies born with missing limbs and abnormal growths.
• Cancer
Small amounts of radiation can cause cancers such as leukemia (cancer of the blood)

The Uses of Radiation

However, despite the many dangers of radiation, it does have many powerful uses, some of which are
listed below:
• Medical Field: - Radioactive chemical tracers emitting rays can give information about a person’s
internal anatomy and the functioning of specific organs. The radioactive material may be injected into the
patient, from where it will target specific areas such as bones or tumours. As the material decays and
releases radiation, this can be seen using a special type of camera or other instrument. The radioactive
material that is used for this purpose must have a short half-life so that the radiation can be detected
quickly and also so that the material is quickly removed from the patient’s body. Using radioactive
materials for this purpose can mean that a tumour or cancer may be diagnosed long before these would
have been detected using other methods such as X-rays. Radiation may also be used to sterilize medical
equipment.
Radioactivity is used for
1. Preservation of food grains and seeds
2. Radio phosphorous is used for studying the rate of phosphorous assimilation by the plant.
3. It is used for finding out the faults in metal structures.
4. It is used for preparing synthetic elements (artificial transmutation)
5. In breeder reactors radiations are used to prepare the fuel / fissile material and to produce electricity in
Nuclear power plants.
6. Natural radioisotopes such as C-14 can be used to determine the age of organic remains. All living
organisms (e.g. trees, humans) contain carbon. Carbon is taken in by plants and trees through the process
of photosynthesis in the form of carbon dioxide and is then converted into organic molecules. When
animals feed on plants, they also obtain carbon through these organic compounds. Some of the carbon in
carbon dioxide is the radioactive C-14, while the rest is a non-radioactive form of carbon. When an
organism dies, no more carbon is taken in and the amount of C-14 in the body stops increasing. From
this point onwards, C-14 begins its radioactive decay which reduces the amount of C-14 in the body.
When scientists uncover remains, they are able to estimate the age of the remains by seeing how much
C-14 is left in the body relative to the amount of non-radioactive carbon. The less C-14 there is, the
older the remains because radioactive decay must have been taking place for a long time. Because
scientists know the exact rate of decay of C-14, they can calculate a relatively accurate estimate of the
age of the remains. Carbon dating has been an important tool in building up historical records.

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Radioactive decay rates are normally stated in terms of their half-lives, and the half-life of a given nuclear
species is related to its radiation risk. It is defined as the time it takes a radioactive nuclide to decay to half
of its original mass. The half-life of an element is the time it takes for half the atoms of a radioisotope to
decay into other atoms.

There are 2 types of nuclear reactions:- Nuclear fission & nuclear fusion
• Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus into smaller fission products. Nuclear fission
produces large amounts of energy, which can be used to produce nuclear power and to make nuclear
weapons.
• Nuclear fusion is the joining together of the nuclei of two atoms to form a heavier nucleus. In stars,
fusion reactions involve the joining of hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms. These reactions take place
in the Sun.

UNIT 3
CHEMICAL BONDING
OBJECTIVES
1. To introduce basic ideas of bonding in molecules (covalent, ionic, hydrogen bonding, polar and
coordinate bonding, metallic bonding)
2. To investigate how these bonds affect the properties of compounds, molecules and metals.

The forces that hold atoms together in compounds are called chemical bonds. One way that atoms can
form bonds is by sharing electrons. These bonds are called covalent bonds, and the resulting collection
of atoms is called a molecule.

Molecules can be represented in several different ways but the simplest method is the chemical formula,
in which the symbols for the elements are used to indicate the types of atoms present and subscripts are
used to indicate the relative numbers of atom, e.g. CO2, H2SO4
More information about a molecule is given by its structural formula, in which individual bonds are shown.
e.g. H- O-H
Water is a good example of a molecule formed by the sharing of electrons. Oxygen needs 2 electrons to
complete its outer shell. Hydrogen needs one electron to complete its outer shell. The electron from each
of the hydrogen atoms and the 2 electrons from the single oxygen atom are shared by the outer shells of
both atoms.
Covalent bonds are usually formed when elements (usually non- metals) share outer shell electrons with
each other.

A second type of chemical bond results from attractions among ions.

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge. In other words, when the
number of protons and electrons in a particle are different, then it has an overall charge which is not equal
to zero.
A positive ion is called a cation e.g. Na+, Ca2+
Na Na+ + e-
An ion with a negative charge is called an anion e.g Cl-
Cl + e- Cl-
Because anions and cations have opposite charges, they attract each other. This force of attraction
between oppositely charged ions is called ionic bonding.

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e.g Na+ + Cl- NaCl
An ionic bond is formed when two atoms transfer electrons. This type of bond is formed usually when a
metal transfers one or more electrons from its outer shell to another element (usually non - metal).
A solid consisting of oppositely charged ions is called an ionic solid, or a salt. Ionic solids can consist of
simple ions, as in sodium chloride, or in polyatomic ions, as in ammonium nitrate NH4 N03

Which elements make ionic compounds?

Two atoms are necessary - one atom, which can easily loose one or more of its electrons and one that can
accept them. The metals in group 1 and II of the periodic table have the highest tendency to lose electrons
and turn into positive ions. The non-metals of groups VI and VII have the greatest affinity for electrons
and readily change into negative ions.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. High melting and boiling points
2. The energy needed to separate the particles is high
3. They are usually crystalline
4. Many are soluble in water
5. They do not conduct electricity when solid but are good conductors when molten or in solution.

POLAR BONDS AND ELECTRONEGATIVITIES

Hydrogen Chloride is a good example of a polar molecule. This is so because of its uneven distribution of
charge. One end of the molecule has a slightly positive charge and the other a slight negative charge.
H  - Cl 
 

Note that the bond is covalent. It’s small  and  charges do not make it an ionic substance.
 

One way of predicting whether a molecule is polar is to use values of electronegativity. Electronegativity
is a measure we use to tell us how an element attracts electrons in a bond. The elements - fluorine and
chlorine tend to attract electrons to themselves very strongly. These elements have high values of
electronegativity. On the other hand, metals like sodium and potassium very rarely form negative ions.
They tend to lose an electron to make positive ions. These have low electronegativity
Electronegativity increases across a Period and decreases down a Group.

What is coordinate bonding?

Now consider the ammonia molecule. We know this to be a slightly distorted tetrahedron, with a lone pair
of electrons on the nitrogen atom. It so happens that ammonia and a hydrogen proton combine with each
other. The resulting molecule has a shape resembling two tetrahedra joined together. There is an empty 1s
orbital on the hydrogen (proton) atom, which could contain two electrons. It can gain them by this orbital
overlapping with the lone pair on the nitrogen atom in ammonia. We say that the nitrogen donates its pair
of electrons to the hydrogen atom. The name of the bond they make is a coordinate bond.
In some books the term dative covalent bond is used instead of coordinate bonding.
METALLIC BONDS
The nature of the metallic bond: The structure of a metallic bond is quite different from covalent and ionic
bonds. In a metal bond, the valence electrons are delocalized, meaning that an atom’s electrons do not
stay around that one nucleus. In a metallic bond, the positive atomic nuclei (sometimes called the ’atomic
kernels’) are surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons which are attracted to the nuclei
Definition: Metallic bond

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Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged atomic nuclei of metal atoms
and the delocalized electrons in the metal.
The properties of metals
Metals have several unique properties as a result of metallic bonding:h
• Thermal conductors: Metals are good conductors of heat and are therefore used in cooking utensils such
as pots and pans. Because the electrons are loosely bound and are able to move, they can transport heat
energy from one part of the material to another.
• Electrical conductors: Metals are good conductors of electricity, and are therefore used in electrical
conducting wires. The loosely bound electrons are able to move easily and to transfer charge from one
part of the material to another.
• Shiny metallic luster: Metals have a characteristic shiny appearance and are often used to make jewellery.
The loosely bound electrons are able to absorb and reflect light at all frequencies, making metals look
polished and shiny.
• Malleable and ductile: This means that they can be bent into shape without breaking (malleable) and
can be stretched into thin wires (ductile) such as copper, which can then be used to conduct electricity.
Because the bonds are not fixed in a particular direction, atoms can slide easily over one another, making
metals easy to shape, mould or draw into threads.
- Sonorous. Metals ring when struck with a hard object.
• Melting point: Metals usually have a high melting point and can therefore be used to make cooking pots
and other equipment that needs to become very hot, without being damaged. The high melting point is
due to the high strength of metallic bonds.
• Density: Metals have a high density because their atoms are packed closely together.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
• There are three types of Van der Waal’s forces. These are dipole-dipole, ion-dipole and London forces
(momentary dipole).
• Dipole-dipole forces exist between two polar molecules, for example between two molecules of
hydrogen chloride.
• Ion-dipole forces exist between ions and dipole molecules. The ion is attracted to the part of the molecule
that has an opposite charge to its own. An example of this is when an ionic solid such as sodium chloride
dissolves in water.
• Momentary dipole forces occur between two non-polar molecules, where at some point there is an
unequal distribution of charge in the molecule. For example, there are London forces between two
molecules of carbon dioxide.
• Hydrogen bonds occur between hydrogen atoms and other atoms that have a high electronegativity such
as oxygen, nitrogen and fluorine. The hydrogen atom in one molecule will be attracted to the nitrogen
atom in another molecule, for example. There are hydrogen bonds between water molecules and between
ammonia molecules.
• Intermolecular forces affect the properties of substances. For example, the stronger the intermolecular
forces, the higher the melting point of that substance, and the more likely that substance is to exist as a
solid or liquid. Its boiling point will also be higher.
• In liquids, properties such as surface tension, capillarity and evaporation are the result of intermolecular
forces.
SUMMARY
A hydrogen bond is made between a hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom such as fluorine,
oxygen, chlorine or nitrogen. The hydrogen atom itself must be bonded to an atom with a high
electronegativity.

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Hydrogen bonds are responsible for:
1. The relatively high melting and boiling points of water and hydrogen fluoride.
2. Holding the strands of DNA together.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonds occur between different molecules, e.g. between water and alcohol
molecules, or between ethanoic acid dimers.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonds occur between groups in the same molecule, e.g. in 2-nitrophenol
A coordinate bond (dative covalent bond) is a covalent between two atoms in which one of them provides
both electrons. The lone pair on an ammonia molecule is often used in coordinate bonding, e.g. to a
hydrogen ion as in NH4+
UNIT 4
ACIDS AND BASES
OBJECTIVES
1. To give different definitions of acid and bases
2. To know what is an alkali.
3. To look at simple reactions between acids and bases to give salts.
4. To know what acid - base indicators are and when they can be used.
5. To explain the term pH and its importance

The standard definition of an acid in introductory chemistry books is: -

An acid will
(I) Give hydrogen with a metal,
(ii) Neut8ralise a base to give a salt and water only, and
(iii) Give carbon dioxide with carbonates
This summarises a great deal of information about the properties of acids, but does not tell us anything
about their chemical structures except that they contain hydrogen as one of their elements.

DEFINITIONS OF ACIDS & BASES: There are different definitions of acids and bases. These include:
 Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water
releasing OH- ions.
 Brønsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors; bases are proton acceptors. Includes
the Arrhenius definition.
 Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors; bases are electron-pair donors. Includes the
Brønsted-Lowry definition.
BASES: These are hydroxides or oxides of metals, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium
hydroxide (KOH). They are obtained from nature when some plants are burnt to ash and the ash dissolved
in water.
There is a special group of bases called alkalis identified because of their solubility in water. They are the
opposites of acids. They are used in homes to neutralize acids, remove greases and fats and powerful
cleaning detergents contain NaOH or KOH

ACID - BASE INDICATORS: Acid - base indicators change color in acidic, alkaline or neutral
conditions. This allows them to be used to classify a substance dissolved in water as an acid, a base or a
neutral substance.
Acid - base indicators can be natural or synthetic such as litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein.

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Litmus turns red in any acid solution. They turn blue in basic solutions
They are used to tell us when certain amounts of the acid or base have been added to give a neutral solution
or
indicates colour change to show whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral. The procedure is known as
titration.
Combination Suitable indicator Colour change
In acid In alkali
Strong acid + strong base Methyl orange Red Yellow
Strong acid + weak base Methyl red Red Yellow
Weak acid + strong base Phenolphthalein Colourless Purple
Weak acid + weak base Not suitable for titration
Strong acids: - Hydrochloric acid, Nitric acid and Sulphuric acid
Weak acids: - Acetic acid and phosphoric acid
Strong base: - Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
Weak base: - ammonia solution
SALTS
A salt is defined as a compound made up of the positive ions of a base and the negative ions of an acid.
Acids react with bases to give salt and water only.
e.g HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O
Salts of sulphuric acid are called sulphates: salts of nitric acid- nitrates and hydrochloric acid - chlorides

pH scale
The pH scale is a number scale which shows the acidity or alkalinity of a solution in water. Most laboratory
solutions have pH values in the range 0 -14.
The scale ranges from 0 - 14. A pH of 1, for example, shows a strong acid solution. This means a very
high number of hydrogen ions present in the solution. A pH of 14 shows a strong basic solution having a
very high level of hydroxide ions. Pure water is neutral and has a pH of 7.
A solution with a pH less than 7 is acidic, having an excess of hydrogen ions. With a pH greater than 7, a
solution is basic, having an excess of hydroxide ions. A solution with a pH of 2 is more acidic than that
with a pH of 3 and a solution with a pH of 12 is more basic than that with a pH of 10.
The pH of a solution can be found using a Hydrion paper. This paper changes colour when moistened with
the solution. It is then compared with the colour scale. When the colours match, the pH number can be
read directly from the scale. A pH meter is also used and is more accurate than the hydrion paper.
The approximate pH values of several common liquids are shown in the following table.
Liquid Lemon vinegar Soft Orange Distilled Fresh Pure Human Sea Some
juice drinks juice water Cow's water blood water Tooth-
milk Pastes
pH 2.3 2.8 -3.1 3.5 - 3.5 6.2 6.5 - 7.0 7.4 8.5 9.8
4.1 6.7
Exercise
1. A suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water is known as milk of magnesia. What is it used
for and why is it used?
2. Why is the pH of toothpastes so high?
UNIT 5
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

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Objectives
1. To introduce the term chemical reaction and study several types of chemical reactions.
2. To look at some simple chemical reactions.
A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of chemical substances. The
substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. Chemical reactions
are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products which are, in general,
different from the reactants. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the
motion of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds, although the general concept of a
chemical reaction, in particular the notion of a chemical equation, is applicable to transformations of
elementary particles, as well as nuclear reactions.
Different chemical reactions are used in combinations in chemical synthesis in order to get a desired
product. In order to make sense of all these reactions, we need some system for grouping reactions into
classes. Although there are many different ways to do this, we will use the system most commonly used
by practicing chemists.

REACTION TYPES
The large diversity of chemical reactions and approaches to their study results in the existence of several
concurring, often overlapping ways of classifying them. Below are examples of widely used terms for
describing common kinds of reactions.
1. Isomerisation, in which a chemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any
change in its net atomic composition.
2. Direct combination or synthesis, in which 2 or more chemical elements or compounds unite to
form a more complex product:
N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
3. Chemical decomposition or analysis, in which a compound is decomposed into smaller
compounds or elements:
2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2
4. Single displacement or substitution, characterized by an element being displaced out of a
compound by a more reactive element:
2 Na (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → 2 NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
5. Metathesis or Double displacement reaction, in which two compounds exchange ions or bonds
to form different compounds:
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)
6. Acid-base reactions, broadly characterized as reactions between an acid and a base. An acid - base
reaction is often called a neutralization reaction. When just enough base is added to react exactly with
the acid in a solution, then it is said that the acid has been neutralized.
In all acid -base reactions, the following takes place.
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)
e.g. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

7. Oxidation - Reduction reactions. Redox reactions are reactions in which changes in oxidation

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numbers of atoms in involved species occur. Reactions, in which one or more electrons are transferred,
are called oxidation - reduction reactions or redox reactions. The concept of oxidation states (or oxidation
numbers) provides a way to keep track of electrons in oxidation reduction reactions, particularly redox
reactions involving covalent substances.

In general - oxidation is an increase in the oxidation state (loss of electrons)

Reduction is a decrease in oxidation state (a gain of electrons)
2Na (s) + Cl2 2NaCl (s)
Sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced. Chlorine is called the oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) and
sodium is the reducing agent (electron donor)
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
i.e. Carbon is oxidized
Oxygen is reduced
CH4 is the reducing agent
O2 is the oxidizing agent
8. Combustion, a kind of redox reaction in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing
element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and form oxidized products. The term combustion is usually
used for only large-scale oxidation of whole molecules, i.e. a controlled oxidation of a single functional
group is not combustion.
9. Precipitation reactions
When two solutions are mixed, an insoluble substance sometimes forms; that is, a solid forms and
separates from the solution. Such a reaction is called a precipitation reaction, and the solid that form is
called a precipitate. For example, a precipitation reaction occurs when an aqueous solution of Potassium
Chromate, K2Cr2O7 (aq), which is yellow, is added to a colourless aqueous solution containing Barium
Nitrate, Ba(NO3)2 (aq), a yellow precipitate forms.

EXERCISE: Name three other oxidizing agents and three other reducing agents.
List three applications of redox reactions in the industry.

UNIT 6
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Objectives
1. To distinguish between the properties of organic and inorganic compounds
2. To explain the reason for the existence of a very large number of carbon compounds
3. To understand and define the following terms
 Saturated and unsaturated straight-chain and branched-chain hydrocarbons
 Isomers
 Fuels, Gasoline and Octane rating
4. To compare the products formed by complete and incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel
5. To study the uses of Petroleum products and natural gas.

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds but not all carbon compounds are termed organic.
The name organic chemistry originated from the fact that all the compounds initially studied were all
isolated from living organisms. Nowadays, most organic compounds are synthesized.

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Carbon compounds make up the structure of all living things.
The basic laws of chemistry hold both for organic and inorganic compounds. There are however, a few
differences in the reactions of organic compounds compared with inorganic compounds. In general, these
differences are-:
1. Most organic compounds are insoluble in water. They will however dissolve in organic liquids such
as alcohol, ether, etc. Most inorganic compounds dissolve, more or less readily in water.
2. Organic compounds will decompose on heating more readily than inorganic compounds. Some even
vaporize without breaking down.
3. Reactions involving organic compounds proceed at a much slower rate than do reactions between
inorganic compounds.
4. Organic compounds, existing as molecules are formed from the elements by covalent bonding, i.e.
sharing of electrons. Most inorganic compounds are formed as a result of ionic bonding i.e. transfer
of electrons.
Types of organic compounds:- Hydrocarbons made up the largest and simplest group of organic
compounds. These are compounds that are composed only of hydrogen and carbon. Other important
organic groups include -: Alcohols, Aldehydes, Organic acids, Ketones, Esters, Ethers, amines, amino
acids etc. These contain other elements such as oxygen and nitrogen. Compounds in each of these basic
groups have similar properties and molecular structure. Other organic compounds found in foods are
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, oils and vitamins.
The hydrocarbons include many important compounds. These hydrocarbons are placed into series. The
simplest and most abundant series of hydrocarbons is called the alkane series. They differ from one
another chiefly in the number of links in the chain. The first compound in this series is the gas - methane
(CH4) or marsh gas, which is the main component of natural gas.
Structural formulae are used to represent organic compounds. In many organic compounds, several
arrangements of atoms in a molecule are possible. For this reason, a number of carbon compounds have
the same simple chemical formula. To avoid confusion, chemists often show the arrangement of atoms in
a molecule by means of a structural formula.
Hydrocarbons can be saturated i.e. every carbon atom in the compound shares a single bond with another
carbon atom or hydrogen atom. They are said to be unsaturated if double or triple bonds exists in the
compound. In such cases more hydrogen atoms can be added to the compound.
In certain hydrocarbons, the carbon atoms are linked or bonded together in long, straight chains. However,
many hydrocarbons starting with butane (C4H10) also form chains, or branched chains. The carbon atoms
can be attached in either a straight chains or a branched chain. Carbon atom forms a branched chain
bonding on to the middle carbon atom.
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but are not identical. The greater the number of
carbon atoms in a chain, the more isomers the compound is likely to have.
Arenes or aromatic hydrocarbons are another important group of hydrocarbon compounds which contain
benzene (C6H6), the first member. The general formula for this series is CnH2n-6
Gasoline contains many hydrocarbons. It is a complex mixture of compounds of the alkane series. Octane
is one of the important hydrocarbons in gasoline the amount and kind of isomers in gasoline affect its
quality. Gasoline with branched chain hydrocarbons burns more slowly than compounds. Petrol is a
mixture of gasoline and other substances to improve on its performance. Sometimes the mixture of
gasoline and air burns too quickly in a car engine. This results in blows which are called knockings and
can result in engine damage. Knocking can be prevented by
a) using a slower burning fuel and
b) by adding catalyst to the gasoline.

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The ability of a gasoline to resist knocking is expressed by a rating called the octane number the higher
the octane number; the more knock resistant the gasoline.

Anything that burns gives out heat. A fuel is a substance that can be burned to produce heat at a
reasonable cost. Fuels contain potential energy that is locked within their chemical bonds.
The word petroleum is derived from the Latin "Petra" - rock and ' Oleum' - Oil. Crude oil is a slippery
mixture with a strong odour made up of thousand of compounds. Crude oil is separated in to a large
number of products by refining (fractional distillation and vacuum distillation) to give fractions such as.
Gases - used as fuel and raw material for the industry
Gasoline and naphtha – fuel as petrol and solvent
Kerosene - fuel, jet fuel and raw material for the industry
Light gas oil - diesel and light generator fuel and raw material for the industry
Heavy gas oil - to make lubricants and also as heavy fuels for furnaces and generators eg. NAWEC
Residue –on further processing produces
Wax- for candles,
Residual oil – heavy fuel for furnaces etc and
Asphalt – for road construction and roofing
Many homes and hotels in the Gambia use Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) as a fuel for cooking and
heating. This is somehow different from natural gas which is almost entirely made up of the hydrocarbon
called marsh gas (methane) because it is found bubbling from the water in warm, marshy areas. In
developed countries, natural gas is used and is supplied through pipes the same way as water is supplied
in the Gambia. Methane is a colourless and odourless gas and therefore tiny amounts of pungent smelling
substances such as ethanethiol are added to the gas by Law before delivery to consumers so that leakages
can be easily detected.

Complete combustion takes place when a fuel burns with enough oxygen to support the burning process.
Under this condition, carbon dioxide, water and energy are products formed.
CH 4  2O2  CO2  2H 2O  energy
When there is a shortage of oxygen, incomplete combustion occurs and the resulting products are carbon
monoxide, water energy. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas.
2CH 4  3O2  2CO  4H 2O  energy
1. Compare the burning of natural gas to that of kerosene, charcoal and firewood.
2. Explain why kerosene lamps and candles produce smoke whereas a gas lighter does not.
3. What is Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)?
4. Why is it necessary to add pungent smelling substances to methane and LPG?

UNIT 7
WATER & THE ENVIRONMENT –POLLUTION & GLOBAL WARMING
Objective:
 To explain why water is a good solvent and why it exists in a liquid phase at room temperature.
 To explain the uses of water
 To explain Global Warming and depletion of the Ozone Layer
 To explain present environmental concerns and pollution

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WATER: AN EVER-PRESENT COMPOUND: Water has some remarkable properties. Pure water is
a liquid that has no colour, or taste. You have seen that it exists in all three phases: solid, liquid and gas.
Under normal conditions, water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC.
In many ways, water is a most remarkable compound. Almost all liquids shrink when they freeze. For
instance when a beaker full of melted wax is allow to cool, a hollow will form in the center where the
freezing liquid shrinks. Unlike wax, water expands when it freezes. When a tank full of water freezes, it
exerts about 20 000 Newtons (N) of force on each square centimeter of the tank. A tightly sealed container
filled with water may burst when the water freezes, even if it is quite strong. Water pipes and car radiators
are likely to burst in winter if the water in them freezes. When water at 0oC is warmed, it shrinks until the
temperature reaches 4oC. At 4oC, water reaches its greatest density. Then, as it is warmed further, the
water slowly expands.
Chemically, water is a very stable compound. Thus, water does not break apart until it is heated to about
2700oC. Water is a good solvent. Water is covalent molecule that is formed when an oxygen atom shares
a pair of electrons with each of two hydrogen atoms. It has been shown that a water molecule has a bent
structure. The angle of bonding, or bond angle, is 105°. Water is a polar solvent, that is, it contains small
positive and negative charges caused by the slight movement of electrons in the covalent bonds.
Like all molecules, water molecules are electrically neutral. However, the hydrogen ends are somewhat
positive. The oxygen atom at the opposite end is somewhat negative. A lopsided molecule of this type is
called a polar molecule. The polar, covalent property of the water molecule is one of the main reasons
why water is such a good solvent. Because of its polar nature, the water molecule can attract other
molecules or ions of a solute, surround them, and pull them into as CO2 (O = C = O), is a symmetrical, or
nonpolar covalent molecule.

Water molecules are attracted to each other by weak forces. Water molecules are held to each other by the
attraction of the positive hydrogen ends of each water molecule to negative oxygen ends of other water
molecules. Thus, a weak but effective hydrogen bond is formed. Water is not simply a group of separate
H2O molecules, but rather a large number of H2O molecules linked together. Water is a liquid at room
temperature because of the formation of molecular groups by hydrogen bonding. If hydrogen bonding did
not exist, water would be a gas at room temperature.
Hydrogen bonds play an important part in fixing the melting and boiling points of many substances. These
bonds cause the open structure of ice crystals. This open structure accounts for the fact that ice has a lower
density than water. Hydrogen also forms similar bonds with fluorine (HF) and with nitrogen (NH3)
IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN THE INDUSTRY
Many industries use large quantities of water and are therefore situated alongside rivers or on the coast.
The water may be used for different reasons. These include as:-
- As an essential ingredient in the product, soft drinks, beer etc
- For water to cool parts of the process e.g. making electricity in a oil-or coal fired power station
- As a source of energy e.g. making electricity in a hydroelectric power station
- As a raw material which is removed during the process e.g., paper making

EXERCISE: Why is carbon dioxide a nonpolar compound whereas water is polar? How does this affect
the physical properties of these two compounds?

Greenhouse gases and global warming

The heating of the atmosphere: The distance of the earth from the sun is not the only reason that
temperatures on earth are within a range that is suitable to support life. The composition of the atmosphere

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is also critically important. The earth receives electromagnetic energy from the sun in the visible spectrum.
There are also small amounts of infrared and ultraviolet radiation in this incoming solar energy. Most of
the radiation is shortwave radiation, and it passes easily through the atmosphere towards the earth’s
surface, with some being reflected before reaching the surface. At the surface, some of the energy is
absorbed, and this heats up the earth’s surface. But the situation is a little more complex than this.
A large amount of the sun’s energy is re-radiated from the surface back into the atmosphere as infrared
radiation, which is invisible. As this radiation passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane. These gases are very important
because they re-emit the energy back towards the surface. By doing this, they help to warm the lower
layers of the atmosphere even further. It is this ’re-emission’ of heat by greenhouse gases, combined with
surface heating and other processes (e.g. conduction and convection) that maintain temperatures at exactly
the right level to support life. Without the presence of greenhouse gases, most of the sun’s energy would
be lost and the Earth would be a lot colder than it is!
Many of the greenhouse gases occur naturally in small quantities in the atmosphere. However, human
activities have greatly increased their concentration, and this has led to a lot of concern about the impact
that this could have in increasing global temperatures. This phenomenon is known as global warming.
Because the natural concentrations of these gases are low, even a small increase in their concentration as
a result of human emissions, could have a big effect on temperature. But before we go on, let’s look at
where some of these human gas emissions come from.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid
waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of other chemical reactions (e.g. the manufacture of
cement, aluminium, iron etc). Carbon dioxide can also be removed from the atmosphere when it is
absorbed by plants during photosynthesis.
• Methane (CH4): -Methane is emitted when coal, natural gas and oil are produced and transported.
Methane emissions can also come from livestock and other agricultural practices and from the decay of
organic waste.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): -Nitrous oxide is emitted by agriculture and industry, and when fossil fuels and
solid waste are burned.
• Fluorinated gases (e.g. hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride). These gases are
all synthetic, in other words they are man-made. They are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
Fluorinated gases are sometimes used in the place of other ozone-depleting substances (e.g. CFC’s). These
are very powerful greenhouse gases, and are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential
gases (’High GWP gases’).
Overpopulation is a major problem in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and in slowing down global
warming. As populations grow, their demands on resources (e.g. energy) increase, and so does their
production of greenhouse gases.
Global warming is a very controversial issue. While many people are convinced that the increase in
average global temperatures is directly related to the increase in atmospheric concentrations of carbon
dioxide, others argue that the climatic changes we are seeing are part of a natural pattern. One way in
which scientists are able to understand what is happening at present, is to understand the earth’s past
atmosphere, and the factors that affected its temperature. One method that is used is ice core drilling.
Carbon dioxide emissions are a major problem worldwide. The Kyoto Protocol was signed in Kyoto,
Japan in December 1997. Its main objective was to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by
encouraging countries to become signatories to the guidelines that had been laid out in the protocol. These
guidelines set targets for the world’s major producers to reduce their emissions within a certain time. After

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Kyoto, there have been numerous Treaties to reduce Global warming but the debate still goes on.
Recently, World leaders gathered in 2015 in Paris to find ways and means of tackling global warming.

ISSUES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN

1. Our environment consists of natural systems that have operated in a delicate balance for a long period of
time. Although we can manipulate many natural systems, there are commonly many unforeseen
consequences. Natural systems adjust to artificial changes in ways that cannot be anticipated.
ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTION: The forces of nature and the activities of man modifying the natural
existence of the component of the eco system.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTION: These include:-

Natural intervention, Desert encroachment, Tectonic movement, Volcanic eruption, Earthquakes, Climate
changes

MAN MADE INTERVENTION: They include: Deforestation, Pollution, Hunting, Urbanization, Farm
activities & Construction
ENVIRONMENT BALANCE: This is the way of recycling matter and the flow of energy within an eco
system in other to ensure continuous supply
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: Environmental pollution is the introduction of harmful
pollutants into a certain environment that makes an environment unhealthy to live in. The widespread
pollutants are usually chemicals, garbage, and wastewater. Environmental pollution is happening in
multifold parts of Earth usually in the form of air and water pollution.
Environmental pollution is causing massive damage to the ecosystem that organisms depend upon the
health of this environment to live in. Air and water pollution can cause death of myriad organisms in
given ecosystem, including humans.
In many developed countries laws have been introduced to regulate multifarious types of pollution and
to palliate the adverse effects of pollution. Pollution levels must be controlled at all the time if we want
to keep our environment safe and healthy. Without proper pollution control, the environment soon
becomes unhealthy and nothing will be able to live in it. Preventing introduction of pollutants into the
environment is the best way to protect the environment from pollution. To do this it is important to
develop ecological conscience of nearby communities and manage waste by recycling.
A healthy environment is prerequisite of healthy life and fighting pollution is definitely the best way to
keep the environment healthy.

What is pollution? Pollution is the introduction of a contaminant into the environment. It is created
mostly by human actions, but can also be a result of natural disasters. Pollution has a detrimental effect
on any living organism in an environment, making it virtually impossible to sustain life.

The three main types of pollution are:

1. Land Pollution: Land pollution is pollution of the Earth’s natural land surface by industrial,
commercial, domestic and agricultural activities. Some of the main contributors to land pollution are:
Chemical and nuclear plants, Industrial factories, Oil refineries, Human sewage, Oil and antifreeze leaking
from cars, Mining, Littering, Overcrowded landfills, Deforestation & Construction debris

NUCLEAR WASTE: The uses of nuclear reactors lead to two important environmental problems. The

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first is that nuclear reactors produce by products that are dangerously radioactive for many years. No
satisfactory way has been found for the safe storage or disposal of these nuclear wastes. The second
problem is the chance of an accident at the nuclear plant. Such accidents can have awful results. There
may be immediate injuries and the radioactivity may make the area around the plant unfit for people and
animals for many years.

TOXIC WASTE: Toxic wastes are extremely poisonous by -products of some industrial process. Unlike
pollution, these substances do not enter the environment directly but are deposited of at specific locations.
Unless deposed of with care, these waste pollutes the solid around them and any water body they come in
contact with. For many years toxic waste were dump with little care, and there locations where not located
and this is a serious threat to health.

MINING WASTE: The waste products from mining operations include: 1. Tailing and Dumping, 2.
Altered terrains, 3. Changes in the composition of the surface, and 4. Soil, liquid and gaseous waste
produced by refining

SOLID WASTE: Solid wastes are disposed of in many ways, including land filling incinerating,
composite, open dumping, animal feed, fertilizing and disposing in ocean. The geological consequences
include changes in the surface of the land where the waste is deposited and changes in the environment
(river, lake, oceans, and groundwater) where the mass of waste is concentrated. The major problems with
solid waste disposal involve the disposal sites hydrological characteristic. These include the porosity and
permeability of the rock in which the fill is located and whether the waste deposit intersects the water
table. The altered topography associated and landfill is also critical because it can change the drainage and
ground water condition.

Perhaps the most critical contamination problem is created as water passes through a land fill eg. Bakoteh
dump site, dissolve organic and inorganic compounds, and incorporate them into the groundwater
reservoirs.

2. Air Pollution: Air pollution is the accumulation of hazardous substances into the atmosphere that
endanger human life and other living matter. Some of the main contributors to air pollution are:
Automobile emissions, Tobacco smoke, Combustion of coal, burning of used tyres and some types of
plastics, Acid rain, Noise pollution from cars and construction, Power plants, Manufacturing buildings,
Large ships, Paint fumes, Aerosol sprays, Wildfires, Nuclear weapons

3. Water Pollution: Water pollution is the introduction of chemical, biological and physical matter into
large bodies of water that degrade the quality of life that lives in it and consumes it. Some of the main
contributors to water pollution are: Factories, Refineries, Waste treatment facilities, Mining, Pesticides,
herbicides and fertilizers, Human sewage, domestic waste water, Oil spills, Failing septic systems, Soap
from washing your cars, carpets, Oil and antifreeze leaking from cars, Household chemicals, Animal
waste etc.

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