Research Instruments

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Meaning

◼ An instrument that researchers employ to measure what they intend to

study

◼ The selection of suitable instruments or tools is of vital importance for

successful research

◼ Generally a combination of one or more tools are employed

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Construction of research tools

◼ Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research
questions of the study
◼ List all the associated questions that needs to be answered through this
study
◼ List all information needed to answer the above
◼ Formulate the questions and hence, decide the tool

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Classification of tools

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Classification

1. Inquiry 2.Observation
- Questionnaire 3. Interview
- Checklist 4. Sociometry – studies the formation
- Score-card and construction of groups
- Schedule
- Rating scale 5. Psychological tests
- Opinionnaire - Achievement test
- Attitude scale - Aptitude test
- Intelligence test
- Interest inventory
- Personality measures

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Questionnaire

◼ Data collection method

◼ Written/printed form used to gather information on
a subject consisting of a list of questions
◼ A preplanned set of questions designed to yield
specific information to meet a particular need about
a pertinent topic
◼ A means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs, experiences,
perceptions or attitudes

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 ◼ Characteristics of a good questionnaire:
- Deals with a significant topic
- Seeks only that information which cannot
be obtained from elsewhere
- As short as possible
- Attractive and neat
- Clear and complete directions
- Good psychological order
- Easy to tabulate and interpret

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Factors affecting percentage of returned
questionnaires

◼ Length of the questionnaire.

◼ Reputation of the sponsoring agency.
◼ Complexity of the questions asked.
◼ Relative importance of the study as determined by the potential
respondent.
◼ Extent to which the respondent believes that his responses are important.
◼ Quality and design of the questionnaire.
◼ Time of year the questionnaires are sent out.

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Questionnaire

Structured v/s
Closed v/s open Fact v/s opinion
unstructured

Definite, concrete and

Short check responses, Information about facts
directed , contains
restricted, easy to without reference to
mostly closed ended
tabulate and summarize opinion
questions

Free response, difficult Information about facts

Contains majorly open
to interpret tabulate and with own opinion and
ended questions
summarize attitude

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Questionnaire

◼ When?

- Large number of respondents

- Information cannot be obtained from other readily available data

- Responses intended are fairly straightforward

- Need for standardized data from identical information

- When respondents are expected to read and understand questions on their

own

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Characteristics of a good questionnaire

◼ Deals with a significant topic, a topic the respondent will recognize as

important enough to justify spending his time in completing. The
significance should be clearly stated on the questionnaire or in the
accompanying letter.
◼ As short as possible.
◼ Attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, and clearly printed.
◼ Clear and complete directions, important terms are defined, each
question deals with a single idea, simple wording
◼ Questions provide an opportunity for easy, accurate, and unambiguous
responses.
◼ Questions are objective, with no leading suggestions to the
desired response
◼ Questions are presented in good psychological order, proceeding
from general to more specific responses.
◼ Easy to tabulate and interpret

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 Questionnaire

Advantages Reduced expense and Disadvantages Respondent’s

time involved
motivation, which
affects validity
Uniformity of questions, The number
hence yielded data is
more comparable returned are far
less
Standardized and Hence, biased
controlled
samples

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Rating scale

◼ Expression or judgment
regarding a situation, object or
character
◼ Useful in assessing quality,
performance, emotional
intelligence, effectiveness etc

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Checklist

◼ Type of aid used to reduce failure

by compensating for potential
limits of human memory and
attention

◼ Purpose is to call attention to

various aspects of an object or
situation

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Observation

◼ It is a distinct way of collecting data

◼ Does not rely on what people say or do
◼ It is first hand and natural
◼ For it to be effective, observation should be planned, executed, recorded
and interpreted systematically
◼ Although establishing validity is difficult as it very subjective and slow.
Bias is a common error

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Interview

◼ Something more than a conversation, as they involve a set of

assumptions and understandings about the situation

◼ Direct face to face attempt to obtain reliable and valid measures in

the form of verbal responses

◼ It is appropriate when the data is based on:

- emotions, experiences, feelings
- Sensitive/privileged information
- When dealing with illiterate, limited intelligence people

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Interview

Types

Structured:
predetermined list of Semi-structured: Unstructured:
questions, rigidly a clear list, although Emphasis is placed on
standardized and formal. flexible. Focus on interviewee’s thoughts,
Used for a large sample elaboration of answers in depth investigations
size

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 Depth Interviews

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Interview

Types
Group:
Focus group:
Single: 4-6 informants, the
6-9 people, session
group consists of
semi usually revolves around
people who will
structured/un-structured a stimulus introduced
interact with one
, meeting between one to focus the discussion.
another and can
researcher and one Collective rather than
present a wide range of
informant aggregate view is
information and varied
important here
view points

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What is an In-depth Interview?

A conversation on a given topic between a respondent and an interviewer

● Used to obtain detailed insights and personal thoughts

● Flexible and unstructured, but usually with an interview guide
● Purpose: to probe informants’ motivations, feelings, beliefs
● Lasts about an hour
● Interviewer creates relaxed, open environment
● Wording of questions and order are determined by flow of conversation

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 Interview

Advantages Valuable insights Disadvantages Time consuming

Difficult to analyze as open

Simple tool ended

Consistency and
Flexible objectivity are hard to
achieve

Direct contact hence valid Identity of the interviewer may

affect the statements of the
interviewee
High response rate as
pre-arranged Inhibitions, invasion of
privacy

More enjoyable and High resources in terms of

rewarding experience people, travel etc

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Projective Techniques

◼ Projective techniques are unstructured and indirect forms of questioning

which encourage the respondents to project their underlying motivations,
beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of concern.
◼ Main types of projective techniques-
◼ Word Association
▪ asks the respondents to give the first word or phase that comes to mind
after the researcher presents a word or phrase
◼ Completion Test
▪ asks the respondents to complete sentences, dialogs, or stories, etc.
◼ Picture Drawing and Interpretation
◼ Third Person Techniques
◼ Role Playing

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example

◼ Word association-
What is the first word that comes to your mind when you hear the following?
◼ BMW
◼ I phone

◼ Completion test-
Investigate teenagers’ attitudes to tea

Someone who drinks hot tea is ______________

Tea is good to drink when __________________
Making hot tea is _________________________
My friend thinks tea is _____________________

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examples

Story Completion Example: Department Store Patronage Project

“A man was shopping for a business suit in his favorite department store.
After spending 45 minutes and trying several suits, he finally picked
one he liked.
As he was proceeding to the checkout counter, he was approached by
the salesman, who said, “Sir, at this time we have higher quality suits
which are on sale for the same price. Would you like to see them?”
“What is the customer’s response? Why?

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Question Types –
Sentence Completion

◼ When I choose an airline, the most important consideration in my

decision is:
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________________.

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 Question Types –
Picture (Empty Balloons)

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Advantages and disadvantages

◼ Advantages-
◼ May elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if
they knew the purpose of the study.
◼ Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs and attitudes are operating at
a subconscious level.

◼ Disadvantages-
◼ Require highly trained interviewers and interpreters of results
◼ Serious risk of misinterpreting.
◼ Subjectivity

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Projective research techniques

◼ Indirect means of questioning enabling respondents to project beliefs and

feelings to a third party, an inanimate object or a task situation

◼ They encourage respondents to describe a situation in their own words

with little prompting

◼ It is believed that people give true answers when the questions are
disguised as they come from the sub-conscious mind

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Thematic apperception test

◼ TAT or picture interpretation

technique presents subjects with
an ambiguous picture and asks
them to tell what is happening in
the picture now and what might
happen next

◼ Hence, themes are elicited on

the basis of
perceptual-interpretive
(apperception) use of pictures

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Modern research tools

◼ Social media:
- It is replacing e-mails as well as face-to-face communications.
- It is a sea of data that can be useful for marketing research
- It can be looked upon as online focus groups/interviews

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Innovative research methods

◼ Collage:
Respondents make a collage that represent
their experiences and these are analyzed for
meaning
◼ Sentence completion
◼ Word associations

Harley Davidson commissioned this method

among motorbike enthusiasts to understand
which brand they prefer.

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Type of Approach – Grounded Theory

◼ Grounded Theory is an approach for developing theory that is "grounded

in data systematically gathered and analyzed" (Strauss & Corbin, 1994)
◼ Involves constant comparative analysis
◼ Back and forth movement between data collection and analysis, or
Iteration

◼ Researcher ask a question or series of questions designed to lead to the

development or generation of a theory, which leads to first sample theory
called “Theoretical Sampling”

◼ The comparative process continues until the researcher

reaches saturation - the point at which there are no new ideas and insights
emerging from the data.

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 Thank you

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