Introduction

Chapter 1
Introduction

Concrete is the material which is majorly used for different construction purposes. It
is basically a mixture of fine aggregates, coarse aggregates which are bonded together by a
matrix of cement and water. The cement undergoes hydration process when it reacts with
water and therefore provides strength to the mix. The chemical reactions are started when
the water is added to the concrete mix. The concrete starts to set within the first few hours.
The concrete obtains maximum strength and hardness after 28 days of curing. Different
grades of concrete are used for different construction purposes. The most commonly used
grade of cement nowadays are OPC 43 and OPC 53.

1.1 Properties of Concrete

1. Grade of Concrete:
Grade of concrete is designated into M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 etc. in which 'M'
denotes the concrete mix and 15, 20, 25 etc. denotes the characteristic compressive
strength (fck) of 0.150 m x 0.15 m x 0.15 m size cube after twenty eight days of
curing. The characteristic compressive strength of concrete is expressed in N/mm2.
In R. C. work M20, M25, grades of concrete are commonly used and the higher
grades of concrete are used in severe environmental conditions.

2. Compressive strength:
The strength of concrete varies greatly for the same concrete mix. Characteristic
compressive strength, is computed using statistical probabilistic principles which
acts as a single representative value. Characteristic compressive strength is defined
as that value of the strength of concrete below which not more than 5% of the
results are expected to decrease.

3. Modulus of Elasticity:
Modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress to strain. Modulus of elasticity
is directly proportional to the strength of the concrete.

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4. Poisson’s Ratio:
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is known as Poisson's ratio. It is
generally denoted by 'µ'. The value of poisson’s ratio lies in the range of 0.15 to
0.20 for normal concrete.

5. Shrinkage:
Shrinkage depicts the various types of volume changes in concrete because of loss
of moisture at different stages due to different reasons like temperature, humidity
etc. The allowable shrinkage limit is 600 micro strains after 28 days of curing.

6. Durability:
Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its own disintegration and decay. The
main factor which influences the durability of concrete is its permeability to allow
water and other potentially harmful materials. For obtaining low permeability, the
concrete mix should have the right amount of cement, low water/cement ratio,
proper compaction and ultimately ensuring that the concrete member is cured
properly.

7. Unit weight of concrete:

The unit weight of reinforced concrete depends upon type of aggregate used,
percentage of reinforcement used, amount of voids. The unit weight of plain and
reinforced concrete as specified in the IS:456 codebook are 24 kN/m3 and 25 kN/m3

At present, due to increase in population and urbanization, more and more buildings
are constructed which is having a drastic effect on the environment. The different materials
used for construction are harming the environment. Ordinary portland cement (OPC) which
consists mainly of calcium oxide has an adverse effect on the environment because during
the hydration and manufacturing process it releases carbon dioxide which increases global
warming. The continuous development in infrastructure will eventually lead to depletion of
fine and coarse aggregates. To overcome this problem, various studies have been done to
search for a more eco- friendly material to be used as one of the replacements and reduction
of the constituents in the concrete mix.

Basically, powerplants, industries and various farming practices produce wastes

which are recyclable and non-recyclable. Some of the wastes which are disposed on open
ground leads to the degradation of soil and also pollutes the air around the area. The wastes

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which are of no use can be used in construction field by replacing one of the ingredients in
the concrete mix by these wastes. Industrial wastes like Ground Granulated Blast Furnace
Slag (GGBS), silica fume, fly ash, etc can be used as admixtures. The other wastes which
can be used in construction as aggregates are rice husk, coconut shell pieces, glass pieces
etc. These can be used in casting of slabs, beams and columns.

1.2 Heat Absorption in Concrete

The absorption of heat through concrete elements is more complicated than steel
elements. This is due to the packing of aggregates and therefore it cannot be assumed that
the temperature will be constant throughout the section of the concrete element. The type of
aggregates used in the concrete mix plays a major role in transferring heat within the
element. When the concrete section is heated, the water present in the voids of the concrete
get heated up and eventually evaporates leading to reductio n in strength of concrete. The
concrete should have low thermal conductivity. The concrete mix design, placing and
compaction should be done in such a way that the strength of the concrete is not
compromised when it is exposed to hot weather conditions.

1.3 Reinforced Concrete Slab

A slab is basically a 2-D flat structural element which has a smaller thickness when
compared to the length and breadth of the slab. It acts as a roof to the buildings and also to
support the different loads coming on it like. The failure of the slab occurs due to flexure or
bending. Slabs can be classified according to their shapes (rectangular, square, circular),
boundary conditions (cantilever slabs, simply supported slabs, overhanging slabs), uses
(floor slab, roof slab), cross section (filler slab, solid slab, grid slab).

1.4 Filler Slab

Filler slab is an architectural technology used in construction of slabs. RCC slab

comprises of concrete and steel reinforcement wherein concrete takes the compression load
and the reinforcement withstands the tensile load due to bending. In filler slab, concrete in
the tension zone which does not have any use is replaced partially by materials which are
inert, light in weight and easily available for a lesser price. Filler slab is very economical. It
saves approximately 30% of concrete when compared to conventional slabs. They are used
in various areas all around the country. The dead weight of filler slabs is lesser when

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compared to RCC slab. Filler materials should be uniform in size and shape and have to be
placed in such a way that it does not decrease the strength, durability and stability of the
slab. They are placed between the reinforcement bars and concrete is poured over them.
These filler materials also add to the thermal insulation of the slab and also provides better
aesthetic view. Some of the materials which are used as fillers are:

1. Mangalore tiles

They are the tiles which are made of laterite clay and was first manufactured in
Mangalore. It was used by the British in government buildings. It is also exported to many
countries like Europe, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, East Africa, Australia etc. They are usually
used in roofing systems. These tiles are cheap and also eco-friendly. They give good
ventilation and aesthetic view. However due to varying weather conditions and pollution,
they become black in colour. Mangalore tiles are inert and can be used as filler material.
Figure 1.1 shows an example of Mangalore tiles used for roofing purpose.

Figure 1.1 Mangalore tiles

2. Hollow Concrete Blocks

Hollow concrete blocks can used as filler material for slab construction. These are
lighter in weight when compared to conventional bricks and also consumes lesser cement.
It increases the construction speed, decreases the involvement of labour and also gives
more durability. They are used in partition walls or interior walls, load bearing walls,
compound walls, retaining walls.

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Figure 1.2 depicts a typical hollow concrete block.

Figure 1.2 Hollow concrete block

[Source: www.indiantradebird.com]

3. Stabilized Mud Blocks

Stabilized mud blocks are manufactured by subjecting wet soil to a very high
pressure and compressing it into bricks or blocks. A small amount of portland cement is
added during the process. This acts as a chemical binder. These mud blocks are fire
resistant, sound resistant, insect resistant. They are also non toxic in nature because it
basically contains soil. They are uniform in size and shape and are also very economical.
Hence they can be used as a filler material in filler slabs.

Figure 1.3 shows many stabilized mud blocks which can be used in construction as
building blocks.

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Introduction

Figure 1.3 Stabilized mud blocks

[Source: www.indiamart.com]

4. Terracotta pots

Terracotta which means 'baked clay' in Italian refers to earthenware made of clay
having an unglazed ceramic. The terracotta pots are porous and are used for various
purposes like growing plants, as roofing tiles etc. It is brownish in colour and environment
friendly. They act as good heat insulators and can be used in filler slabs as filler material.
However, the porosity of the terracotta pots can be decreased by glazing it after the firing
process. An example of terracotta pot is shown in Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 Terracotta pot

[Source: www.bunnings.com.au]

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5. Coconut shells

Coconut shells are present within the coconut fruit. It is the strongest part of the
fruit. It is situated between the flesh of the coconut and the coconut husk. It protects the
tender inner area of the coconut. The coconut shell is used for many purposes. One of the
major use of the shell is in the production of charcoal. Coconut charcoal is used as fuel as it
contains active carbon. It is used to remove the impurities in the purification industr y. The
empty coconut shell is inert, light weight and acts as an excellent filler material in filler
slabs. The use of coconut shell in filler slabs is a very good example of effective utilization
of a waste product in construction field. A perfect example of an empty coconut shell is
shown in Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5 Empty coconut shells

The important criteria for the selection of filler material are:

1. The filler material should not undergo any reaction with the concrete and steel in the
slab and therefore have to be inert.

2. The filler material used should be light in weight so that the self weight of slab is
reduced.

3. The filler material should be available for a lower cost when compared to the part of
the concrete which is replaced.

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4. The filler material should have a uniform size and cross section so that it can be
easily placed between the reinforcement bars.

5. The filler material should provide a good aesthetic view to the slab.

1.5 Uses of Filler Slab

1. 30% of the concrete and construction cost is saved by using this technique thereby
making it economical.

2. It gives a natural aesthetic appearance and thereby avoids the need of an interior
decorator.

3. Due to the light weight property of filler material, the dead load of slab is reduced
leading to development of smaller sections.

4. Since the coconut shell provides good thermal insulation, the indoor temperature is
reduced.

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Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Literature Review
This chapter gives a brief summary about the various studies and experiments
conducted with filler slabs, properties of coconut shells, sustainable and low cost housing
and also the heat absorption property and temperature distribution in concrete.

2.1.1 Filler Slab

Filler slab is also told to be the modification of RCC slab as the concrete in the
tension zone of the slab which does not have any role in withstanding the load coming onto
it is replaced partially by an inert filler material. Filler slab is the latest development in
construction field which involves the use of filler materials. The filler materials which are
used should not undergo any reaction with the surrounding concrete. They have to be light
in weight, uniform in shape and size so that uniform placement between the reinforcements
can be achieved. B.V. Venkatarama Reddy of IISC Bangalore has done many researches
related to alternate building technology, low cost housing, consumption of energy involved
during the manufacture of various building materials and their effect on the environment.
He came to a conclusion that the embedded energy per m 2 of filler slab is 590MJ. The
National Building Code of India 2005 states that filler slab satisfies the provisions
regarding the design, material and method of construction. Professor Ing. Petr Hajek of
Czech Technical University in Prague has experimented with the use of recycled plasti c
waste and suggested to use shells of non-sorted recycled plastic waste as filler materials.
Nilangan Sen Gupta researched about the effect of greenhouse gases on the environment
leading to a rise in earth's temperature. He concluded that the use of low cost materials in
construction technology can reduce the amount of energy released in the manufacture of
building materials. Filler slab technique reduces the carbon dioxide emission by 30% than
that of conventional slab.[1]

The use of terracotta pots has also proved to be an appropriate filler material in filler
slabs. Self compacting concrete (SCC) can also be used in construction of filler slab. SCC

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undergoes placing and compaction by its own weight and therefore it does not require any
external means of compaction. M 35 grade concrete containing GLENIUM B233 and fly ash
was used. The load carrying capacity of terracotta pots was determined. Filler slabs of
different sizes were casted with the pots as filler materials. The end conditions for the slab
is simply supported on two opposite sides and subjected to two point load. The result is that
filler slab and conventional slab takes the same load but from economic point of view, 30%
of the concrete is saved in filler slabs.[2]

Filler slab is also told to be the modification of RCC slab as the concrete in the
tension zone of the slab which does not have any function in carrying the compressive load
is replaced partially by the filler materials thereby reducing the dead weight of the slab. The
cross section of a filler slab represents a T-beam. Therefore we can tell that a filler slab is
made of a number of T-beams. The T-beams are well known to withstand compressive and
tensile stresses. Therefore durability and strength of the slab does not decrease and 40% of
slab construction cost is reduced.[3] The filler slab can be used as a floor slab or roof slab.
The thickness of the filler blocks are 110 mm and has an uniform cross sectional area. The
filler slabs can be used in multi storey residential buildings, commercial complexes etc. The
floor finish for filler slab is done in the same way as that of RCC slab. The filler slab is
always designed as two way slab and the mid section is designed as a T-beam. If the slab is
continuous, the support area of the slab is designed as a doubly reinforced beam. According
to IS codes, for a slab of thickness 150mm, the maximum span is 3.6m in case the edges are
simply supported. The deflection recovery is more than 85% when subjected to deflection
and this indicates that the slab passes in deflection. Further more, increase in imposed load
causes the specimen to undergo failure. In this case, the first crack occurred at a load of 6.6
kN/m2. The thermal performance of filler slab is found to be more than conventional slabs
due to the presence of filler materials. If the filler slab is not plastered, the sound absorption
property is more than RCC slab.[3]

2.1.2 Properties and Experiments Using Coconut Shells

Disposal of waste materials has been a major concern throughout the world. Some
wastes are bio-degradable, some are recycled and reused whereas plastic wastes just add on
to the pollution of the environment. The recycled and bio degradable wastes can be used for
construction purpose as well. India produces about 950 metric tonnes of wastes from
industries, agriculture, mining etc. However, in India agricultural wastes are generated in

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large quantities. One of the agricultural waste is coconut shell. The coconut shell which is
obtained from coconut tree can be used as filler material in filler slabs. India is one of the
leading producer of coconuts in the world. Southern part of India contributes to over 90%
of the production with Kerala being the highest producer of coconuts in India. Between the
year 2006-2007, a record was created due to the production of 515 million nuts in India.
Coconut shells have good toughness, resistant to abrasion and good durability. The shells
are used mainly as charcoal due to its source of activated carbon. It is also used in fancy
items and also in ornaments. The powdered form of coconut shell is used to make mosquito
and insect repellents. The coconut shell can be broken down into many pieces and can be
used in creating the concrete mix. These shells are used in place of coarse aggregates and
the mix is prepared after the standard tests of cement and sand are done. 5 mixes of M 30
grade were done to determine the properties of the coconut shell concrete along with
conventional concrete. Cubes and beams were casted and the specimens were tested for
compression and tension. It was seen that the characteristic compressive strength of coconut
shell concrete was increased by 38% (28 days strength) after curing for 7 days whereas the
strength of conventional concrete was increased by 50% (28 days strength) after 7 days of
curing. This is caused due to improper bonding between the coconut shells and the other
ingredients. The tensile strength of both the concretes varied between 0.8 - 1.4 MPa after
curing for 7 days. However, the tensile strength of the coconut shell concrete was less when
compared to the conventional concrete. As the amount of coconut shells increases, there is
an increase in the number and permeability of the voids due to poor bonding between the
particles.[4]

Wastes which are being discharged from various industries, agricultural methods
have proved to be very harmful to the environment. The effect on the environment can be
reduced by using these wastes for different purposes like construction, manufacture of bio
fuel etc. The use of these wastes also help in the preservation of natural resources and also
reduces the construction cost. 48% reduction of cost can be obtained by using coconut
shells in place of gravel. 1:2:4 ratio of concrete mix was used and 72 cubes were casted
along with replacement of gravel with different percentages of coconut shells and they were
subjected to compression test after seven days, fourteen days, twenty one days and twenty
eight days of curing. It was seen that the characteristic compressive strength decreased with
increase in percentage of coconut shells. The final conclusion was that by replacing 19% of

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the gravel with coconut shells, optimum compressive strength was obtained and thus this
amount of replacement could be used in RCC construction.[5]

Various components of coconut tree have different functions. The coconut shell is a
waste material obtained from a coconut palm tree. Dumping of these shells adds to the
degradation of the land. The depletion of natural resources has made mankind to search for
other alternatives for construction purposes. The shells can be used as charcoal for heating
purposes as they have activated carbon. They can be broken down into several pieces and
used as aggregates in the concrete mix or they can be cut into two halves and be used as a
filler material in filler slabs. In this research, tests for workability and compression were
carried out according to ASTM (American Society Of Testing Materials) C136, ASTM
C137 standards. The basic tests like specific gravity test, sieve analysis, water absorption
test were all done according to the American standards. Proper care should be taken that the
coconut shells are not damp when added to the concrete mix. Hollow concrete blocks were
prepared and they were cured for seven, fourteen and twenty eight days respectively and
eventually subjected to compression, tension, durability and absorption test. It was found
that the workability of the concrete is inversely proportional to the percentage of addition of
coconut shells. If the coconut shell pieces were added in large quantity, it produced a harsh
mix which caused many difficulties in generating a dense concrete mix.[6]

2.1.3 Sustainable and Low Cost Housing Technologies

Sustainable technologies in building construction is trending in the present era due

to its use of wastes materials in manufacture of concrete. The use of these waste products
decreases the cost of construction and also helps in the conservation of natural resources.
ASTRA (Application Of Science And Technology For Rural Areas) has suggested some
cost effective building technologies which are coming into practice. It was established in
the year 1974 at IISC Bangalore to help in the development of technologies for sustainable
construction. The main objective of ASTRA is to develop environment friendly, simple and
energy efficient building technologies using the available local resources. ASTRA has used
alternate building materials for construction of sustainable, energy efficient buildings. Fine
concrete blocks, steam cured blocks, stabilized mud blocks, filler slabs, lime-pozzolana
(LP) cement provides for the construction of economical and energy efficient buildings.
Stabilized mud blocks are basically used for the construction of walls. They are prepared by

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subjecting a mixture of soil, water and a stabilizer to compaction under high pressure. The
composition of the soil in the block determines the characteristic compressive strength. Fine
concrete blocks are manufactured by replacing the soil by fines like polished stone waste,
fly ash and are mixed with cement, water and sand and compacted under high pressure. The
main advantage of fine concrete blocks are that they use fly ash, mine wastes etc which are
waste materials discharged from the industries. In a filler slab, the filler material which will
be used will save some amount of concrete required during the casting of the slab. The
mixing of lime and pozzolana in 1:1.5 ratio leads to the formation of lime-pozzolana (LP)
cement. This type of cement consumes comparatively lesser energy and are eventually used
in secondary applications other than RC works. The advantages of using alternate building
technologies are that it consumes less energy, provides simple techniques for construction,
higher employment rate, cost efficient, easier transportation and use of locally available
resources.[8]

Many prefabrication technologies have been developed to aid in the construction of

low cost houses. They can also be called as green buildings. Low cost housings are eco
friendly up to a certain extent. The main components of a building are foundation, walls,
doors, windows. With proper planning and analysis, alternate building technologies can be
used which leads to construction of low cost houses and also increases the construction
speed. The rise in alternate building technologies has also decreased the need of physical
man power as the machines do most of the work required for construction. For the use of
alternate building technology, sufficient space and area should be required for setting up of
the machines and optimal space for construction of buildings. The cost of scaffolding and
shuttering can be reduced as in prefabricated construction, self supporting and readymade
components are used. In precast and prefabricated construction, the moulds used for casting
of structural components can be reused again. A lot of construction time is reduced due to
the precast components used for construction. Speed of construction also increases due to
generation of same kind of precast elements. Due to increase in mass production of the
precast elements, cost reduction is achieved. [7]

The in-situ work is reduced in precast or prefabricated construction because all the
structural elements are casted off site. Therefore the time required for the construction of
building is also decreased. The different materials used in prefabricated construction of
walls are fly ash sand lime bricks, non erodable mud plaster, stone blocks. The materials for

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roof construction are pre cast RCC planks, pre cast hollow slabs, prefabricated brick panels.
For doors and windows, bamboo mat board, bamboo mat veneer composite, plantation
timber can be used. Mass houses can be constructed using the prefabricated technologies.
For adopting these technologies, a good market has to be present and hence they can be
popularized worldwide.[9]

Urbanization has lead to the increase in global warming thereby resulting in change
of climate. Summers are becoming hotter as the years pass by. The wastes generated during
the production of construction materials has been one of the root causes for pollution. The
emission rate of carbon dioxide in India is increasing due to the use of fossil fuels. Multi
storey buildings and skyscrapers require high amount of energy for its process of
construction. There are 5 phases wherein energy is consumed in buildings. First phase
involves the manufacture of building materials. Second and third phase is involved with the
transportation of materials to the construction site and the construction of building. Fourth
phase involves the operation of the building according to the occupancy. The last phase
deals with demolition of the buildings. A lot of energy is also consumed for this process.

The building materials which are easily available require a lot of energy and cost for
its manufacture process. But, in the end the use of such materials just adds to the
degradation of the environment. A study has revealed that for 1 tonne of cement, 0.95
tonnes of carbon dioxide is released. We know that brick is the building block for any
construction. The process of manufacture of one lakh bricks in brick kiln leads to the
discharge of 38 tonnes of carbon dioxide. Therefore, to decrease the amount of pollution
the use of eco friendly building technologies should be practiced and encouraged more.

The alternate building technologies which are to be used should not decrease the
stability and structural integrity of a building. Some of the trending alternate building
technologies are rat-trap bond wall, filler slab and brick arches. Placing and manner of
overlap of the bricks is called a bond. The different types of bonds which are used in
construction are stretcher bond (used in construction partition walls of thickness 125 mm,
English bond (used in walls which are having a thickness of 250 mm), Flemish bond (used
for aesthetic purposes and are used for walls having thickness of more than 250 mm). Rat-
trap bond involves placing of the bricks on the sides with a gap of 100 mm in alternate
courses of headers and stretchers. The use of this type of bond leads to economic use of
bricks. 20% lesser bricks are used if a wall is constructed using this type of bond. Cost of

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construction of the wall is decreased by 25%. A good thermal insulation is provided inside
the building due to the air circulation between the layers of the bricks. Brick arches can be
used in place of costly RCC lintels for smaller spans. This leads to reduction of cost by
40%.

Brick arches can be built in specific ways to provide a good architectural view.
Filler slabs can be used in place of conventional slab as filler slabs are more economic and
leads to effective use of waste materials like coconut shells, terracotta pots, Mangalore tiles
etc. The filler slab should have a minimum thickness of 110 mm. The adoption of these
technologies require proper supervision and guidance. Suitable manpower is required for
construction by using these eco friendly technologies. The transportation of materials
required for using these technologies should not be a problem. Proper awareness has to be
created about global warming and its effects on the environment so that people will be
instigated to use these alternate eco friendly building technologies.[10]

Environmental impact can be decreased by judicious usage of natural resources.

This includes usage of waste materials and by products which are produced during the
manufacture of building materials. The waste materials can be used as admixtures or as a
replacement for the concrete ingredients. Proportionate amount of waste materials should
be added to the concrete mix so that the workability, strength and durability of the
specimen is not compromised. The usage of these waste materials leads to the construction
of low cost eco friendly houses. These technologies are used in many parts of India. Eco
friendly materials used in construction has a lot of benefits to the environment and also on
the economy of the construction.[11]

2.1.4 Heat Absorption and Temperature Distribution in Concrete

Heat absorption is defined as the amount of heat retained in a body when subjected
to different temperatures. Absorption of heat depends on the method of heat flow or heat
transfer in the body. Heat transfer is classified into conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction is defined as the transfer of heat within solid bodies. The heat will flow from a
hotter area to a colder area. Temperature gradient is directly proportional to the rate of flow
of heat. Thermal conductivity of the material depends on the temperature. It is denoted by
the letter 'k'. Conduction is divided into two parts namely steady - state conduction and
transient conduction. Convection is defined as the heat transfer from liquid to solid and vice

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versa. Natural convection and forced convection are the two types of convection process.
Free convection occurs when the liquid next to the solid undergoes a change in density due
to transfer of heat from the solid. Radiation is defined as the heat released from a body due
to the rise in temperature. Radiation discharged from a body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature. The effect of radiation should be taken into
account if the temperature is greater than 400 degrees. For the purpose of study of heat
absorption, a black body has to be considered because it absorbs all the radiation, emits a
lot of heat at a particular temperature and also the radiation emitted is not restricted to a
single direction. Steel structural elements are very good conductors of heat. Therefore, to
provide good thermal insulation to the residents of a building, the steel members should be
insulated properly. This leads to a reduction in thermal capacity of steel structure. The heat
flow in concrete structure is more complicated than steel structure. The distribution of heat
within the concrete is not uniform due to the stockiness of the concrete sections. The voids
in the concrete containing small amounts of water will evaporate due to the internal heat
flow. The movement of small amounts of water from pore to pore in concrete make the
situation more complicated. Analytical methods cannot be used to calculate the accurate
temperature in the concrete specimens. Therefore, heat absorption is measured through
experimental procedures.[12]

Recycled aggregates made of waste materials obtained from agricultural practices,

industries, thermal power plants etc are also used to make SCC. The use of these aggregates
in SCC improves its thermal insulation properties. Recycled aggregates can also include the
aggregates left out after the demolition of a building. Reusing these aggregates helps to
preserve the environment and also reduces construction cost because the same aggregates
are recycled and reused. The conductivity of concrete depends upon the conductivity of the
aggregates because it contributes to about 60% of the constitution of concrete mix. Higher
the conductivity of the aggregates, higher will be the conductivity of the concrete. Cement
content also affects the thermal conductivity of concrete mix. Humidity and density of
concrete also affects the conductivity of the mix.

Thermal conductivity is directly proportional to the humidity due to the high

conductivity nature of water when compared to air. Heat conductivity tests on concrete is
done using infrared thermography and heat flow meter. Infrared thermography uses
temperature sensors for the measurement of thermal conductivity. Two sensors are placed

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on the inner side of the wall and two more sensors on outer side of wall which is exposed to
heat. This method gives the temperature difference between the two sides of the wall. The
recorded temperatures are transferred to the computer and the thermal conductivity is
calculated. The heat flow meter consists of two plates wherein one is stationary or fixed and
the other is movable. The central portion of each plate is embedded with a heat flow meter
consisting of many thermocouples. The signal produced by the heat flow meter is directly
proportional to the flow of heat in the specimen. From the literature study, it can be
concluded that the heat absorption decreases by 15% with the increase in content of
recycled aggregates.[13]

Whenever a concrete structure is designed and built, care should be taken for the
structure to withstand temperature variations. Exposure of heat to the concrete element for a
longer time can lead to the formation of cracks in the element and eventually failure of the
concrete element. In this literature study, cubic models of size 150mm x 150m x 150mm
and prismatic models of dimensions 150 mm x 150 mm x 500 mm were casted and heated
at 400 oC, 600 oC, and 800 oC in kilns. Three dimensional mathematical models were also
made to determine the temperature distribution over the concrete ele ment. The temperatures
which were obtained during the experiment were compared and matched with the 3-D
mathematical model. The concrete specimens were divided into a number of columns and
rows and the temperatures were measured at each interconnecting point. It was seen that the
values which were obtained mathematically and measured values were similar and there
was a very high temperature gradient between top and bottom of the concrete elements.[14]

2.2 Overall Summary

After studying various research papers, it can be said that the filler slab technology
is an energy efficient and cost efficient method of construction of slab. As there is usage of
waste materials, adverse effect on environment is decreased. The use of filler material does
not decrease the strength and durability of the slab. Filler slabs decrease the construction
cost by 30% and also the emission of carbon dioxide by 30%. Since the coconut shell is a
light weight, inert material and has uniform cross sectional area, it can easily be used as a
filler material. The use of coconut shell reduces the self weight of the slab and provides for
heat insulation. My study includes the test for flexure of conventional slab and filler slab
with coconut shell as filler material and also temperature distribution on the conventional
concrete element as well as the concrete element having coconut shell as filler.

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Methodology

Chapter 3
Methodology

A detailed step by step procedure of the project is included in this chapter. The chapter
also gives the aim, objectives of the project which is being carried out.

3.1 Aim
To study the flexural behaviour of conventional slab and filler slab with coconut
shell as filler and also the temperature distribution in concrete

3.2 Objectives

The test for flexure of conventional slab and filler slab using coconut shells as filler
material as well as temperature distribution on concrete are conducted. The various step by
step objectives required to achieve the final result is given below.

1. To study various research papers and understand the properties of filler slabs,
coconut shells, heat absorption property and temperature distribution on concrete.

2. To carry out the mix design for M20 grade of concrete.

3. To cast conventional concrete cubes, concrete cubes containing coconut shell as

filler material and check its characteristic compressive strength after seven days and
twenty eight days of curing

4. Casting of three conventional slabs and three filler slab using coconut shell as filler.

5. To carry out the flexural test of conventional and filler slab after 28 days.

6. To study the flexural behaviour of slab using STAAD-PRO software for validation.

7. To carry out the test for temperature distribution of a conve ntional concrete cube
specimen and filler concrete cube specimen of size 200mm x 200mm x 125mm and
to plot the isotherms for the same.

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Methodology

3.3 Literature Study

In the present era of civilization, growth of population has lead to rise in the demand
of buildings for residential and commercial purposes. This is having an hazardous effect on
the environment due to excessive use of non-renewable resources. The research papers give
an idea about the use of alternative building technologies for various construction purposes.
Alternate building technologies have proved to be a pathway for a better and greener
environment. These technologies encourage the use of waste products and by-products
discharged from industries, agricultural practices etc. Filler slab is one such construction
technology which utilizes waste materials as fillers. Filler slab saves 30% of concrete when
compared to conventional slab thereby 30% of carbon dioxide emission is decreased. This
project deals with the use of coconut shells as filler materials. Coconut shell is a waste
product obtained from coconut trees. They qualify to be a suitable filler material due to its
light weight and inert nature.

3.4 Mix Design

The second objective is to do the mix design for M 20 grade concrete and to check its
workability. Prior to the commencement of the mix design, the specific gravity of fine
aggregates, coarse aggregates are calculated. Sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates
are done for zoning purpose.

3.4.1 Specific Gravity of Fine and Coarse Aggregates

Specific gravity test for fine aggregates and coarse aggregates are done by using
pycnometer bottle. The fine aggregates used for this study is M-sand (manufactured sand).
Three trials are taken and the specific gravity is calculated as shown in Table 3.1

Test for fine aggregates:

Mass of empty pycnometer = M 1 (grams)

Mass of pycnometer + dry sand = M2 (grams)

Mass of pycnometer + dry sand + water = M3 (grams)

Mass of pycnometer + water = M 4 (grams)

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Methodology

Table 3.1 Specific gravity of fine aggregates

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

M1 (g) 643 643 643
M2 (g) 940 943 974
M3 (g) 1723 1721 1743
M4 (g) 1538 1538 1538
Specific Gravity (G) 2.65 2.56 2.63

The specific gravity is calculated by using the formula

G = (M2 - M1)/ (M2 - M1) - (M3 - M4)……………………..(3.1)

The average of the three values of specific gravity is determined and was found to be 2.62.

Test for coarse aggregates:

Mass of empty pycnometer = W 1 (grams)

Mass of pycnometer + CA = W 2 (grams)

Mass of pycnometer + CA + water = W 3 (grams)

Mass of pycnometer + water = W4 (grams)

Table 3.2 Specific gravity of coarse aggregates

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

W1 (g) 643 643 643
W2 (g) 944 996 900
W3 (g) 1724 1755 1697
W4 (g) 1538 1538 1538
Specific Gravity (G) 2.62 2.6 2.63

The specific gravity of coarse aggregates is calculated by using the formula

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Methodology

G = (W2 - W1)/(W4 - M1) - (W3 - W2)……………………….(3.2)

The average of the three values (shown in Table 3.2) of specific gravity is determined and
is found to be 2.62.

3.4.2 Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregates

Sieve analysis of fine aggregates is done by using sieves of different sizes starting
from 4.75 mm. 1 kg of fine aggregates is taken for test purpose. The sieves are arranged
one above the another and placed in a sieve shaker with dry sand on the topmost sieve. The
sieve shaker machine is switched on for 15 minutes and the weight retained in each sieve is
determined respectively. This is used to calculate the percentage weight retained in each
sieve and eventually, cumulative percentage of weight retained and passing is determined
as shown in Table 3.3. Based on this result, the zone number to which the fine aggregates
belong is used in the mix design.

Table 3.3 Sieve analysis of fine aggregates

Sieve size in Weight Percentage Cumulative Cumulative IS: 383-1972

mm retained (g) weight percentage percentage specification
retained weight weight for
retained passing cumulative
% weight
passing for
Zone II
4.75 0 0 0 92.6 90 to 100
2.36 0 0 0 92.6 75 to 100
1.18 101.5 10.15 10.15 82.45 55 to 90
600 microns 282 28.2 38.35 54.25 35 to 90
300 microns 356.5 35.65 74 18.6 8 to 30
150 microns 186 18.6 92.6 0 0 to 10

Calculations

Percentage weight retained = (weight retained (g) x 100)/1000

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Methodology

Cumulative percentage weight passing = 92.6 - cumulative % weight retained

3.4.3 Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregates

The sieve analysis of coarse aggregates is done by using sieves of sizes starting
from 80 mm. 5 kg of coarse aggregates is taken for test purpose. The test procedure is same
as that for fine aggregates. Table 3.4 shows the obtained values.

Table 3.4 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates

Sieve size in mm Weight retained (g) Percentage weight Cumulative

retained percentage weight
retained
80 0 0 0
40 0 0 0
20 4770 95.4 95.4
10 190 3.8 99.2
Pan 40 0.8 100

3.4.4 Concrete Mix Proportions

The mix design is done in according to IS 10262-2009 and is shown in Annexure A.
Table 3.5 shows the required amount of constituents for casting cubes.

Table 3.5 Concrete mix proportion

Cement (kg/m3) Fine aggregate Coarse Water (kg/m3) water/cement

(kg/m3) aggregate ratio
(kg/m3)
360 815 992 197 0.55

Therefore, the ratio of cement : fine aggregates : coarse aggregates = 1 : 2.26 : 2.75.

The sum of the ratios = 1 + 2.26 + 2.75 = 6.01

For 1 m3, cement content = 360 kg/m3

Volume of a cube of size 0.15 m x 0.15 m x 0.15 m = 3.375 x 10 -3 m3

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Methodology

Mass of cube containing concrete = 2400 x 3.375 x 10 -3 = 8.1 kgs.

Add 5% wastage, the mass of cube = 8.1 + (0.05*8.1) = 8.5 kgs.

Therefore the ingredients required for 1 cube is as shown below.

Cement content = (8.5/6.01) x 1 = 1.41 kgs

Fine aggregate content = (8.5/6.01) x 2.26 = 3.2 kgs

Coarse aggregate content = (8.5/6.01) x 2.75 = 3.89 kgs

Water required = (1.41 x 197)/360 = 0.772 litres

For 3 cubes, cement content required = 1.41 x 3 = 4.23 kgs

fine aggregates required = 3.2 x 3 = 9.6 kgs

coarse aggregates required = 3.89 x 3 = 11.67 kgs

water required = 0.772 x 3 = 2.32 litres

3.4.5 Workability

Workability test for the concrete mix is done by using a slump cone. The inner side
of the cone is greased well. Concrete is poured into the cone in 3 layers. While placing each
layer, the concrete inside the cone is tamped for 25 times using a tamping rod. After the
slump cone is filled to its tip and compacted, it is raised immediately and the amount of
collapse or slump is measured. Figure 3.1 depicts the slump cone used for the workability
test.

Figure 3.1 Slump cone

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Methodology

3.5 Characteristic Compressive Strength of Cubes

The moulds of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm are attached to a base plate and the
inner walls of the mould are oiled. The concrete mix of the given ratio is poured into the
moulds in three layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times for compaction. After the mould is
filled with concrete, the surface of the mould is levelled to provide a uniform concrete
surface. This levelling is done by trowel and by rolling the tamping rod over the concrete
surface. Few cubes having an inverted coconut shell are also casted for the comparison of
compressive strengths of conventional cubes and the cubes having the filler material. The
moulds having the concrete are left to settle and harden for a day. The moulds are then
removed and the concrete cubes are placed in the curing tank for curing purpose. After 7
and 28 days of curing, the cubes are checked for their characteristic compressive strengths
in the compression testing machine. The moulds which are used for casting is shown in
Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 Empty moulds

[Source: K.S.S.E.M concrete lab]

Figure 3.3 to Figure 3.8 shows the step by step procedure for cube casting.

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Methodology

Figure 3.3 Concrete Mixer Figure 3.4 Concrete Mix

Figure 3.5 Coconut shell placed in the cube Figure 3.6 Levelling the surface of cube

Figure 3.7 Finished cubes Figure 3.8 Cubes placed for curing

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Methodology

Figure 3.9 shows the cube subjected to compressive load in compression testing machine.

Figure 3.9 Cube subjected to compressive load

3.6 Casting of Slab

Three conventional slabs of dimensions 1m x 1m x 0.125m are casted for the
concrete mix ratio of 1:2.26:2.75. The reinforcement provided was 8mm dia@200mm c/c.
A mould is prepared for the required dimension along with the reinforcement formwork. A
cover of 25mm is provided on all four sides of the reinforcement. Five batches of concrete
ingredients were made with the following quantities per batch.

1. Cement = 10.2 kgs

2. Fine aggregates = 23 kgs

3. Coarse aggregates = 28 kgs

4. Water = 5.58 litres

The above quantities of ingredients were mixed together and poured into the slab in five
layers and compacted by hand. Figure 3.10 shows the slab reinforcement formwork

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Methodology

Figure 3.10 Slab reinforce ment

Filler slab of the same dimension was casted with coconut shells as filler. The
coconut shells were placed in between the reinforcements and were tied to the re-bars to
hold the shells in position. Figure 3.11 shows the arrangement of coconut shells prior to
casting of the slab.

Figure 3.11 Filler slab arrangement

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Methodology

The concrete is then poured into the mould and is carefully compacted. the surface
is then levelled. Figure 3.12 shows the finished slab.

Figure 3.12 Finished slab.

Curing of slabs is done using gunny bags as shown in Figure 3.13 below as this
retains water for a longer period of time.

Figure 3.13 Gunny bag curing of slab.

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Methodology

Figure 3.14 shows the bottom view of filler slab with coconut shell as filler

Figure 3.14 Coconut shell filler slab

3.7 Flexural Test of Slab

Flexural test is done to determine the bending behaviour of concrete specimen (slab,
beam) under different types of loading conditions. This test is done in hydraulic loading
frame. A hydraulic loading frame is connected to a motor box having two valves namely
the pressure valve and oil flow valve. These valves act as regulators for the loading rate to
be applied on the concrete specimen. The two valves are connected to the loading needle
and the load is gradually applied. Deflection of the concrete specimen is also obtained. The
loading rate and deflection are seen in the computer which is connected externally to the
motor box.

In this test, flexural test is done for conventional slab as well as filler slab with
coconut shell as filler. The experimental setup consists of two I- sections of 1 m length and
100 mm depth. A stack of 10mm thick plates are piled up and welded together to act as one
unit. This takes up the load coming from the loading needle. The I-sections are placed on
the slab at one-third distance of length of slab from the edges. The welded plates are placed
across the I-sections. The plates take the load from the needle and eventually transfer it to
the I-sections which in turn is transferred as line loads onto the slab. So basically, the slab is

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Methodology

subjected to two line loads. Therefore, the slab is subjected to pure bending. The load is
applied gradually at the rate of 1 tonne/min till first crack in the slab starts to occur. The
load is again gradually increased till the crack becomes more distinct.

Figure 3.15 depicts shows the experimental setup for flexure test of slab.

Figure 3.15 Experime ntal setup for flexural test of slab.

Figure 3.16 Bottom view of filler slab subjected to flexural test

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Methodology

Figure 3.16 shows the bottom view of filler slab when placed in the hydraulic loading
frame for flexural test.

3.8 Validation of Flexural Behaviour of Slab in STAAD-PRO

The analytical model of the conventional slab and filler slab with coconut shell as
filler is done in STAAD-PRO which is based on finite element method of analysis (FEM).
The analytical model is done to obtain the stress-strain pattern and the bending moments at
different points in the slab. The slab was assigned with parameters like length (1m), breadth
(1m), depth (125mm). The slab is simply supported along the opposite edges with an end
bearing of 110 mm from end of the slab. The slab was divided into a number of plates and
analysis was carried out.

Figure 3.17 shows the position of the supports for the slab.

Figure 3.17 Position of supports for the slab

Figure 3.18 shows the application of line load onto the slab. The load coming from
the hydraulic needle of the loading frame is taken by the plate unit which is then transferred
to the two I-sections placed end to end on the slab. Therefore, the load acting on the slab
are two line loads which result in pure bending of the slab.

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Methodology

Figure 3.18 Load application on the slab

Figure 3.19 shows the three dimensional or rendered view of the conventional slab.

Figure 3.19 Rendered view of conventional slab

During the modelling of filler slab, the thickness of plates at the position of filler
material (coconut shell) are decreased. The height of the coconut shells used are 75 mm
each. Since the shells are placed at the bottom, the thickness of plates at the position of
fillers are decreased by 75 mm. Figure 3.20 shows the rendered view of filler slab.

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Methodology

Figure 3.20 Rendered view of filler slab

3.9 Temperature Distribution on Concrete

Temperature distribution deals with heating of the concrete specimen to a certain

period of time at one face and measuring the temperature at opposite face. The temperature
does not remain constant throughout the entire surface area of the cube. The amount of heat
supplied also affects the distribution of temperature. For this test, a conventional cube and
filler cube with coconut shell as filler of dimension 0.2m x 0.2m x 0.125m is prepared and
heated on gas stove. Firstly, the heat supply rate needs to be determined. The specific heat
of water is 4200 J/kg/ o C. The formula for heat energy supplied is given by,

ΔH = M x S x Δt…………………………(3.3)

where, ΔH = Heat energy supplied in Joules (J)

M = Mass of water in kilograms
S = Specific heat of water in J/kg/ oC
Δt = Change in temperature in oC

Figure 3.21 shows the filler cube specimen of size 200 mm x 200 mm x 125 mm.

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Methodology

Figure 3.21 Filler cube of size 200 mm x 200 mm x 125 mm

Heat energy supplied is determined by heating known quantity of water in a vessel.

The initial temperature of water is noted down and the water is then heated for 10o C rise in
temperature and the time taken for this rise is noted. Figure 3.22 shows the measurement of
temperature of water in the vessel.

Figure 3.22 Measuring water temperature

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Methodology

3.9.1 Observations

Initial weight of water (M) = 1 kg

Initial temperature of water = 26o C

Three trials were done for a variation of 10 o C. The time required and the final temperature
of water after 10o C (Δt) rise is tabulated as shown in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6 Time taken for 10o C rise in water temperature

Trial Number Final temperature in oC Time taken in seconds

1 36 52.5

2 46 49.5

3 56 55.7

3.9.2 Calculations

1. Trial 1

ΔH = M x S x Δt

= 1 x 4.2 x 10 3 x 10

= 4.2 x 10 4 J

The heat supply rate is given by ΔH / T

Therefore heat supply rate = 4.2 x 104 / 52.5 = 800 J/s

2. Trial 2

ΔH = M x S x Δt

= 1 x 4.2 x 10 3 x 10

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Methodology

= 4.2 x 10 4 J

The heat supply rate is given by ΔH / T

Therefore heat supply rate = 4.2 x 104 / 49.5 = 848.48 J/s

3. Trial 3

ΔH = M x S x Δt

= 1 x 4.2 x 10 3 x 10

= 4.2 x 10 4 J

The heat supply rate is given by ΔH / T

Therefore heat supply rate = 4.2 x 104 / 55.7 = 754.04 J/s

The average heat supply rate = (800 + 848.48 + 754.04) J/s / 3 = 800.84 J/s

3.9.3 Temperature Distribution

The experimental setup for measuring temperature distribution consists of dividing
the concrete block into 16 smaller blocks of dimensions 50 mm x 50 mm each. Figure 3.23
shows the division of conventional concrete block into smaller divisions.

Figure 3.23 Gridlines marked in conventional concrete block

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Methodology

Figure 3.24 shows the division of filler concrete block into smaller divisions.

Figure 3.24 Gridlines marked in filler concrete block

The gridlines are marked and the block is heated at opposite face for a specific
period of time and the temperatures at each intersecting gridline are measured with the help
of a laser gun.

Figure 3.25 Laser gun

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Methodology

Figure 3.25 and Figure 3.26 shows laser gun and the procedure for measuring the
temperatures at intersecting gridlines. After the temperatures are measured, the isotherms
are drawn in AUTOCAD.

Figure 3.26 Experime ntal procedure for measuring the temperature

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Results and Discussions

Chapter 4
Results and Discussions

This chapter deals with the results obtained from the experiments carried out on the
slab and concrete block specimen as well as flexural behaviour of conventional and filler
slab in STAAD-PRO software.

4.1 Characteristic Compressive Strength of Cubes

Characteristic compressive strength of a material is the amount of resistance which
the material offers before it fails under the action of compression loads. The test for
compressive strength of concrete has to be carried out in order to get an idea about the
servicibility conditions of the concrete when it is subjected to different weather conditions.
The different parameters which affect the compressive strength of concrete are mainly the
w/c ratio, batching of ingredients, type of mixing, curing etc. Compressive strength of
concrete is denoted by σ. It is expressed in terms of N/mm2. The characteristic compressive
strength of concrete is defined as the ratio of amount of load applied on the cube to the area
of the cube.

Compressive strength of cube (σ) = Load/Area.

4.1.1 Conventional Concrete Cubes

Three conventional cubes were tested after curing for seven days and the results
obtained are shown in Table 4.1:

Table 4.1 Characteristic compressive strength of conventional cube after 7 days

Cube No. Characteristic Compressive

strength in N/mm2

1 19.6

2 22
3 21.2

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.1 shows the graph of characteristic compressive strength of the three cubes after 7
days.

24

21
Compressive strength in N/mm2
18

15

12 Characteristic
compressive
Strength in N/mm2
9

0
Cube 1 Cube 2 Cube 3

Figure 4.1 Characteristic compressive strength of conventional cubes after 7 days of

curing

Three conventional cubes were tested after curing for twenty eight days and the
results obtained are shown in Table 4.2

Table 4.2 Characteristic compressive strength of conventional cube after 28 days

Cube No. Characteristic Compressive

strength in N/mm2

1 25.5

2 23.1

3 27.8

Figure 4.2 shows the graph of characteristic compressive strength of the three cubes
after 28 days of curing.

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Results and Discussions

30

27

24

Compressive Strength in N/mm2

21

18

15
Characteristic
compressive Strength
12 in N/mm2

0
Cube 1 Cube 2 Cube 3

Figure 4.2 Characteristic compressive strength of conventional cubes after 28 days of

curing

After seven days of curing, concrete attains 70% of its strength and after twenty
eight days, it attains 98% of its strength. From the graphs, we can conclude that variation of
characteristic compressive strength of concrete is approximately 5 N/mm 2. The mean target
strength is achieved as seen from the graphs.

4.1.2 Concrete Cubes with Coconut Shell as Filler

Coconut shell was made wet and they were placed inverted after placing a layer of
concrete. Compaction was done carefully so that the shell would not get damaged. The
cubes having one shell in them were placed for curing and were tested for seven days and
twenty eight days. The results for seven days of curing are shown in Table 4.3

Table 4.3 Characteristic compressive strength of filler cube after 7 days

Cube No. Characteristic Compressive

strength in N/mm2

1 16.1

2 14.6

3 18

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.3 shows the graph of characteristic compressive strength of the three cubes
with coconut shell as filler material after 7 days.

18

15
Compressive strength in N/mm2

12
Characteristic
9 compressive Strength
in N/mm2

0
Cube 1 Cube 2 Cube 3

Figure 4.3 Characteristic compressive strength of cubes with filler after 7 days of
curing

Three conventional cubes having coconut shell as filler were tested after curing for
twenty eight days and the results are shown below

Table 4.4 Characteristic compressive strength of filler cube after 28 days

Cube No. Characteristic Compressive

strength in N/mm2

1 23

2 21.4

3 20.2

Figure 4.4 shows the graph of characteristic compressive strength of the three cubes
with coconut shell as filler material after 28 days.

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Results and Discussions

24

21

18

Compressive Strength in N/mm2 15

12
Characteristic
compressive Strength
in N/mm2
9

0
Cube 1 Cube 2 Cube 3

Figure 4.4 Characteristic compressive strength of cubes with filler after 28 days of
curing

Cubes containing the filler material i.e coconut shell within them will show lesser
strength of compression after seven days and twenty eight days of curing. This is because, a
certain amount of concrete is replaced by the shell area. From the graphs, we can conclude
that the characteristic compressive strength of the cubes containing the filler after seven and
twenty eight days after curing is lesser than the cube without the filler. However, just like
conventional cubes, the characteristic compressive strength of filler cubes after 28 days of
curing is more than the characteristic compressive strength of filler cubes after 7 days of
curing.

4.2 Flexural Test of Slab in Loading Frame

The loading frame used for the experiment has a capacity of 500 tonnes. The load
was applied gradually from the loading needle on the slab. The load was applied till the
initiation of first crack and was then continued until the crack width became distinct. Three
conventional slabs and three filler slabs with coconut shells as filler material were tested for
flexure in the loading frame.

Figure 4.5 shows the initiation of crack in the slab. It can be seen from the figure
that the crack initiated at the edge of the slab for conventional slab as well as filler slab.

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.5 Crack initiation in the slab

From Figure 4.6, it is seen that the crack which was initiated at the edge of the slab
propagated diagonally through the centre of the slab till the corners of the slab. The crack
formed is indicated by yellow line.

Figure 4.6 Crack pattern for conventional slab

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Results and Discussions

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Load (tonne) 2.5
2 Load vs Disp curve
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3

Displacement (mm)

Figure 4.7 Load vs displacement graph for first conventional slab

From Figure 4.7, it is seen that crack initiated at a load of 38.9 kN and the deflection
of slab was 1.41 mm. The load carrying capacity of slab decreases due to crack formation
which is indicated by reduction in slope of load vs displacement curve. The load rate is
again increased till the crack becomes distinct.

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Load (tonne)

2.5
2
Load vs Disp curve
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3

Displacement (mm)

Figure 4.8 Load vs displacement graph for second conventional slab

It is seen from Figure 4.8 that at a load of 36.2 kN, there was initiation of crack at
the edge of slab. The deflection seen at that load was 1.57 mm. Eventually, the l oad rate is
increased until crack width becomes distinct.

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Results and Discussions

4.5
4
3.5
3

Load (tonne)
2.5
2
1.5
Load vs Disp
1 curve
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4

Displacement (mm)

Figure 4.9 Load vs displacement graph for third conventional slab

It is seen from Figure 4.9 that at a load of 41.0 kN, crack started to occur in the slab.
The deflection seen at that load was 2.34 mm. The average load taken by conventional slab
from the three trials was found to be 38.7 kN.

Filler slabs comprises of coconut shells placed in the tension zone of the concrete
slab i.e at the bottom. Figure 4.10 shows the crack pattern of filler slab when subjected to
line load.

Figure 4.10 Crack pattern in filler slab

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Results and Discussions

It is seen from Figure 4.10 that the crack which originated at the edges of the slab
propagated to the opposite edge through the centre. In this case, some amount of concrete in
tension zone is replaced by coconut shell. Since the slab is always subjected to flexural load
and bending is always more in tension zone, the crack occurs more in the tension zone than
in compression zone. Here, it can be seen that the crack is propagated around the shell area
in the slab as well. The load versus displacement graph is plotted for the obtained values.

3.5
3
Load (tonne)

2.5
2
1.5
Load vs Disp curve
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Displacement (mm)

Figure 4.11 Load vs displacement graph for first filler slab

From Figure 4.11, it is clearly evident that filler slab takes up lesser load when
compared to conventional slab due to presence of filler material. The initiation of crack for
the first filler slab started at a load of 24.3 kN with a deflection of 2 mm in tension zone.
The load rate is increased to obtain a distinct crack width.

3.5
3
Load (tonne)

2.5
2
1.5
Load vs Disp curve
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Displacement (mm)

Figure 4.12 Load vs displacement graph for second filler slab

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.12 shows that the load at which crack originated started at 22.7 kN. The
deflection observed at this load was found to be 1.73 mm. The load of (33 kN) was applied
till a deflection 2.88 mm was obtained as this led to the formation of a clear and distinct
crack.

3.5
3
2.5
Load(tonne)

2
1.5
Load vs Disp curve
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3
Displacement(mm)

Figure 4.13 Load vs displacement graph for third filler slab

From Figure 4.13, crack was originated at a load of 28.1 kN. The deflection at this
load was 2.04 mm. The load carrying capacity of the slab decreased due to crack formation.
A distinct crack was obtained at a load of 31.7 kN causing a deflection of 2.8 mm. The
average load taken by the filler slab with coconut shell as filler was found to be 25 kN.

It is implied from the load versus displacement graphs of conventional slab and
filler slab that the load carrying capacity of conventional slab is 13 kN more than that of
filler slab.

4.3 Flexural Behaviour of Slab in STAAD-PRO

The STAAD-PRO model is analysed and the stress-strain diagram is obtained. Due
to the presence of two I-sections which provides for line load, the stress developed is
more along the axis of I-sections. The load applied on the plate is in the form of
pressure load.

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.14 Stress distribution pattern in conventional slab

From Figure 4.14, it can be seen that the stress distribution is maximum along the
central region due to the presence of I-sections. This region is indicated in red colour. The
stress developed gradually decreases towards the support end. There is least stress at the
edges beyond the support which is shown in purple colour.

It is seen from Figure 4.15 that the maximum bending moment obtained is 0.267
kNm/m for a plate. The mini mum bending moment obtained from the analysis is 0.0056
kNm/m for a plate. The maximum bending moment is seen at the edge of the slab which is
the position of flexural crack due to load application. The area beyond the supports has the
least bending moment value as it does not undergo any bending. The bending moment also
decreases gradually towards the support area due to reduction of stress distribution towards
the support.

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.15 Bending mome nt values in conventional slab

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.16 Stress distribution pattern in filler slab

It is seen from Figure 4.16 that the stress distribution in between the filler materials
is more when compared to other areas. The plates depicting the position of filler material is
exposed to lesser stress (shown in blue colour) than the area present between the filler
materials. This is because a part of the stress at the position of shells is transferred to the
adjoining areas due to reduction in thickness of slab at that particular region. The area
between the I-sections is subjected to greater stress than the surrounding areas due to
concentration of stresses. The area at supports is not subjected to any form of stress and
hence the stress developed is minimum in that region. The area of slab beyond the support
will undergo some amount of hogging (uplift) due the downward application of load on the
I-sections.

Figure 4.17 shows the different absolute values of bending moments at different
regions in the filler slab along X direction.

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.17 Bending mome nt values in filler slab

From Figure 4.17, the maximum bending moment obtained is 0.367 kNm/m for a
plate and the minimum bending moment obtained is 0.005 kNm/m respectively. The
bending occurs along the X-axis. It is also seen that edges of filler slab and the regions in
between the filler materials are subjected to more bending when compared to other regions.

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Results and Discussions

The crack propagation starts from the edge of the slab to the other edge through the centre
as seen in
Figure 4.6. The areas between the filler materials has a higher bending moment value due to
the development of stress in those regions.

4.4 Study of Temperature Distribution on Concrete Block

The various temperatures obtained at the intersecting gridlines are noted down and
isotherms are drawn in AUTOCAD. The gridlines are drawn at a distance of 0.05 m from
each other. The initial temperature of conventional block and filler block was found to be
27.5o C and 32o C respectively. The lowest recorded temperature recorded after heating of
conventional block for 5 minutes was 31.6 o C and that of filler block was 32.9 o C. The
highest temperature recorded was 45 o C (conventional block) and 43o C (filler block)
respectively after heating conventional and filler block for 15 minutes. Therefore, the
isotherms are drawn between the intermediate values. The intermediate values taken were
32.5o C, 35o C, 37.5o C, 40o C, 42.5o C and 45o C.

Figure 4.18 show the gridlines for plotting isotherms.

Figure 4.18 Gridlines

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.19 Isotherms for conventional block (trial 1)

From Figure 4.19, it is seen that along the edges of the block, the temperature
recorded is more than that of the central portion. The initial temperature of the block was
found to be 28 oC. For the first trial, the temperature at intersecting points were recorded
after heating the block for five minutes. The temperature at the central region is cooler
because the heat transfer from bottom to top is slower when compared along the edges. The
cooler region lies within 32.5o C. The temperature along the edges varied between 37.5 o C
to 40o C.

The temperatures which were recorded for trial 2 were taken after the next five
minutes of heating. Figure 4.20 shows the temperature distribution over the entire surface
area of the concrete block. From the above figure it is observed that the temperature in the
central region has increased to 35 o C due to gradual heating. The edges have a temperature
of 45o C. It is also observed that the area of cooler region has decreased. Most of the area of
block comes in the range of 37.5o C.

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.20 Isotherms for conventional block (trial 2)

Figure 4.21 Isotherms for conventional block (trial 3)

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.21 shows that constant heating of the block for 15 minutes has increased
the overall temperature by 2.5 o C to 5o C. There is an absence of cool region after trial 3. It
is seen from Figure 4.20 that the edges of the block have a temperature of 42.5o C and the
central region has a temperature of 40 oC.

The filler concrete block consists of a coconut shell placed centrally in the block.
The height of the shell also affects the insulating property of filler block. The shell forms
the cooler region in the block. The initial temperature of the block at the side not having the
filler material was found to be 32o C. The filler block was heated for 5 minutes, 10 minutes,
15 minutes and the respective isotherms were drawn for the three trials. The side of the
block which does not have the shell exposed is heated and temperatures are recorded at the
opposite face.

Figure 4.22 Isotherms for filler block (trial 1)

From Figure 4.22, it can be seen that there is a presence of a cooler region at the
central portion due to the presence of coconut shell after a heating time of 5 minutes. It can
be observed that almost 90% of the block has a lesser temperature i.e 35 o C as compared to
the edges having a temperature of 37.5o C. The central portion of the shell has the least
temperature due to its low heat absorption property.

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Results and Discussions

Figure 4.23 Isotherms for filler block (trial 2)

Figure 4.23 shows the isothermals for temperature distribution for filler block (trial
1) after heating for a total of 10 minutes. The isotherms drawn for trial 2 of filler block tells
that the area of colder region has reduced due to continuous heating. It is observed that the
cooler region is only at the shell region. The average temperature observed after trial 2 is
37.5o C which occupies most of the area of the block. The edges and corners of the block
have a temperature of 40o C.

Figure 4.24 Isotherms for filler block (trial 3)

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Results and Discussions

It is seen from Figure 4.24 that the cooler region is only at the centre of the shell.
The area around the shell has an average temperature of 37.5 o C. However, most of the
filler block has an average temperature of 40 o C and temperature at corners are found to be
42.5o C.

Therefore, on comparision of isotherms drawn for conventional concrete block and

filler block with coconut shell as filler, it can be observed that the highest temperature over
the surface of the block was more in conventional concrete block than filler block. The
isotherms in filler block were drawn to a maximum temperature of 42.5o C whereas in
conventional block, the isotherms were drawn to a maximum temperature of 45 o C. This is
due to the presence of coconut shell in the filler block which is a poor conductor of heat
thereby providing a good thermal insulation to the concrete area around it.

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Conclusion and Future Works

Chapter 5
Conclusions and Future Work

In this chapter the conclusions for different tests conducted on the conventional slab
and filler slab with coconut shell as filler material are listed. The tests conducted dealt with
comparison of flexural behaviour of conventional slab and filler slab and temperature
distribution in a typical concrete block (conventional and filler) of size 0.2m x 0.2m x
0.125m.

5.1 Conclusion

According to the results obtained, the following conclusions were inferred.

1. It was seen that conventional slab withstood 13 kN more load than the filler slab.
This is due to the presence of coconut shells in the tension zone of filler slab. The
filler slab had a higher bending moment value at the edges due to weak tension
zone.

2. The temperature distribution in a conventional concrete block of size 200 mm x 200

mm x 125 mm show isotherms of different temperatures being closely spaced when
compared to filler block of same size. The temperature in conventional block went
as high as 45 oC which is 2 oC more than the temperature measured in filler block.
After the end of trial 3 in conventional block, there was an absence of cooler region
in it. Whereas the area of filler block having the coconut shell had a cooler
temperature as compared to the surrounding area of the block. The temperature in
the shell area and surrounding area of the block showed a temperature difference of
almost 5o C to 10o C.

3. The analysis of conventional slab and filler slab in STAAD-PRO show the stress
distribution along the axis of the two I-sections. It is observed that for conventional
slab, the stress and bending moment is high along the central region of the slab. The
maximum bending moment is seen along the edges of the conventional slab having
0.267 kNm/m. The bending moment in filler slab is higher due to comparatively

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Conclusion and Future Works

weaker tension zone. The maximum bending moment obtained in this case is 0.37
kNm/m.

4. The filler material (coconut shell) used in this experiment is an eco-friendly material
and it also provides an excellent thermal insulation as seen during the experiment.

5.2 Future Scope of Work

The use of filler slabs for construction of buildings is trending in the present era due
to its various advantages like reducing cost, better thermal insulation, judicious use of waste
materials etc. Filler slabs are basically used for inaccessible roofs due to its comparatively
lower load carrying capacity than that of conventional slabs. There is a vast scope for filler
slabs for construction purposes using different filler materials of different properties.

1. In this case, the coconut shells were placed in between the rebar spacing. However,
different kinds of arrangements of filler materials can be done and the flexural
behaviour of slab can be studied.

2. Coconut shells not only provide a good thermal insulation, they are also good sound
absorbing materials. Therefore, sound dampening can be studied for the filler slabs
having coconut shell as filler.

3. The conventional slab and filler slab can be subjected to different types of loading
conditions along with different support conditions and their flexural behaviour can
be studied and compared.

4. Environment impact assessment study can be done on filler slabs with different
filler materials.

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References

References

[1] M. A. D. Chougule, M. M. H. Mota and D. M. U. D. S. Patil, “To Study The Filler

Slab As Alternative Construction Technology - A Review,” Journal Of Information,
Knowledge And Research In Civil Engineering, vol. 3, no. 2, 2015.

[2] S. Sundari and S. Sukumar, “Study On Filler Slab Using Self Compacting Concrete
With Terracotta Pots As Filler,” International Journal Of Advanced Engineering
Technology, vol. VII, no. II, 2016.

[3] A. Srivastava, “Filler - Slab as a Continuous T - Beam Slab ( Low Cost as Well as
Increased Strength),” International Journal for Scientific Research & Development,
vol. 2, no. 11, 2015.

[4] K. V. Rao, A. Swaroop, D. K. R. Rao and C. N. Bharath, “Study On Strength

Properties Of Coconut Shell Concrete,” International Journal Of Civil Engineering
And Technology (IJCIET), vol. 6, no. 3, March 2015.

[5] D. Y. Osei, “Experimental assessment on coconut shells as aggregate in concrete,”

International Journal of Engineering Science Invention, vol. 2, no. 5, May 2013.

[6] T. U. G. Jr, “Sustainable Management of Waste Coconut Shells as Aggregates in

Concrete Mixture,” Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review, 2013.

[7] P. Bhangale and A. K. Mahajan, “Cost Reduction through Cost Effective Construction
Techniques,” International Journal of Science and Research, vol. 4, no. 2, 2015.

[8] B. V. Reddy, “Sustainable building technologies,” Current Science, vol. 87, no. 7,
2004.

[9] R. Taur and V. D. T, “LOW COST HOUSING,” ACSGE, 2009.

[10] N. Sengupta, “Use of cost-effective construction technologies in India to mitigate

climate change,” Current Science, vol. 94, no. 1, 2008.

[11] G. Moriconi, “Recyclable materials in concrete technology: sustainability and

durability”.

[12] D. M. Gillie, “Heat Transfer in Structures,” Fire Resistance of Structures 5, 20

February 2008.

[13] M. Fenollera, J. L. Miguez, I. Goicoechea and J. Lorenzo, “Experimental Study on

Dept. of Civil Engg, K.S. School of Engineering Page 61

References

Thermal Conductivity of Self-Compacting Concrete with Recycled Aggregate,”

Materials, 20 July 2015.

[14] M. K. A. Khafaji, “Experimental and Theoretical Study of Temperature Distribution of

High Strength Concrete Exposed To Fire Flame,” in The 2nd International Conference
of Buildings, Construction and Environmental Engineering (BCEE2), Sharjah, 2015.

[15] IS 10262, CONCRETE MIX PROPORTIONING - GUIDELINES, Bureau Of Indian

Standards, 2009.

Dept. of Civil Engg, K.S. School of Engineering Page 62

Annexure A

Annexure A

Mix Design (IS 10262-2009)[15]

1. Specifications for the Design

a) Grade of concrete - M20

b) Cement type - OPC 43
c) Minimum cement content - 300 kg/m3
d) Nominal aggregate size - 20 mm
e) Maximum w/c ratio - 0.55
f) Workability - 100 mm (slump)
g) Exposure - Mild (RCC)
h) Placing of concrete - Pumping
i) Chemical admixture - Nil

2. Test Data of Materials

a) Cement used - OPC 43

b) Specific gravity of cement - 3.15
c) Chemical admixture - Nil
d) Specific gravity of FA - 2.62
e) Specific gravity of CA - 2.62
f) Water absorption of CA - 0.5%
g) Water absorption of FA - 1%
h) Fine aggregates belonging to Zone II according to IS 383: 1972 codebook

3. Target Strength for Mix Proportioning

f 'ck = fck + 1.65s

f 'ck = target average compressive strength after 28 days

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Annexure A

fck = characteristic compressive strength after 28 days

s = standard deviation

From table 1 of IS 10262-2009, s = 4 N/mm2

f 'ck = 20 + 1.65*4 = 26.6 N/mm2

4. Selection of Water/Cement Ratio

According to table 5 of IS 456: 2000 codebook, the maximum free w/c ratio for
mild exposure is 0.55. The w/c ratio used for this study is also 0.55.

5. Selection of Water Content

Table 2 of mix design codebook (IS 10262: 2009) states that the maximum water
content for an aggregate size of 20 mm is 186 litres for a slump range between 25-50 mm.

Therefore, for 100 mm slump, the water content used = 186 + ((6/100)*186 = 197 litres. As
there is no super plasticizer used, the water content can be fixed as 197 litres.

6. Cement Content Calculation

Water/cement ratio = 0.55

Cement content = 197/0.55 = 360 kg/m3

According to table 5 of IS 456: 2000, the minimum cement content for mild exposure is
300 kg/m3. Here, 360 > 300. Hence OK.

7. Volume Proportioning of Fine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate

Content

According to table 3 of IS 10262: 2009, coarse aggregate volume for 20 mm size

aggregates and fine aggregates conforming to Zone II for w/c ratio of 0.5 = 0.62. The w/c
ratio used in this study is 0.55. The code says that for every 0.05 variation in w/c ratio, the

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Annexure A

volume of coarse aggregates varies by 0.01. For a w/c ratio of 0.55, the coarse aggregate
volume increases by 0.01. Therefore, the coarse aggregate volume for w/c ratio of 0.55 =
0.61.

These values should be reduced by 10% for pumpable concrete.

Volume of coarse aggregates = 0.61 x 0.9 = 0.549

Volume of fine aggregate = 1 - 0.549 = 0.451

8. Concrete Mix Calculations

The amount of cement, water, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates required per m 3 of
concrete is given as follows.

i Concrete volume = 1 m3

ii Cement volume = (Mass of cement/SG of cement) x (1/1000)

= (360/3.15) x (1/1000) = 0.114 m3

iii Volume of water = (Mass of water/SG of water) x (1/1000)

= (197/1) x (1/1000) = 0.197 m3

iv Total aggregate volume = (i - (ii + iii))

= (1 - (0.114 + 0.197)) = 0.689 m3

v Mass of coarse aggregate = iv x CA volume x SG of CA x 1000

= 0.689 x 0.549 x 2.62 x 1000 = 991.04 kgs

vi Mass of fine aggregate = iv x FA volume x SG of FA x 1000

= 0.689 x 0.451 x 2.62 x 1000 = 814.13 kgs

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